Basics of Data Interpretation: Chapter-1

Chapter-1
Basics of Data Interpretation

Introduction
By interpretation of data we mean understanding, organising and drawing appropriate conclusions from the
given data. In these days, Data Interpretation is an important aspect of almost every competitive examination.
Usually, a table or a bar diagram or a pie-chart or a graph is given and candidates are asked questions that test
their ability to analyse the data given in those forms. Through these questions, examiner makes an attempt to
check your ability to calculate faster and to comprehend complex and voluminous data. As a manager of
tomorrow, you will constantly come across tonnes of data daily in different forms.
Unorganised and haphazard data does not make any sense more so to top management for whom time is
a very valuable and rare commodity. Hence, any data, be it daily production figures, daily sales figures, financial
performance or productivity, will have to be presented in a concise manner at the same time being precise so
that top management can study it with least of effort and time thus also facilitating faster decision making.
Methods of Presenting Data

Numerical data can be presented in one or more of the following ways: (i) Table (ii) Line Graph
(iii) Bar Graph (iv) Pie-Chart (v) Venn Diagram, (vi) Caselets (vii) Triangular Bar Diagram (viii) Mix Diagram
(combination of two or more of the above forms) etc.
While some data can be presented in many different forms, some other data may be amenable to be
presented only in a few ways (we will see it in the next section of this chapter).
In real-life situation, the style of data presentation is based on the end-objective. In certain situations
data has to be presented as a combination of two or more forms of data presentation.
Here we will discuss the following:
Presentation of given data in different forms
How to read the given data
Types of Problems related to data
Percentage Related Problems
Multiplying Fraction
Income-Expenditure Related Problems
Average Related Problems
Alligation Based Problems
Ratio Based Problems
Set Theory Based Problems
Presentation of Given Data into Different Forms

Suppose, we have raw data as given below:
Annual sales (in ` million) of the five companies A, B, C, D and E for the years 2000 to 2004 have been
given. Annual sales of Company A in the year 2000, 2001, 2003 and 2004 are 374, 416, 439, 588 and 532
respectively. Similarly, annual sales of Company B in the years 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2004 are 400, 520, 390,
610 and 740 respectively. Annual sales of Company C in the years 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004 are 380, 420,
510, 690 and 760 respectively. Annual sales of Company D in the years 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004 are
450, 540, 650, 710 and 840 respectively. Annual sales of Company E in the years 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2004 are
530, 620, 720, 750 and 640 respectively.
DATA INTERPRETATION
The given raw data can be presented in many different forms as given below. In the following pages we will
see as to how this raw data can be presented in different other forms.
1. Table
A table is one of the simplest and most convenient means of summarising data and presenting them in a
meaningful way, as all the numerical values are given directly and any errors that may arise due to discrepancies in analysing or interpreting the data expressed in graphical form are eliminated. Here, it should be borne
in mind that data expressed in the tabular form may be expressed in most of the other graphical forms. So, we
can express or summarise the voluminous data in any one of the forms as we wish. So, the ways of expression
do not matter. The various graphs can be drawn from the original piece of data which is in the form of table.
Ex. 1: The following table shows the sale (in ` million) of the companies A, B, C, D and E for the
years 2000 to 2004.
Years
Name of companies
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
374
416
439
588
532
400
520
390
610
740
380
420
510
690
760
450
540
650
710
840
530
620
720
750
640
Table 1
K KUNDAN
2. Line Graph
(a) Simple Line Graph
The line graph is one of the simplest ways of expressing the data. There could be one or more lines
depicting different sets of data.
X-axis is usually the category axis and Y-axis is usually the value axis. Therefore, in line graph there
are two axes representing two different variables. It is also known as XY-Chart or -Graph.
Ex. 2: The sale of Company D can be expressed by a line graph as given below:
Annual sale of Company A (in ` million) from 2000 to 2004.
700
588
600
Sales
500
374
532
416
400
439
300
200
100
0
2000
2001
2002
Years
2003
2004
(b) Multiple Line Graph

Ex. 3: From the table 1, annual sale of all the five companies A, B, C, D and E from 2000 to 2004
may be expressed by multiple line graph as given below:
(Figures in ` million)
900
800
700
Sales
600
500
400
300
Company A
Company B
200
Company C
Company D
100
Company E
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Years
3. Bar Graph
(a) Simple Bar Graph
Simple bar graph is probably the most widely used method of diagrammatic representation of data. A bar
chart is a graph that consists of a number of rectangles (called bars) whose length or height varies with
the magnitude represented but all bars are of equal width. The bars may be arranged vertically or
horizontally.
Ex. 4: From the table 1, the annual sale of Company E from the year 2000 to 2004 may be expressed
by means of bar graph in the following way:
(Figures in ` million)
K KUNDAN
800
Sales
600
720
620
530
750
640
400
200
0
760
840
640
740
532
588
610
690
710
750
439
390
510
720
Company C
650
Company B
Company E
416
520
420
540
620
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
Company A
Company D
374
400
380
450
530
Sales
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Years
(b) Multiple Bar Graph
Ex. 5: From the table 1, the annual sale of the companies A, B, C, D and E from year 2000 to 2004
is expressed by means of multiple bar graph:
(Figures in ` million).
0
2000
2001
2002
Years
Mu ltiple Bar Graph
2003
2004
DATA INTERPRETATION
4. Pie-Chart
Pie-Charts (also called Circle-Charts) are used to represent the relative sizes of component in an aggregate. Pie-Chart is a circle broken down into component sectors. Therefore, in pie-chart different data are
represented by sectors. Pie-Chart is generally used on a percentage basis and not on an absolute basis.
Different sectors of a Pie-Chart represent various component parts. Each component value is expressed either
as a percentage of respective total or as the Central Angle of the respective total.
Value of the Sector
360
Central Angle =
Total Value
Value of the Sector =
Central Angle
Total Value
360
[Since the angle at the centre of the circle is 360, the total magnitude of the various components is taken
to be equal to 360]
Total magnitude of the various components is equal to 100%. Therefore, 100% 360
360
18
1%
(3.6)
100
5
Hence, the percentage of the component parts can be converted into degrees by multiplying each of them
by (3.6).
Central Angle
100 %
Percentage Part of Total Value =
360
Percentage Part of Total Value
360
Central Angle =
100
K KUNDAN
Let us see the following examples that will illustrate the above points better:
I. Computation of Central Angle when each component value is expressed as a percentage of the
respective total:
The following Pie-Chart shows the winning percentage of Indian Cricket Team in 2011
Pakistan
15%
Australia
30%
India
25%
Others
5%
N ew Zealand
15%
Sri Lanka
10%
The above pie-chart can be respresented as given below:
Cricket Team
India
Pakistan
Australia
New Zealand
Sri Lanka
Others
Winning
Percentage
25
15
30
15
10
II. Computation of Central Angle when each component value is expressed as a part of the total
value:
The following Pie-Chart shows the expenditure distribution of a certain family (in `)
Total Expenditure = `10000
K KUNDAN
Rent
` 3000
Food
` 2000
Education
` 1500
Entertainment
` 1000
Clothing
` 1500
Transport
` 1000
The above pie-chart can be represented as given below:
Items
Rent
Food
Entertainment
Transport
Clothing
Education
Expenditure
(in ` )
3000
2000
1000
1000
1500
1500
DATA INTERPRETATION
III. Computation of percentage component when central angle of the respective total is given:
The following Pie-Chart shows the annual agricultural yield of a village
Others
60
Maize
10
Rice
90
Wheat
80
Sugar
120
K KUNDAN
The above Pie-Chart can be respresented as given below:
Agricultural Product
Rice
Sugar
Wheat
Maize
Others
Sector Angle
90
120
80
10
60
(a) Simple Pie-Chart

Ex. 6: From the table 1, the percentage market sale in the year 2000 of the companies A, B, C, D
and E can be expressed as given below:
Total sales for the year 2000 = 2134 million
E
530
D
450
A
374
B
400
C
380
Ex. 7: From the table 1, the total sale of the companies A, B, C, D and E for the years 2000 to 2004
can be depicted as given below.
2004
3512
2000
2134
2001
2516
2003
3348
K KUNDAN
2002
2709
b) Multiple Pie-Chart
Ex. 8: From the table 1, the sale of companies A and B for the years 2000 to 2004 is expressed as
given below. This type of Pie-Chart is used for the purpose of comparison.
2004
23%
2000
16%
2003
24%
2001
18%
2002
19%
Company A
2004
27%
2000
15%
2001
20%
2003
23%
2002
15%
Company B
DATA INTERPRETATION
How to Read the Given Data

Before we go on to the suggested techniques and Quicker Approach of different types of problems on
Data Interpretation (DI), let us see how to read the given data.
Any Data Interpretation (DI) problem has three parts as given below:
Part I: Headnotes, Footnotes and Directions

This gives a description of the contents of the table and graph and precisely defines the kind of data and
the period in which they occur. This also defines the information contained in the various columns, rows, Xaxis, Y-axis, sector (in case of pie-chart) and also specifies units of measurement in some cases. Most frequently, the unit of measurement is specified in the headnote. Footnotes are used to point out any exception
in arriving at the data.
Part II: Data (Table, Graph, Pie-chart, Line-chart etc)
The information related to directions may be expressed in any one of the following forms:
(i)
Tabular Form
(ii)
Bar Graph
(iii) Line Graph or Line Chart
(iv) Cumulative Bar Graph
(v)
Multiple Line Graph or Line Chart
(vi) Pie Chart
(vii) Venn Diagram
(viii) Case lets
(ix) Radar Graph
(x)
Combination of One or More Graphs
K KUNDAN
Part III: Questions Associated with Data
In DI, there are typically three to five questions associated with each of the data. As we shall see later,
these questions could be independent of each other, or might require the use of the raw data (or the outcome)
given (or obtained) in one question to solve the other.
Students are advised to approach the DI questions as per the following algorithm:
Step I: Study the Direction and Headnotes/Footnotes.
Step II: Study the table and graph.
Step III: Attempt the questions one by one.
Types of Problems Related to Data

We will discuss, in this section, only different types of problems. Problems associated with any data can be
divided into the following types:
Multiplying Fraction
Income-Expenditure related Problems
The above approach provides the student a deeper understanding of various types of data representation
and prepares the students for the variety of questions that can be expected from a data. A careful study of
techniques and tools mentioned in this section will equip the students to attempt all the questions on a
particular data set. Most of the questions in the DI Section usually appear in any one of the following types:

You must have learnt percentage in Arithmetic book. Though for convenience of the aspirants, we
disscuss it briefly.
The term per cent means for every hundred. For example,
(i) A man gave 5 per cent of his income in charity means that he gave ` 5 out of every hundred rupees of
his income in charity.
(ii) A boy obtained 60 per cent of full marks in Arithmetic means that he obtained 60 marks out of every
hundred of full marks in Arithmetic.
(iii) A tradesman makes a profit of 15 per cent means that he gains ` 15 on every hundred rupees of his
investment.
The term per cent is sometimes shortened as p c. The symbol (% ) is often used for the expression
of per cent.
Thus, we have definition of percentage as given below:
A fraction whose denominator is 100 is called a percentage, and the numerator of the fraction is called the
rate per cent.
9
Thus, 9 per cent and
mean the same thing, ie 9 part out of every hundred parts.
100
Now, let us see the use of percentage concept to solve the Data Interpretation (DI) questions. Before going
to the application of percentage, we must know how to compare fractional numbers. Hence, look at the
following:
Comparison of Fractional Numbers

Comparison of fractional numbers in the least possible time is very necessary to solve many Data Interpretation problems. The problems in which we have to find whether percentage increase/decrease is maximum/minimum need comparison of fractional numbers.
The following are the methods for comparison of fractional numbers.
Method I: By Rough Decimal Expression
Method II: By Exact Decimal Expression
Method III: By Cross-Multiplication
K KUNDAN
Method IV: By Formulae
Method I: By Rough Decimal Expression

Suppose we have to compare
Roughly, we can say that
2
5
and
.
3
7
2
5
is less than 0.7 and
is greater than 0.7.
3
7
2 5
3 7
Again, suppose we have to compare

Roughly, we can say that
Therefore,
328
393
and
.
546
625
328
393
is just greater than 0.6 but
is quite greater than 0.6.
546
625
328 393
546 625
Method II: By Exact Decimal Expression

This method is suggestive for comparison of those fractional numbers in which numerators and denominators
are not very large.
6
9
and
.
11
17
6
9
Soln:
= 0.55 and
0.53
11
17
6
9
11 17
Ex. 9: Compare
10
DATA INTERPRETATION
Ex. 10: Compare
Soln:
83
67
and
.
91
83
83
67
0.80
0.91 and
91
83
83 67
91 83
In this case, method I is suggested.
83
67
Clearly,
is greater than 0.9 but
is less than 0.9.
91
83
338
473
Ex. 11: Compare
and
.
461
542
Soln: Exact decimal expression of the above fractional number is not possible to get quickly.
338 34
(Two-digit conversion of 338 and 461 is 34 and 46 respectively.)

461 46
473 47
Similarly,
542 54
34
47
is less than 0.8 but
is greater than 0.8.
46
54
338 473
461 542
338
473
However, getting the exact decimal expression of the fractional numbers
and
after
461
542
two-digit conversion will take time.
Method III: By Cross-Multiplication

a
c
Suppose we have to compare
and
.
b
d
a
c
b
d
K KUNDAN
a
.
b
c
Cross-multiplication (bc) is corresponding to
d
a c
(i) If ad > bc, then

b d
Cross-multiplication (ad) is corresponding to
(ii) If ad < bc, then
a c
b d
13
21
and
.
19
26
Since (13 26 = 338) < (21 19 = 399)
Ex. 12: Compare

Soln:
13 21
19 26
18
47
and
.
37
58
By actual cross-multiplication
18
47
37
58
18 58 < 47 37
Ex. 13: Compare

Soln:
18 47
37 58
11

By rough cross-multiplication
18
37
47
58
(18 for 18
6 for 58)
(47 for 47
3.5 for 37)
18 47
37 58
This method is very helpful. It requires one or two digits conversion of large numbers, because it is not
always possible to find the actual cross-multiplication. Students are advised to learn this method.
576
699
Ex. 14: Compare
and
.
789
892
Soln:
576
699
789
892
18 6 < 47 3.5
(58 for 576

9 for 892)
(70 for 699

8 for 789)
58 9 < 70 8
Ex. 15: Compare
Soln:
757
951
and
.
479
563
757
479
(76 for 757
4.8 for 479)
576 699
789 892
951
563
(95 for 951
5.6 for 563)
K KUNDAN
757 951
76 4.8 95 5.6 479 563
Method IV: By Formulae
a
ax
Theorem (i): If
and
are two fractional numbers such that
b
bx
(a) a < b
(b) a, b and x are positive integers
a ax
then
b bx
76
89
and
.
89
102
Soln: Difference of numerator and numerator equals to the difference of denominator and denominator.
Also, numerator is less than denominator. So, as per the theorem (i),
76 13
76
89
ie
89 102
89 13
576
687
Ex. 17: Compare
and
.
783
894
Soln: The difference of numerator and numerator and that of denominator and denominator is equal to
111.
576 687
Therefore,
783 894
Ex. 16: Compare
a
ax
and
b
bx
(a) a > b
(b) a, b and x are positive integers
a ax
then
b bx
Theorem (ii): If
12
DATA INTERPRETATION
78
91
and
.
49
62
Difference of numerator and numerator and difference of denominator and denominator is 13. Also
numerator is greater than denominator.
Ex. 18: Compare

Soln:
Therefore, 78 91
49 62
Theorem (iii): If
ax
a
and
b y
b
(a) a < b
(b) a, b, x and y are positive integers
(c) x y
then
a ax
b by
In other words, the difference of numerator and numerator is greater than or equal to the difference of
denominator and denominator.
373
282
and
.
486
413
The difference of 373 and 282 is 91 and the difference of 486 and 413 is 73. Since 91 > 73, ie
difference of numerator and numerator is greater than or equal to the difference of denominator
and denominator.
373 282
486 413
Ex. 19: Compare

Soln:
Theorem (iv): If
ax
a
and
b y
b
K KUNDAN
(a) a > b
(b) a, b, x and y are positive integers.
(c) x y then,
a ax
b by
579
662
and
.
392
483
Numerator is greater than denominator. The difference of numerator and numerator (662 579 =
83) is less than the difference of denominator and denominator (483 392 = 91).
579 662
392 483
ax
a
Theorem (v): If
and
b y
b
(a) a < b
(c) x < y
then we cant conclude anything without actual comparison.
Ex. 20: Compare

Soln:
ax
a
and
b y
b
(a) a > b
(c) x > y
then we cant conclude anything, without actual comparison.
It means that any of the following is possible.
a ax
a ax
a ax
(i)
or (ii)
or (iii)
b by
b by
b b y
Theorem (vi): If
13

(i) One quantity is what percentage of the other quantity
x
Method: To find x is what per cent of y, we have, required % = 100

y
This type of problem possesses complexities of calculations. To do this problem in the least possible
time you must have a command on multiplication of two-digit numbers with single-digit numbers
Let us see the situation:
Ex. 21: The following table shows the Area of Production, Production and Yield of Wheat
from 2007 to 2011.
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Area
16.84
14.56
15.82
12.71
18.92
Production
13.57
10.2
12.6
9.2
14.9
Wheat
Units: Area in million hectare (mn ha)
Yield in kg/hectare
Production in million tonnes (mn t)
Q. 1: Area of land under the cultivation of wheat in 2007 is what percentage of that in 2011?
Soln: Our calculation entirely depends upon the given choices. If we have the liberty to do some errors
then convert the given figures into two-digit numbers in such a way that our calculation becomes easy.
See the following:
Area of cultivated land in 2007 = 14.56 is converted to 14.5
Area of cultivated land in 2011 = 18.92 is converted to 19.
14.5
1450
required percentage = 19 100 19 76.3%

Q. 2:
Yield of wheat per hectare in 2007 is what percentage of that in 2011?

1) 98%
2) 103%
3) 107%
4) 84%
5) None of these
Soln: 2; This problem possesses complexities of calculations.
First we have to find the yield of wheat in 2007 and 2011 and thereafter we have to find that the
yield in 2007 is what percentage of that of 2011.
13.57 136 17
0.8095 809.5
Yield in 2007 =
16.84 168 21
K KUNDAN
Yield in 2011 =
14.90 149
0.788 788
18.92 189
809
81
100
100 102.5%
788
79
Option (2) is the nearest to our answer.
Hence, option (2) is the correct answer.
Required % =
(ii) One quantity is what per cent more or less than the other quantity
Suppose we have to find x is what percentage more than y. x y
x y
100 %
Required % =
y
Let us see the example given below:

Ex. 22: According to the previous table, average cultivated land under the cultivation of wheat
for the years 2007-09 is what percentage (approx) more than that for 2010?
1) 23%
2) 23.5%
3) 24%
4) 24.5%
5) None of these
Soln: 3; Average cultivated land under the cultivation of wheat for the years 2007-09
16.84 14.56 15.82 47.22
15.74
=
3
3
15.74 12.71
3.03
100
100
Required % =
12.71
12.71
14
DATA INTERPRETATION
Since the given choices are very close, we have to find the value which is the nearest to the
actual value.
303
3030
%
% 23.8% ;
12.7
127
ie, 24% is the nearest to 23.8%.
(iii) In which part per cent increase or decrease is maximum or minimum

This type of question can be solved by the comparison of fractional numbers. Each percentage increase
and decrease has some fractional equivalent. Comparison of percentage increase or decrease means
comparison of fractional numbers.
Let us see the data given below:
Ex. 23: The following line-graph shows the total Information Technology Business of India from
2004-05 to 2008-09.
(Figures are in million US dollars)
7000
6052
6000
5000
5031
4000
3807
3000
2000
1000
2886
2041
K KUNDAN
0
2004-05
2005-06
2006-07
Q.
2007-08
2008-09
The highest percentage growth in the total IT business in relation to the previous year was
achieved in:
1) 2005-06
2) 2006-07
3) 2007-08
4) 2008-09
5) None of these
Soln: 1; Method I:
2886 2041
845
100
100
Percentage growth in 2005-06 =
2041
2041
845
.
2041
By proceeding in similar fashion, we get the following chart:
Its fractional equivalent is
15
As we have to compare the percentage growth and find the year in which percentage growth is the highest,
we have to compare the fractional equivalents only;
ie, we have to compare
845 921 1224

1021
,
,
and
2041 2886 3807
5031
(See the method of comparison of fractional numbers in the earlier section.)
1224 1021
Obviously,
3807 5031
1021
is eliminated because here numerator is decreasing but denominator is incresing.
5031
Now, see the following:
Now we have to compare
1224
921
3807 2886
845
1224
2041 3807
1224
845
and
.
3807
2041
K KUNDAN
ie,
845
is the greatest fraction.
2041
Percentage growth in 2005-06 is the highest.

Quicker Method:
2004-05
2041
2005-06
2886
845
84
more than
4 times
20
2006-07
3807
921
29
92
less than
4 times
2007-08
5031
1224
122
38
less than
4 times
2008-09
6052
1021
50
102
less than
3 times
Explanation
Write down the given information as above. Convert 2041, 2886, 3807, 5031 into 20, 29, 38 and 50
respectively. Also convert 845, 921, 1224 and 1021 into two- and three-digit numbers as 84, 92, 122 and
102 respectively. Since we have to compare the percentage of
845
921
100,
100, ... and so on. Therefore, we divide 84 by 20, 92 by 29, ... and so on (as shown in
2041
2886
the above diagram).
845
100 is the highest.

We reach the conclusion that
2041
Note:
If we have to find that the year in which the minimum percentage growth in the total IT business is
achieved with respect to the previous year, then it is clear from the Quicker Method that in 2008-09,
there is minimum percentage growth.
Now, let us consider another example.
16
DATA INTERPRETATION
Ex. 24: The following bar graph shows the sale of the Company XYZ from the year 2007 to 2011.
(Figures in million)
800
747
700
628
600
527
446
500
400
379
300
200
100
0
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Q. 1: The highest percentage increase in the sale of the Company XYZ in relation to the previous year is
achieved in
1) 2008
2) 2009
3) 2010
4) 2011
5) None of these
Q. 2: The minimum percentage increase in the sale of the Company XYZ is achieved in
1) 2008
2) 2009
3) 2010
4) 2011
5) None of these
Soln: 1; Apply the Quicker Method as mentioned in the previous question. It can also be solved by Method I,
but this method is rather difficult because quantities are very close, indeed.
K KUNDAN
From the above diagram it is clear that the percentage increase in the sale of the Company XYZ is the
maximum in the year 2010 (5 less than 2 times corresponds to the greatest percentage increase of type
67
81
100,
100, .... )
379
446
The minimum percentage increase in the sale of the Company XYZ is in the year 2008, because 9 less
than 2 times for the base 38 is less than 9 less than 2 times for the base 45, so their corresponding percentage increases.
Now, if we have still any doubt in our mind regarding the above comparison of percentage value, we may
confirm from the actual value.
67
81
101
101
100 17.67%,
100 18.16%,
100 19.16%,
100 19.16%,
379
446
527
527
Note:
Sometimes this method may not work. If we have any doubt then either do it by method I or by actual
calculation, expressing each of the fractional values corresponding to percentage increase as decimal
numbers.
(iv) In which part per cent fluctuation is maximum or minimum

Here we are interested only in the comparison of per cent change. Whether it is percentage increase or
decrease it does not matter.
The method described in (iii) is also applicable here.
Ex. 25: The following table shows the population of a town X in census 1921, 1931, 1941, 1951,
1961 and 1971 (figures in 000).
Town X
1921
1931
1941
1951
1961
1971
276
303
269
297
328
363
17
Q. The minimum percentage fluctuation in the population of the town X with respect to the
previous census is achieved in
1) 1931
2) 1951
3) 1961
4) 1971
5) None of these
Soln: 1; By Method I (mentioned in (iii)):
We have to compare the percentage fluctuations of the following type:
27
34
28
100,
100,
100, ... and so on.
276
303
269
ie
27 34 28
31 35
,
,
,
,
276 303 269 297 328
All percentage fluctuations except for the census 1921 to 1931 are more than 10.
Hence the minimum percentage fluctuation is achieved in the census 1931 with respect to the
previous census.
Aliternative Method:
K KUNDAN
(v) To find the overall percentage increase or decrease
1
1
1
If x part is increased or decreased by r1 % , x part is increased or decreased by r2 % , x part is
1
2
3
1
increased or decreased by r3 % , .... x part is increased or decreased by rn % , then overall percentn
1
1
1
1
age increase or decrease = x r1 x r2 x r3 .... x rn

1
2
3
n
Note:
+ve sign is used for percentage increase.
ve sign is used for percentage decrease.
If the ove rall value is (+ve ) the n the re is ove rall pe rce ntage incre ase , otherwise overall
percentage decrease.
Ex. 26: The following pie-chart shows the percentage share of expenditure of Company X in its
four units: Unit I, Unit II, Unit III and Unit IV.
IV
30%
III
15%
I
35%
II
20%
18
DATA INTERPRETATION
Value in per cent
The following bar graph shows the percentage profit or loss earned by a company in its four units.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
Unit I
Unit II
Unit III
Unit IV
Q.
Find the overall percentage profit earned by a company in all its four units.
1) 22.5%
2) 30%
3) 27.5%
4) 29.5%
5) None of these
Soln: 3; We calculate the profit on expenditure.
Therefore, first of all find the ratio of expenditure invested in the four units: units I, II, III
and IV.
Required ratio = 35 : 20 : 15 : 30 = 7 : 4 : 3 : 6
Sum total of ratios = 7 + 4 + 3 + 6 = 20
ie
7
4
3
6
part is invested in Unit I,
part is in Unit II,
part is in Unit III, and
part is in
20
20
20
20
Unit IV.
K KUNDAN
7
Overall percentage profit = 20 40 20 30 20 60 20 45 14 6 9 13.5 27.5%
[Since per cent earned by Unit I is 40, per cent loss incurred by Unit II is 30, and per cent profits
earned by units III and IV are 60 and 45 respectively, from the given Bar Graph]
Ex. 27: In a district, there are three Sub-Divisions X, Y and Z. The ratio of the populations in 1991
was 5 : 7 : 4 respectively. The percentage increase in the population of Sub-Divisions X, Y
and Z from 1991 to 2001 is 24%, 32% and 12% respectively. Then the percentage increase
in the population of the whole district from 1991 to 2001 is
1) 19%
2) 27%
3) 24.5%
4) 21.5%
5) None of these
Soln: 3; According to the formula mentioned above, we have
overall percentage increase =
5
7
4
24
32
12 7.5 14 3 24.5%
16
16
16
Multiplying Fraction (MF)

Whenever we have to find the final quantity with the help of initial quantity where percentage increase/
decrease, percentage profit/loss and/or percentage appreciation/depreciation is/are involved, we use the term
multiplying fraction, ie MF.
100 r
MF = 1 100 or 100
+ sign is used for increase, profit or appreciation

sign is used for decrease, loss or depreciation.
FQ = IQ MF; where FQ stands for Final Quantity and IQ stands for Initial Quantity.
Again, if we have to find the initial quantity (IQ) where final quantity (FQ) and percentage change are given,
apply the formula given below.
IQ = FQ
1
MF
19
Ex. 28: If the income of a company in the year 2010 is ` 512 million and the percentage increase
in income from the previous year is 14
2
% , what was the income of the company in the
7
year 2009?
Soln: MF for 14
100 8
2
% increase = 1
700 7
7
1
Income of the company in 2009 = (Income of the company in 2010) MF
7
= ` 448 million
8
The following are some of the multiplying fractions (MF) for percentage increase and decrease corresponding to the given percentage. (This may be treated as ready reference or for the sake of practice of
identifying multiplying fraction for percentage increase or decrease.)
= 512
Percentage
MF (Increase)
MF (Decrease)
r%
100 + r
1 +
or
100
100
100 r
1
or
100
100
2%
51
50
49
50
31
30
29
30
26
25
24
25
1
%
3
4%
K KUNDAN
3.45%
30
29
28
29
4.35%
24
23
22
23
1
%
6
25
24
23
24
5%
21
20
19
20
5.88%
18
17
16
17
1
%
4
17
16
15
16
1
%
7
15
14
13
14
1
%
3
13
12
11
12
7.69%
14
13
12
13
1
%
11
12
11
10
11
11
10
9
10
10%
20
DATA INTERPRETATION
1
11 %
9
10
9
8
9
1
12 %
2
9
8
7
8
1
13 %
3
17
15
13
15
2
%
7
8
7
6
7
15%
23
20
17
20
2
16 %
3
7
6
5
6
17
1
%
7
41
35
29
35
18
3
%
4
19
16
13
16
19
4
%
9
43
36
29
36
20%
6
5
4
5
1
22 %
2
49
40
31
40
25%
5
4
3
4
30%
13
10
7
10
4
3
2
3
35%
27
20
13
20
40%
7
5
3
5
50%
3
2
1
2
60%
8
5
2
5
5
3
1
3
14
K KUNDAN
33
1
%
3
2
%
3
.... and so on.
66
21
Ex. 29: The following line-graph shows the percentage increase/decrease in the sale of the companies A and B in the years 1999-2004 with respect to the previous year.
40
Company A
Company B
33 1/3
Value in per cent
30
20
14 2/7
12
13 1/3
15
10
8 1/3
5
-6.25
-7 1/7
-10
-20
15
-18
-30
1999
Q. 1:
Soln:
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Years
If the ratio of sale of the companies A and B in the year 2004 is 3 : 5, what was the ratio of
sale of the companies A and B in the year 2003?
Let the sale of the companies A and B be 3K and 5K in 2004.
23
20 20
Sale of the company B in 2003 = 5K 23 23 is reciprocal of 20 , ie MF for 15% increase

100K
23
12 36K
Sale of the company A in 2003 = 3K

13
13
K KUNDAN
Q. 2:
Soln:
13
1
12
is reciprocal of
, ie MF for 8 % increase
13
12
3
Sale of company A in 2003
36K 23
828
207
Required ratio = Sale of company B in 2003 13 100K 1300 325 207 : 325.
If the companies A and B have equal sales at the end of the year 2001, find that the sale
of the company A is what percentage more/less than that of B in year 1998?
Let the sale of the companies A and B at the end of the year 2001 be K.
Companies A and B have three successive increases/decreases in the sale, viz 1998 to 1999,
1999 to 2000, 2000 to 2001. First of all, we have to find the overall multiplying fractions for each
of the companies A and B for three successive increases/decreases.
Overall multiplying fraction of company A =
8 9 13

7 8 14
2
9
1
13
1
8
for 12 % increase and

for 7 % decrease
for 14 % increase,
7
7
8
2
14
7
=
117
98
13 21 23 6279
16 20 20 6400
3
21
23
13
for 18 % decrease,
for 5% increase and
for 15% increase
16
4
20
20
Sale of the company A in 1998
Similarly, overall multiplying fraction of the company B =
Sale of the company at Reciprocal of overall multiplying
the end of the year 2001 fraction of the company A

K
98
98K
0.84K
117 117
22
DATA INTERPRETATION
6400 6400K
= 1.02K
6279
6279
Sale of company A in 1998 is less than that of B.
Similarly, sale of company B in 1998 = K
1.02K 0.84K
1800
100
21.4%
0.84K
84
Overall multiplying fraction for successive increase or decrease
required % =
If any quantity increases or decreases n times successively at the rate of r1 %, r2 % , r3 % , .... rn %, then
the overall multiplying fractions is the product of all individual multiplying fractions, ie MF1, MF2 ,
MF3 , ..., MFn and so on.
r1
MF1 = 1
100
Where
r2
MF2 = 1
100
r3
...
...
...
...
MF3 = 1 100
...
...
MFn 1 n
100
Overall Multiplying Fraction = MF1 MF2 MF3 .... MFn .
K KUNDAN
Ex. 30: If the population of a state in census 1961-1971 is increased by 22
increase in population in census 1971-81 is 18
Soln:
1
% and percentage
2
3
% , then the population in the year 1981
4
is increased by ______% with respect to 1961.

Method I:
MF1
49
1
(MF for 22 % increase)
40
2
MF2
19
3
(MF for 18 % increase)
16
4
Overall MF = MF1 MF2 =
49 19 931
40 16 640
r 931
r
931
291
100 640
100 640
640
291
100 45.47
640
Population of the state in 1981 is increased by 45.47% with respect to 1961.
Method II:
r
If there is a successive increase/decrease at r1 % and r2 % , then overall per cent increase/
r1r2
decrease is given by r1 r2
% .
100
Note: Use (+ve) sign for increase and (ve) sign for decrease
Sign is effective in the product also.
23
3 45 75
1
1
Overall % increase of population in 1981 with respect to 1961 = 22 18
2
4
2
4 100
41.25 4.22 45.47%

Again, consider another problem that will further illustrate our point. If the population of the
state in year 1981 is 18.62 million, what was the population in 1961?
1
MF
Here,
IQ = Population of state in 1961.
FQ = Population of state in 1981.
MF = Overall multiplying fraction for two successive increases.
As we know, IQ = FQ
49 19 931
ie
40 16 640
640
Population of the state in 1961 = 18.62 931 12.80 million

Clearly, Method II is complicated. Students are advised to use the technique mentioned in
Method I.
Income-Expenditure Related Problems

Some of the Data Interpretation questions involve expenditure, income, per cent profit, per cent loss etc.
However, relation between expenditure, income and per cent profit is usually mentioned in headnotes as given
below:
Income Expenditure
100
Per cent profit =
Expenditure
Earlier, when the above relationship is not mentioned, there has been a lot of controversy regarding what
should be the denominator income or expenditure while calculating the profit percentage. Even experts
differ on the issue. But after going through various exams questions, we have come to the conclusion that
examiners have the above formula in mind. Hence, readers are advised to follow the above formula when the
above formula is not mentioned in the question.
From the above formula we can conclude that the Expenditure is the Cost Price (The amount paid to
purchase an article) and Income is the Selling Price (The price at which an article is sold.) Because when
we purchase something, we pay or expend some amount so we can consider the Cost Price as Expenditure. The same logic can be applied with Selling Price and Income.
Therefore, we calculate profit and loss on expenditure. If expenditure is less than income, there is a profit.
If the expenditure is more than income, there is a loss. To solve these types of problems in the least possible
time, we have to go through the formula that is different from the formula mentioned in the headnotes.
Here, we are going to discuss two methods. Both follow the same logic. It is upto you which method you
should apply to solve such questions.
Method I:
In this method, Expenditure is treated as IQ (Initial Quantity) and Income is treated as FQ (Final Quantity)
Multiplying Fraction (MF) is associated with per cent profit or loss.
If there is a profit of r% on Expenditure E and Income I, then
K KUNDAN
r
(i) I = E MF; where MF = 1
100
1
MF
(iii) Profit = E + % Profit
(ii) E = I
1
I
[Since, I = E MF] = I 1
MF
MF
Now, let us consider the example given below that will further illustrate our points:
(iv) Profit = I E = I
24
DATA INTERPRETATION
Ex. 31: The following bar graph shows the percentage profit of the companies A and B during
2000-04.
70
Value in per cent
60
60
Company A
Company B
50
50
40
30
40
35
30
30
25
25
20
15
20
10
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Q. 1: The income of Company B in 2002 is ` 1080 million. Find the expenditure of Company B in
2002.
Soln: As we know,
20
1
800 million
Expenditure = Income
= 1080
27
MF
27
35 135 27
20
is reciprocal of
, MF = 1+
=
=
for 35% profit
27
20
100 100 20
Q. 2: If the income of Company B is 20% more than the income of Company A in 2003, find the
ratio of the expenditure of Company A to that of Company B in 2003.
Soln: Let the income of Company A = K
120 6K
income of Company B = K 100 5
K KUNDAN
5 5K
5
is reciprocal of
7
7
7
6K 4 24K

Similarly, expenditure of Company B =
5
5
25
4
is recprocal of
5
Expenditure of Company A = K
, ie MF for 40% increase
, ie MF for 25% increase
5K
125
7
required ratio = 24K 168 = 125 : 168.
25
Method II:
In this method, Expenditure is considered as Cost Price and Income is considered as Selling Price. Now, by
using the rule of fraction, we have following formulae (formulae are given for the % profit):
100 % Profit
(i) Selling Price (or Income) = Cost Price (or Expenditure)
100
To make profit Income should be more than the Expenditure. Hence our multiplying fraction is
100 % Profit
more than one ie
100
100
Cost Price (or Expenditure) = Selling Price (or Income)
100 % Pr ofit
To make Profit, Expenditure should be less than Income. Therefore our Multiplying Fraction (MF)
100
is less than one, ie

.
100 % Pr ofit
Let us consider the example given below that will illustrate our points:
25

Ex. 32: Study the following graph carefully and answer the questions given below:
Per cent net profit of two companies over the years
Profit = Income Expenditure
Per cent Profit =
Income Expenditure
100
Expenditure
Q. 1: If the total income in 1992 for Company B was ` 140 crores, what was the total expenditure in
that year?
1) ` 100 cr
2) ` 110 cr
3) ` 98 cr
4) Data inadequate
5) None of these
Soln: Total income of Company B in 1992 = ` 140 crores
Per cent profit for Company B in 1992 = 45%
K KUNDAN
100
100 % Profit
Total Expenditure = Income
140 100
100
= ` 140
crores = `
100 45
145
96 crores
[Here expenditure is less than income hence, multiplying fraction is less than one]
Q. 2: If the total expenditure of Company B in 1994 was ` 200 crores, what was the total income in
that year?
1) ` 160 cr
2) ` 280 cr
3) ` 260 cr
4) Data inadequate
5) None of these
Soln: Total expenditure of Company B in 1994 = ` 200 crores
Per cent profit = 40%
Here, we have to find income and income is more than expenditure, hence, multiplying fraction will
be more than one.
100 %Profit
100 40
= ` 200
crores
100
100
Income = Expenditure
200 140
280 crores
= `
100
Detail Method for Income Expenditure Based Questions Using Rule of Fraction
In this method, we change the supplied value into required value by using the concept of Rule of
Fraction.
To solve the question based on Income Expenditure, we use the concept of Rule of Fraction. Therefore,
we firstly try to understand what the Rule of Fraction is. You must have read this in the Profit and Loss
chapter in Arithmetic section.
26
DATA INTERPRETATION
Rule of Fraction:
(i) If our required value is greater than the supplied value we should multiply the supplied value with
a fraction which is more-than-one.
(ii) If our required value is lesser than the supplied value we should multiply the supplied value with a
fraction which is less-than-one.
Generally, a formula is given in the question as given below:
Per cent Profit =
Income Expenditure
100
Expenditure
Selling Price - Cost Price

100
Cost Price
In Profit and Loss chapter, we have learnt that the per cent profit is calculated on the base of Cost
Price. Similarly, here, profit has been calculated on the base of Expenditure and this is in 100. Therefore,
Expenditure will always be 100 irrespective of the value of the per cent profit. It is to be noted that the
Profit is the part of the Income. Profit cannot be equal to the Income. It is always less than the
Income.
From the above discussion we can see that we have three elements viz. Expenditure, Income and
Profit. Now, we construct a table to change the supplied value into the required value as given
below:
=
Expenditure
Income
% Profit
100
100 + P
Here, we assume the value of per cent profit as P.

Case I : When value of Income (supplied value) is given for a particular company in a particular year
in the question, then we discuss the method to find the Expenditure and Profit as given
below:
(i) Expenditure:
K KUNDAN
From the table it is clear that the Expenditure will be less than the Income, therefore, the
Multiplying Fraction will be less-than-one. Here Income (100 + P) and Expenditure (100) are
involved, hence calculating figures will be (100 + P) and (100)
100
Expenditure = Income
100 P
(ii) Profit:
It is clear from the table that the Multiplying Fraction will be less-than-one. Here calculating
figures are Income (100 + P) and Per cent Profit (P).
Profit = Income
100 P
27
Case-II : Whe n the value of Ex penditure (supplied value) is give n, then we can find the
Income (required value) as given below:
Clearly, here Multiplying Fraction will be more-than-one and the calculating figures are
Expenditure (100) and Income (100 + P).
100 P
Income = Expenditure
100
Case-III: When the value of Profit (supplied value) is given, then we can find the Income (required
value) as given below:
Clearly, here Multiplying Fraction will be more-than-one and the calculating figures are
Income (100 + P) and Per cent Profit (P).
K KUNDAN
100 P
Income = Profit
100
Note:
No definite relationship between Expenditure and Per cent Profit can be established. There
can be two cases, either
(i) Expenditure > Per cent Profit or (ii) Expenditure < Per cent Profit
(a) If Expenditure is given Profit can be directly calculated by using unitary method as
given below:
P
Profit = Expenditure
100
(b) If Profit is given Expenditure can be directly calculatd by using unitary method as given
below:
100
Expenditure = Profit
P
Important Tips To Solve Income-Expenditure Question:
To solve such problems observe the following steps:
Step-I
: Firstly, we have to change the supplied value into the required value.
Step-II : Secondly, we have to find whether we have to increase or decrease the supplied value to get the
required value.
Step-III : Lastly, find the Multiplying Fraction whether it will be less-than-one or more-than-one.
Now, let us see the example given below that will better illustrate our points:
28
DATA INTERPRETATION
Ex. 33: Study the following graph carefully and answer the question given below it:
Per cent Profit earned by the two companies A and B over the given years
Per cent Profit =
45
Income Expenditure
100
Expenditure
Company A
Company B
40
Per cent profit
40
40
35
30
30
25
25
25
20
20
20
15
10
10
10
10
0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Years
Q. 1: Income of Company A in 2002 is ` 60 crores.
(i) What is the Expenditure of Company A in 2002?
(ii) What is the Profit of Company A in 2002?
(iii) What is the Expenditure of Company A in 2003?
(iv) What is the Expenditure of Company B in 2002?
Soln: (i) Per cent Profit of Company A in 2002 = 20%
K KUNDAN
Clearly, Expenditure will be less than the Income. Therefore, Multiplying Fraction will be
less-than-one and the calculating figures are Expenditure (100) and Income (100 + 20).
100
Expenditure of Company A in 2002 = ` 60
crores = ` 50 crores
100 20
(ii)
Clearly, the Profit will be less than Income. Therefore, Multiplying Fraction will be less-thanone and the calculating figures are Income (100 + 20) and Per cent Profit (20).
20
Profit of Company A in 2002 = ` 60

100 20
(iii) Cannot be determined, because here change of year has been given.
(iv) Cannot be determined, because company cannot be changed.
Q. 2: Income of Company A in 2003 is equal to the Income of Company B in 2004 and Expenditure
of Company B in 2004 is ` 44 crores.
(i) What is the Expenditure of Company A in the year 2003?
29
(ii) What is the Profit of Company A in the year 2003?

Soln: Here, year and company both have been changed, therefore, the supplied value cannot be changed
directly to get the required value. It can be changed in the following ways:
(i) Per cent Profit of Company B in the year 2004 = 25%
Clearly, Income is greater than the Expenditure, therefore, the multiplying fraction will be
more-than-one.
100 25
125
Income of Company B in 2004 = ` 44
crores = ` 44
crores
100
100
Again, from the question, the above value is equal to the Income of Company A in the
year 2003.
Per cent profit of Company A in the year 2003 = 10%
K KUNDAN
Clearly, Expenditure is less than the Income, therefore, the Multiplying Fraction will be
less-than-one.
125 100

100 110
(ii)
125
Income of Company B in 2004 = ` 44
crores = Income of Company A in 2003
100
Again,
125 10

crores = ` 5 crores
100 110
30
DATA INTERPRETATION
Q. 3: Ratio of Income of Company A in 2003 to the Income of Company B in 2004 is 3 : 4 and
Expenditure of Company B in 2004 is ` 44 crores.
(i) What is the Expenditure of Company A in 2003?
(ii) What is the Profit of Company A in 2003?
Soln: This question is similar to the Q.No. 2. In the previous question, the Income of Company A in 2003
is equal to the income of Company B in 2004. That is, the ratio is 1 : 1.
Here, value is reducing
(i)
1
125 3 100
crores

crores = ` 37
100 4 110
2
125 3 10
3
(ii) Profit of Company A in 2003 = ` 44
crores

crores = ` 3
100 4 110
4
Note: Here, the relationship in ratio has been given. It can be per cent, fraction or decimal.
Calculation can be easier in ratio.
3
4 75% 0.75 etc

Q. 4: Expenditure of Company A in 2005 is ` 40 crores and Income of Company B in 2006 is
` 56 crores. Profit of Company B in 2006 is what per cent more than the profit of Company A
in 2005?
Soln: Expenditure of Company A in 2005 = ` 40 crores
Per cent profit of Company A in 2005 = 10%
10
crores
100
K KUNDAN
Similarly,
40
Profit of Company B in 2006 = ` 56
crores
140
40
10
56
40
140
100
16 4
100 =
100 = 300%
Required % =
10
4
40
100
Q. 5: Sum of the Expenditure of Company A and Company B in 2002 is ` 50 crores. What is the sum
of incomes of companies A and B in 2002?
Soln: Let the Expenditure of companies A and B in 2002 be x and y.
x + y = ` 50 crores
Per cent profit of the companies A and B in 2002 = 20%
Here, per cent profit for both the companies is same.
120
120
Sum of incomes of companies A and B in 2002 = x
+ y
100
100
120
120
= (x + y)
= ` 50
100
100
Note: Here Multiplying Fraction is common.
31
Q. 6: Sum of Income of Company A in 2003 and Income of Company B in 2004 is ` 50 crores. Find
the sum of Expenditure of Company A in 2003 and the Expenditure of Company B in 2004.
Soln: Per cent profit of Company A in 2003 = 10%
Per cent profit of Company B in 2004 = 25%
Here per cent profit is not the same, therefore, Multiplying Fraction is not common. Here,
Cannot be determined is the correct answer.
Note: When some conditions are given, then it can be determined. See the following:
(a)
If the ratio of Income of Company A in 2003 to the Income of Company B in 2004 is given as
2 : 3, then find the sum of expenditures of Company A in 2003 and company B in 2004.
Soln: In A03 : In B04 = 2 : 3
50
2 crores = ` 20 crores
Income of Company A in 2003 = `
23
50
3 crores = ` 30 crores
Income of Company B in 2004 = `
23
Sum of expenditures of Company A in 2003 and Company B in 2004
100
100
= ` 20
30
crores
100 10
100 25
100
100
= ` 20
30
crores
110
125
(b)
If the ratio of Expenditure of Company A in 2003 to the Expenditure of Company B in 2004 is
1 : 2. Then, find the sum of expenditures of company A in 2003 and company B in 2004.
Soln: Ex A03 : Ex B04 = 1 : 2
Let the Ex A03 and Ex B04 be x and 2x respectively.
We have to find (x + 2x =) 3x
K KUNDAN
110
125
In A03 + In B04 = x
+ 2x
100
100
Now, according to the question,
110
125
x
+ 2x
= ` 50 crores
100
100
x (1.1) + 2x (1.25) = ` 50 crores
3.6x = ` 50 crores
x=`
50
crores
3.6
50 3
3x = `
crores = ` 41.67 crores
3.6
Q. 7: Income of company A in 2004 is equal to the Expenditure of Company B in 2006.
(i) What is the ratio of Expenditure of Company A in 2004 to the Income of Company B
in 2006?
(ii) What is the ratio of profit of Company A in 2004 to the profit of Company B in 2006?
Soln: Since In A04 = Ex B06, we take any equal value. Suppose we take x.
(i) Now,
Per cent profit of Company A in 2004 = 5%
32
DATA INTERPRETATION
100
100
Expenditure of Company A in 2004 = x
= x
100 5
105
Similarly,
Per cent profit of Company B in 2006 = 40%
100 40
140
Income of Company B in 2006 = x
= x
100
100
100
140
Required ratio = x
: x
105
100
=
100 140
:
= 100 : 147
105 100
5
(ii) Profit of Company A in 2004 = x
= x
100 5
105
40
Profit of Company B in 2006 = x
100
K KUNDAN
5
40
Required ratio = x
: x
105
100
5
40
:
= 5 : 42
105 100
Q. 8: Ratio of Income of Company A in 2004 to the Expenditure of Company B in 2006 is 3 : 5. What
is the ratio of Expenditure of Company A in 2004 to the Income of Company B in 2006?
Soln: We solve this question as the previous question.
Here, we put the value of ratios directly instead of x
=
100
140
Required ratio = 3
: 5
105
100
20
: 7 = 20 : 49
7
Q. 9: In which year Profit of the Company A was the maximum?
Soln: In the graph, only per cent profit has been given. From percentage value we cannot find the absolute amount of profit.
=
Q. 10:In which year Income of Company A was minimum?

Soln: It also cannot be determined as per cent value of profit has been given
Q. 11:In which year the ratio of Expenditure to the Income for Company A is the lowest?
Soln: We solve such kind of questions by an example as given below:
% Profit
Expenditure
:
Income
10%
100
:
110
20%
100
:
120
Here, we take arbitrary values of per cent profit irrespective of the values given in the graph. We
know that
100 100
.
120 110
33
Clearly, there is higher percentage for lower ratio. Therefore, the highest percentage for the lowest
ratio. From the graph, the highest percentage for Company A is 30%. Hence, it is the required
answer.
Q. 12:In which year ratio of profit to income for the Company A is the highest?
Soln: This can also be solved by Example Method.
% Profit
Profit
:
Income
10%
10
:
110
20%
20
:
120
10
20
. Therefore, for higher percentage value the ratio is the higher. Similarly, for the
110 120
highest percentage value the ratio is the highest. From the graph, the highest percentage value for
Company A is 30%. Hence, it is the required answer.
Clearly,

We know that the average value (or average or mean) of a number of quantities of the same kind is their
sum divided by their number.
Hence, the sum of a number of quantities = their average their number
(i) Finding average or arithmetic mean of certain number of quantities
Let there be n quantities of magnitude x1, x 2 , x 3 , .... , xn 1, x n
Sum of magnitude of all quantities

x1 x 2 x 3 ... xn 1 xn
=
Number of quantities
n
Alternative Method (Deviation Method):
First of all, consider an Assumed Mean (AM), which lies between the smallest and the greatest
values of all given n quantities. Thereafter, find the deviation with each of the n quantities.
Average or x =
di
where, di = Summation of deviations;

n
AM = Assumed Mean;
n = Number of quantities.
For example, suppose we have to find the average weight of 6 persons having weights 73 kg, 91 kg, 87
kg, 68 kg, 86 kg and 93 kg.
From the deviation method:
Let AM = 80
Deviations from each of the weights are 73 - 80, 91 - 80, 87 - 80, 68 - 80, 86 - 80 and 93 - 80,
ie 7, 11, 7, 12, 6 and 13.
Average = AM +
K KUNDAN
Average = AM +
di
n
80
7 11 7 12 6 13
6
= 80
18
83 kg
6
(ii) If average or mean of f1 numbers is m1 , f 2 numbers is m2 , .... fk numbers is mk , then the

average or mean of all the numbers =
f 1m1 f 2m 2 ... f km k
f1 f 2 ... f k
Let us see the example given below:

Out of 100 numbers, 20 were 4s, 40 were 5s, 30 were 6s and the remaining were 7s. Find the
arithmetic mean of the numbers.
Arithmetic mean =
20 4 405 30 6 10 7 530 5.3
100
100
(iii) Weighted Arithmetic Mean or Weighted Average
Sometimes we attach to the numbers X1, X 2 , ..., X K certain weighing factors or weights W1, W2 ,..., WK
depending upon the significance or importance of the numbers.
Weighted Arithmetic Mean or Average =
W1X1 W2 X 2 ... WK X K
W1 W2 ... WK
34
DATA INTERPRETATION
Ex. 34: A students final marks in Mathematics, Physics, English and Hygiene are 82, 86, 90 and
70 respectively. If the respective credits received for these courses are 3, 5, 3 and 1,
determine the approximate average marks.
3 82 5 86 3 90 1 70
Soln: X
85
3 5 3 1
Alternative Method (Deviation Method):
If A is any assumed arithmetic mean (which may be any number that lies between minimum and
maximum values) and if di = X i A is the deviation of X i from A. Then the above Weighted
Arithmetic Mean can be expressed as
K
fd
i
X A
i 1
K
i 1
Ex. 35: In a class there are 75 students. The following table shows the number of students and
corresponding weights.
Number of students
W eight (in per kg)
61
72
12
86
19
76
10
69
92
16
89
K KUNDAN
Find the average weight of all 75 students.
Soln: We can find the average weight either directly from the formula or from the deviation method.
Here we use deviation method
Let our assumed mean = 85
Number of students (f i)
W t (in pounds)
Deviation (di)
(fidi)
61
24
120
72
13
91
12
86
12
19
76
171
10
69
16
160
92
42
16
89
64
f i= 75
fd
f
f idi = 424
424
424
85
85 5.65 = 79.35 pounds
75
75
i
Note: Weighted average with absolute value of weight or frequency is equal to weighted average with
ratio of frequency (if any).
X A
85
35
Ex. 36: Out of 170 students in a classroom, 34 students have 85 marks in Maths, 85 students have
72 marks in Maths, and the remaining 51 students have 90 marks in Maths. Find the
average marks obtained by all 170 students in Maths.
Soln: As per the above, weights or frequencies are the number of students, ie 34, 85 and 51 students.
Ratio between weights or frequencies is 2 : 5 : 3.
Weighted average =
34 85 85 72 51 90
34 85 51
or
2 85 5 72 3 90 80.
253
(iv) One average is what per cent of the other average

The average of one group of quantities is the same percentage of the average of the other group as its
Av A Sum A
sum is that of the sum of the other group. That is, Av Sum . There is no need to find the average
B
B
of each of the groups.
Let us consider an example.
Ex. 37: Sale of the companies A and B is given below for the years 2000 to 2004. (figures in
million)
Q.
Soln:
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
379
426
482
529
571
423
497
513
571
628
Find that the average sale of the company A is what per cent of the average sale of the
company B for the years 2000 to 2004.
Method I:
Total sale of the company A for 2000 to 2004 = 2387
Total sale of the company B for 2000 to 2004 = 2642
K KUNDAN
2387
100 90.5%
2642
Alternative Method:
Convert each of the three-digit figures to two-digit figures.
Total sale of the company A = 38 + 43 + 48 + 53 + 57 = 239
Total sale of the company B = 42 + 50 + 52 + 57 + 63 = 264
Required % =
239
Required % = 264 100 90.5%
Note: (i)
(ii)
The Alternative Method is easier to solve such type of problems. Sometimes alternative method
may give an answer different from that through Method I. But for finding approximate value
Alternative Method is suggested.
If we have to find that the average of one group is what percentage more/less than the
average of another group, then there is no need to find the average of each of the groups. We
have to find only the sum of one group is what percentage more/less than that of the other
group.
(v) Difference between averages

Suppose there are two groups of n quantities each. The first group contains x1, x 2 , x 3 , ..., xn quantities and the second group contains y1, y2 , y3 , ..., yn . We have to find the difference of averages of the
first group and the second group.
x1 x 2 x 3 ... xn y1 y 2 y 3 ... yn
Required difference =

n
n
... x n yn
= Average of differences
n
Difference of averages = Average of differences
Note: Here we take only the magnitude of the value, ie positive value. Let us consider an example.
=
x1 y1 x 2 y 2 x 3 y3
36
DATA INTERPRETATION
Ex. 38: The following table shows the sale of the companies A and B for the years 2000 to 2004
(figures in million).
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
478
536
649
682
724
496
524
597
692
736
Q.
Find the difference between average sales of companies A and B for the years 2000 to 2004.
Soln:
Required difference =
478 496 536 524 649 597 682 692 724 736
5
18 12 52 10 12 24
4.8
5
5

Wherever data are given in the form of weighted mean of two quantities, we can apply alligation rule.
Let there be two quantities x1 and x 2 . Weights or frequencies of x1 and x 2 are f 1 and f 2 , ie x1 appears f 1
times and x 2 appears f 2 times.
Arithmetic Mean or X =
f1x1 f 2 x 2
f1 f 2
... (1)
Here X is weighted mean of x1 and x 2 . If X , x1 and x 2 are given, then we can find the ratio of weights or
frequencies involved with x1 and x 2 .
(1) can be written as
K KUNDAN
f1 f 2 X f1x1 f 2 x 2 f 1 X x1 f 2 x 2 X
f1 x 2 X
... (2)
f 2 X x1
Equation (2) gives the ratio of f 1 and f 2 . The above equation may also be expressed by the diagram given
below.
I
II
x1
x2
X
X x
1
f1 : f 2
(cross-difference
(cross-difference
of x 2 and X )
of X and x1 )
The above diagram can be alternatively expressed as given below. X is the weighted mean of x1 and x 2 .
1 : 2 f 1 : f 2
Ex. 39: A person travels the distance of 405 km in 9 hours. He travels a certain distance at 25 km/hr and
the remaining distance at 90 km/hr. Find the distance that he travelled at 90 km/hr.
Soln:
Average speed =
405
= 45 km/hr
9
37

45 km/hr is the weighted mean
Here weight is time spent with
I
25 km/hr
45 km/hr
45
9
:
of 25 km/hr and 90 km/hr.

each of the speeds.
II
90 km/hr
20
4
36
9
Time taken with the rate of 90 km/hr =
hours
4
94
13
36
3240
Distance travelled = 13 90 13
km
Ex. 40: In an objective exam of 100 questions, 4 marks is allotted for every correct answer and 1 mark
is deducted for every wrong answer. After attempting all the 100 questions, a student got the
total of 270 marks. Find the number of questions that he attempted wrong.
270
2.7
100
It means that 2.7 is the weighted mean of 4 and 1. Here, weights or frequencies are number of questions associated with correct and wrong answers.
C
W
4
1
2.7
3.7
1.3
37
:
13
Soln: Average marks obtained per question =
100
Number of questions attempted wrong by the student = 37 13 100 = 26 questions.
K KUNDAN
Percentage increase in sale
Ex. 41: In the following bar graph, percentage increase in sales of companies A, B, C, D and E for the
year 2011 is given:
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
60
45
30
25
-15
C
Name of company
Q. 1: The companies A and B together have 35% increase in sale at the end of 2011. Find the ratio of
sale of the companies A and B at the beginning of 2011.
Soln: Overall percentage increase in the sale of the companies A and B together is 35%. It means that 35% is
the weighted mean of 30% and 45% and the weight is the sale of companies A and B at the beginning of
the year 2011.
A
B
30%
45%
35%
10
5
2
:
1
Ratio of the sale of the companies A and B at the beginning of the year 2011 is 2 : 1. Because crossdifference in the above diagram gives the ratio of weights.
Again, suppose we have to find the ratio of sale of the companies A and B at the end of the year 2011.
38
DATA INTERPRETATION
Let K be present in the ratio of sale of the companies A and B at the beginning of the year 2011.
Sale of the Company A at the end of 2011 = 2K
Sale of the Company B at the end of 2011 = K
13K 20
130 26K 13K
100
10
5
145 29K
100
20
52
Required ratio = 5 29K 29

Q. 2: Percentage increase in the sale of the companies A and B together and the companies B and C
together is 38% and 22% respectively at the end of the year 2011. Find the ratio of sale of the
companies A, B and C at the beginning of the year 2011.
Soln: First of all find the ratio of sale of the company A and the company B
38%, the overall increase in the sale of the companies A and B together, is the weighted mean of 30%
and 45%.
A
B
30%
45%
38%
7
8 7:8
Now, we have to find the ratio of sale of the Company B and the Company C in a similar fashion.
B
C
45%
15%
22%
37
23 37 : 23
Now, by the method of finding compound ratio, we have
A
:
B
:
C
7
:
8
37
:
23
259 : 296 : 184 (ratio of the sale of the companies A, B and C at the beginning of the year 2011)
K KUNDAN
The number of times one quantity contains another quantity of the same kind is called the ratio of the two
quantities.
The ratio 4 to 5 is written as 4 : 5 or
4
. 4 and 5 are called terms of the ratio.
5
7
:1 7 : 4
4
If a and b are the first and second terms respectively of a ratio of certain quantity, for whom only
integral value exists and (a, b) are coprime numbers or prime to each other, then the minimum number
of items in that quantity is (a + b).
Let us consider an example.
If the ratio of two brands X and Y of television sets sold by a agency is 37 : 59, the minimum number of
brands X and Y sold by the agency is (37 + 59) = 96, because 37 : 59 cant be simplified further. (Fractional
part of television set does not exist.)
If the ratio of a to b is 1.75, then a : b 1.75 :1
Note:
If the ratio of the first quantity to the second is N1 : D1 and the ratio of the second quantity to the third
is N 2 : D2 , then the ratio between first, second and third quantities is N1N 2 : D1N 2 : D1D2
The above ratio can be represented diagrammatically as given below:
1st quantity
:
2nd quantity :
IIIrd quantity
N1
D1
N2
N1N 2 : D1N 2 : D1D2
D2
39
Ex. 42: If the ratio between the first and the second numbers is 2 : 3 and that between the second and the
third numbers is 5 : 8, and the sum of the three numbers is 98. Find the second number.
Soln:
First of all find the combined ratio of all the three numbers
First
Second
Third
2
:
3
5
:
8
10
:
15
:
24
15
15
Second number = 10 15 24 98 49 98 30.

In General:
Let A : B N1 : D1
N 2 : D2
B:C
C : D N 3 : D3
D : E N 4 : D4
A : B : C N1N 2 : D1N 2 : D1D2
A : B : C : D N1N 2N 3 : D1N 2N 3 : D1D2N 3 : D1D2D3
A : B : C : D : E N1N 2N 3N 4 : D1N 2N 3N 4 : D1D2N 3N 4 : D1D2D3N 4 : D1D2D3D4
and so on.
Note the pattern in which the above ratios are compounded.
Ex. 43: The following bar graph shows the average annual package (salaries) offered by a company to
the IIM Graduates passing out from IIM A, IIM B, IIM K and IIM L in three streams: Finance,
Marketing and System.
K KUNDAN
Finance
800
690
(in thousands)
500
System
645
700
600
Marketing
550
543
450
490
725
640
495
387
410 440
400
300
200
100
0
IIM A
Q. 1:
Soln:
IIM B
IIM K
IIM L
The number of marketing graduates passing out from IIM B, IIM K and IIM L is 39, 52 and 26
respectively. Find the average salary of marketing graduates from IIM B, IIM K and IIM L.
Ratio between marketing graduates passing out from these three institutes 39 : 52 : 26
3:4:2
Average salary =
3 387 4 495 2 440

342
1161 1980 880 4021
446.8
9
9
If the average salary of System graduates passing out from IIM K and IIM L is ` 6.93 lakhs per
annum, find the minimum number of System graduates passing out from IIM L.
Soln: 6.93 lakhs ` 693 thousand
Average salary of System graduates passing out from IIM K and IIM L is 640 and 725 respectively.
It means that 693 is the weighted mean of 640 and 725 and weight is the number of System graduates
passing out from each of the institutes.
Q. 2:
40
DATA INTERPRETATION
IIM K
640
IIM L
725
693
:
53
Ratio of System graduates passing out from IIM K to those from IIM L is 32 : 53. We have to find the
minimum number of System graduates passing out from IIM K.
As 32 and 53 are prime to each other, therefore the minimum number of System graduates from IIM K
is 32.
Note:
We cant find either the exact number or the maximum number of System graduates passing out from
IIM K and IIM L in this particular condition.
32
Q. 3:
If the average salary of Finance graduates passing out from IIM B and IIM K together and that of
those from IIM K and IIM L together is ` 5 lakhs 30 thousands per annum, find the ratio of finance
graduates passing out from IIM B, IIM K and IIM L.
Soln: ` 5 lakhs 30 thousands 530 thousands.
530 is the weighted mean of 490 and 550.
IIM B
IIM K
490
550
530
20
40
1
:
2 (Ratio of Finance graduates from IIM B and IIM K)
Again, 530 is the weighted mean of 550 and 410.
IIM K
IIM L
550
410
530
120
20
6
:
1
(Ratio of Finance graduates from IIM K and IIM L)
IIM B
:
IIM K :
IIM L
1
:
2
6
:
1
6 : 12 : 2 3 : 6 : 1.
K KUNDAN
Ex. 44: The following line chart shows the ratio of export to import of the companies A and B from the
years 2000 to 2004.
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Company A
1.75
1.25
Company B
1.25
1.25
2002
2003
1.5
0.75
0.75
0.25
2000
2001
2004
Q. 1: In which year does Company A have the maximum export?

Soln: We cant find the export and import of Company A only with the help of the ratio of export to import of the
company. It depends upon the constant involved in each of the given ratios.
Q. 2: In which year does Company A have the maximum difference between export and import?
Soln: Since the constant present in each of the ratios is not given, we cant find the difference between export
and import of the company.
Q. 3: In which year does Company A have the minimum difference between export and import?
Soln: We cant find the minimum difference between export and import of Company A, unless the difference is
41

zero (ie export = import). It will happen when ratio of export to import is 1.
Hence, minimum difference between export to import of company A is in the year 2002.
Q. 4: Value of Import of Company A in 2004 is ` 20 crores. What is the value of Export of that company
in the same year?
75
=3:4
100
Here, we have to change the value of Import into the value of Export by using the given ratio. To get the
required value, do as given below:
Soln: Ratio of Export to Import of Company A in 2004 = 0.75 =
3
Required answer = ` 20 crores = ` 15 crores
4
Q. 5: Value of Import of Company A in 2001 is ` 16 crores. What is the value of Export of that company
in the same year?
125
=5:4
100
Here also, we have to change the value of Import into the value of Export by using the given ratio. See
the method given below:
Soln: Ratio of Export to Import of Company A in 2001 = 1.25 =
K KUNDAN
5
Required answer = ` 16 crores = ` 20 crores
4
Q. 6: If the ratio of export to import of Company A and Company B together in the year 2004 is 9 : 8, find
the ratio of total transaction (sum of export and import) of Company A and Company B in the year
2004.
Soln: Method I:
Let the total transaction of Company A and Company B be K 1 and K 2 respectively.
Ratio of export to import of Company A is 0.75 3 : 4
Ratio of export to import of Company B is 1.5 3 : 2
Total export of Company A =
3
3
K1 K 2
7
5
Total import of Company B =
4
2
K1 K 2
7
5
3
K1
7
Ratio of total export to total import = 4
K1
7
According to the question,
3
K1
7
4
K1
7
3
K2 9
5
2
K2 8
5
3
K2
5
2
K2
5
42
DATA INTERPRETATION
24
24
36
18
K1
K2
K1
K2
7
5
7
5
6
K1
12
5 K 2 7 K1 K
2
Required
ratio
=
7
:
10.
Quicker Method:
Ratio of export to import of the companies A and B together = 9 : 8, ie
Similarly, Company A has
Company B has
It means that
Company A
9
8
part export and
part import.
17
17
3
4
part export and
part import.
7
7
3
2
part export and
part import.
5
5
3
9
3
is the weighted mean of
and
.
5
17
7
Company B
3
5
3
7
9
17
6
12
7 : 10
85
119
Note:
We can find the ratio of total transaction of the companies A and B by taking part of import in the above
alligation diagram.
K KUNDAN
Q. 7: The trade deficit of the Company B in the year 2000 is 60% lower than that in the year 2001. Find
the ratio of export of the Company B in the year 2002 to that in 2001. (Trade deficit = Import
Export)
Soln: Let K 1 and K 2 be the constants present in the ratio of export and import of the Company B in the years
2000 and 2001 respectively.
Trade deficit of the Company B in the year 2002 = 4K 1 K1 3K 1
Trade deficit of the Company B in the year 2001 = 4K 2 3K 2 K 2
According to the question,
60
3K 1 K 2 1
100
4
3K 1 K 2
5
15K1 4K 2
K1
4
K 2 15
Suppose K1 4t and K 2 15t

Required ratio =
Export of the Company B in 2002

Export of the Company B in 2001
K1
4t
4
= 3K 3 15t 45 = 4 : 45
2
43

Let A, B and C be three sets. n(A), n(B) and n(C) denote the number of elements in the sets A, B and C
respectively. Now, consider the following:
n A B = number of elements in set A or B

n A B = number of elements in set A and B both
n A B = number of elements in set A but not in B
n A B C = number of elements in set A or B or C
n A B C = number of elements in set A and B and C
n A B C = number of elements in set A and B but not in set C
n A B C = number of elements in set A only, ie number of elements in set A but not in B or C
n A B = No. of elements which belong to exactly one of the sets A or B
Some useful results on number of elements in sets
n A B n A n B n A B
n A B n A n A B
n A B n A B n B A = n A n A B n B n A B n A n B 2n A B
n A B C n A n B n C n A B n B C n A C n A B C
n A B C n A B n A B C
n A B C n A n A B n A C n A B C
K KUNDAN
Ex. 45: If A and B be two sets containing 3 and 6 elements respectively, what can be the minimum
number of elements in A B ? Find also the maximum number of elements in A B .
Soln: We have,
n A B n A n B n A B
This shows that n A B is minimum or maximum according as n A B is maximum or minimum

respectively.
Case I: When n A B is minimum, ie n A B = 0

This is possible only when A B
In this case, n A B n A n B 0 n A n B 3 6 9
So, the maximum number of elements in nA B 9.
Case II: When n A B is maximum:
This is possible only when A B. In this case,
n A B 3
n A B n A n B n A B 3 6 3 6
So, minimum number of elements in n A B is 6.
44
DATA INTERPRETATION
Ex. 46: The following table shows the marks obtained by 100 students in the school examination in
Maths and Science and the Average of the two subjects:
Marks obtained out of 100

Subjects
Q. 1:
Soln:
0-20
20-40
40-60
60-80
80-100
Maths
13
21
38
21
Science
11
14
42
27
Average of the two

subjects
14
23
39
15
If to qualify in the exam one has to secure a minimum of 60% marks in either of the subjects, find
the least number of students who have qualified the examination.
Let set A denote the number of students who got 60% or more marks in Maths and set B the number
of students who got 60% or more marks in Science.
Thus, n(A) = 59
n(B) = 69
We have to find the least value of n A B and n A B n A n B n A B
n A B is minimum when n A B is maximum.

This is possible only when A B . In this case n A B 59
So, the least number of students who have qualified the exam = 59 + 69 59 = 69.
Q. 2:
In the above problem, find the maximum number of students who have qualified the examination.
Soln:
n A B is maximum when n A B is minimum.
K KUNDAN
The minimum value of n A B is n A n B 100 59 69 100 28
So, maximum number of students who got 60% or more marks in either subject
= n A n B n A B 59 69 28 100
Ex. 47: In a town of 10,000 families it was found that 40% buy newspaper A, 20% buy newspaper B, 10%
buy newspaper C. 5% buy A and B, 3% buy B and C, and 4% buy A and C. If 2% buy all the three
newspapers,
Q. 1:
Find the number of families which buy newspaper A only.
Soln: Let A, B and C be the set of families buying newspapers A, B and C respectively. Let u be the universal
se t.
n(A) = 40% of 10000 = 4000; nA C 400
n B 2000 ; n A B C 200
n(C) = 1000 ; n(u) = 10000
n A B 500
n B C 300
Required number = n A B C n A n A B n A C n A B C
4000 500 400 200 3300
Q. 2:
Find the number of families which buy none of the papers A, B and C.
Soln: Required number = n A B C n A B C n u n A B C
Also, n A B C n A n B n C n A B n B C n A C n A B C
= 4000 + 2000 + 1000 500 300 400 + 200 = 6000
Therefore, the required number of students = 10000 6000 = 4000.

Basics of Data Interpretation: Chapter-1

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Chapter-1

Basics of Data Interpretation

Methods of Presenting Data

Presentation of given data in different forms

How to read the given data

Types of Problems related to data

Percentage Related Problems

Income-Expenditure Related Problems

Average Related Problems

Alligation Based Problems

Ratio Based Problems

Set Theory Based Problems

Presentation of Given Data into Different Forms

(a) Simple Line Graph

Basics of Data Interpretation

(b) Multiple Line Graph

Value of the Sector

Percentage Part of Total Value

The above pie-chart can be respresented as given below:

Basics of Data Interpretation

Basics of Data Interpretation

(a) Simple Pie-Chart

How to Read the Given Data

Part I: Headnotes, Footnotes and Directions

Part III: Questions Associated with Data

Types of Problems Related to Data

Basics of Data Interpretation

Percentage Related Problems

Comparison of Fractional Numbers

Method I: By Rough Decimal Expression

Again, suppose we have to compare

Method II: By Exact Decimal Expression

(Two-digit conversion of 338 and 461 is 34 and 46 respectively.)

Method III: By Cross-Multiplication

(i) If ad > bc, then

(ii) If ad < bc, then

Ex. 12: Compare

Ex. 13: Compare

Basics of Data Interpretation

(58 for 576

(70 for 699

Ex. 18: Compare

Ex. 19: Compare

Ex. 20: Compare

Basics of Data Interpretation

Method: To find x is what per cent of y, we have, required % = 100

required percentage = 19 100 19 76.3%

Yield of wheat per hectare in 2007 is what percentage of that in 2011?

Let us see the example given below:

(iii) In which part per cent increase or decrease is maximum or minimum

Basics of Data Interpretation

845 921 1224

is eliminated because here numerator is decreasing but denominator is incresing.

Now we have to compare

Percentage growth in 2005-06 is the highest.

100 is the highest.

(iv) In which part per cent fluctuation is maximum or minimum

Basics of Data Interpretation

Hence, option (1) is the correct answer.

age increase or decrease = x r1 x r2 x r3 .... x rn

Value in per cent

Overall percentage profit = 20 40 20 30 20 60 20 45 14 6 9 13.5 27.5%

Multiplying Fraction (MF)