ESE 160 HW

DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Geology - the science that deals with the dynamics and
physical history of the earth, the rocks of which it is
composed, and the physical, chemical, and biological
changes that the earth has undergone or is undergoing.
2. Engineering Geology - is the application of the geological
sciences to engineering study for the purpose of assuring
that the geological factors regarding the location, design,
construction, operation and maintenance of engineering
works are recognized and accounted for
3. Geologic Time - The period of time covering the physical
formation and development of Earth, especially the period
prior to human history.
4. Uniformitarianism - the doctrine suggesting that Earths
geologic processes acted in the same manner and with
essentially the same intensity in the past as they do in the
present and that such uniformity is sufficient to account for
all geologic change; is the name given to the idea that
natural processes behave more or less in the same way
today as they have throughout the past, and will continue
to do so in the future. Although it can apply in any science,
it was a cornerstone for the development of the science of
geology
5. Asthenosphere - A zone of the earth's mantle that lies
beneath the lithosphere and consists of several hundred
kilometers of deformable rock
6. Minerals - any of a class of substances occurring in nature,
usually comprising inorganic substances, as quartz or
feldspar, of definite chemical composition and usually of
definite crystal structure, but sometimes also including
rocks formed by these substances as well as certain
natural products of organic origin, as asphalt or coal
7. Weathering - the various mechanical and chemical
processes that cause exposed rock to decompose
8. Litosphere - the solid portion of the earth; the crust and
upper mantle of the earth
9. Divergent Boundary - or constructive boundary, is where
two plates are moving away from each other. When this
happens, they leave a gap in-between, and this gap can be
filled by the magma from below. This creates a series of
volcanoes all the way along the boundary
10. Convergent Boundary - or destructive boundary, is
where two plates are moving towards each other and
colliding. The pressure and friction is great enough at
these boundaries that the material in the Earth's mantle
can melt, and both earthquakes and volcanoes happen
nearby

11. Catasthophrism - is the theory that Earth's features are

mostly accounted for by violent, large-scale events that
occurred in a relatively short amount of time. So, a species
that went extinct was probably killed off by a giant natural
disaster. An impressive mountain range was probably
formed by worldwide earthquakes and eruptions.
12. Plate Tectonics - is the framework in which geologists
study and understand the inner workings of the earth. It
provides us with a way to tie together what once was
considered unrelated geologic processes and events.
Consider the origin of the ocean basins, shifting position of
the continents, where volcanoes erupt, where earthquakes
happen, and why mountain ranges are found where they
are; all of them are explained by plate tectonics
13. Metamorphism - a change in the structure or
constitution of a rock due to natural agencies, as pressure
and heat, especially when the rock becomes harder and
more completely crystalline
14. Folds - When rock deforms in such a way that it bends
instead of breaking, we call this a fold. Folds come from
pressure on rocks that occur over very long periods of time
(think millions of years), so instead of a quick action like
throwing the rock on the ground, it's more like standing on
it for millions of years until the pressure is finally enough
that it changes shape
15. Faults - are cracks in the earth's crust where movement
occurs on at least one side. So, in order for a crack in the
ground to be a fault, one side or the other has to move,
but sometimes both sides move, too
16. Rock Cycle - a continuous process by which rocks are
created, changed from one form to another, destroyed,
and then formed again
17. Strike - is the direction of the line that is formed by the
intersection of the plane of the rock bed with a horizontal
surface
18. Paleontology - The study of the forms of life existing in
prehistoric or geologic times, as represented by the fossils
of plants, animals, and other organisms.
19. Mass Wasting - which is sometimes called mass
movement or slope movement, is defined as the large
movement of rock, soil and debris downward due to the
force of gravity. In other words, the earth's outer crust is
being 'wasted' away on a 'massive' scale and falling to
lower elevations. Is a type of erosion and it is capable of
making big changes to the side of a mountain. These
changes can happen suddenly, as in one minute the rock is
there and the next it is gone, or it can happen more slowly
over time. You might think of this process as a landslide,
and this term is sometimes used interchangeably with

mass wasting. However, the term landslide is a bit limiting

and does not allow for a description of the many different
triggers and types of erosion that can happen on this large
of a scale
QUESTIONS
1. What does Geologists do?
- someone who works to understand the history of the planet
we live on, to better predict the future and explain current
occurrences.
- studies earth processes such as earthquakes, landslides,
floods, and volcanic eruptions to survey land and draw up safe
building plans. When geologists investigate earth materials,
not only do they investigate metals and minerals, but they
also look into oil, natural gas, water and methods to extract
these

2. Differentiate Geology and Engineering Geology.

3. Role of Engineering Geology in the field of Civil Engineering.
- Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction
material, its occurrence, composition, durability and other
properties. Example of such construction materials is building
stones, road metal, clay, limestones and laterite.
The knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies such as
water, wind, ice and earthquakes helps in planning and carrying
out major civil engineering works. For example the knowledge of
erosion, transportation and deposition helps greatly in solving the
expensive problems of river control, coastal and harbour work
and soil conservation.
Ground water is the water which occurs in the subsurface rocks.
The knowledge about its quantity and depth of occurrence is
required in connection with water supply, irrigation, excavation
and many other civil engineering works.
The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are
directly concerned with the geology of the area where they are to
be built. In these works drilling is commonly undertaken to
explore the ground conditions. Geology helps greatly in
interpreting the drilling data.
In tunneling, constructing roads, canals, docks and in determining
the stability of cuts and slopes, the knowledge about the nature
and structure of rocks is very necessary.
Before staring a major engineering project at a place, a detailed
geological report which is accompanied by geological maps and
sections, is prepared. Such a report helps in planning and
constructing the projects.
The stability of civil engineering structure is considerably
increased if the geological feature like faults, joints, bedding

planes, folding solution channels etc in the rock beds are properly
located and suitably treated.
In the study of soil mechanics, it is necessary to know how the
soil materials are formed in nature.
The cost of engineering works will considerably reduced of the
geological survey of the area concerned is done before hand.
4. Give the principal divisions and structures and compositions of
the Earth. Define and discuss.
> Compositional Layers
The Earth is a sphere of radius 6371km which is
stratified or layered. Compositional layers differ in chemical
composition. The Earth has three compositional layers:
1. The crust: low density silicate rock, 5-70 km thick.
There are two distinct types of crust.
a. Continental crust is variable in thickness and
composition. Thickness ranges from 5-70 km.
The composition ranges from mafic to felsic.
b. Oceanic crust is uniform in thickness and
composition. It is 5-6 km thick and is mafic in
composition.
c. The differences in thickness and density
between continental and oceanic are
responsible for the existence of ocean basins
due to isostatic balance as the crust floats on
the more dense mantle.
2. The mantle: high
density, ultramafic silicate rock which can flow
when subjected to long duration stresses. The mantle
is over 2900 km thick and makes up over 80% of the
volume of the Earth. The mantle is not molten!
3. The core: iron and nickel, liquid outer region with a
solid center. The core is just over half the diameter of
the Earth.

These compositional layers have sharp or abrupt boundaries

between them.
Whole earth composition is estimated from unbiased samples
of meteorites. Earth structure is obtained by combining this with
seismic data.

Motion of liquid iron and nickel in the outer core gives the
Earth a dipole magnetic field, nearly aligned with the rotational
axis. The magnetic field of the Earth reverses spontaneously at
random times. Over the last several million years, the average time
between reversals has been about 200,000 years. The last reversal
was 730,000 years ago. Reversals probably take less that 5,000
years. Reversals of the field probably involve a period of time where
the field weakens substantially and becomes disorganized (nondipole), then reorganizes in the opposite polarity. People should
wear lead underwear during a reversal, as the Earth's surface will be
bombarded with a higher than normal amount of cosmic radiation!
> Mechanical Layers
In addition to the compositional layers, the Earth has
mechanical layers. Mechanical layers differ in their strength or
rigidity. These layers do not correspond on a one-to-one basis with
the compositional layers. The Earth has five mechanic layers:
1. The lithosphere is the outermost mechanical layer
and is the most rigid layer of the Earth. The
lithosphere consists of the crust, and some of the
uppermost mantle. The lithosphere averages about
100 km thick. It is somewhat thicker beneath
continents, and dramatically thinner under mid-ocean
ridges.
2. The asthenosphere lies beneath the lithosphere. It
is a part of the mantle, approximately 100 km thick,
with very little strength. The asthenosphere flows
relatively easily and accomodates the movement of
the overlying lithosphere. The upper and lower
boundaries of the asthenosphere are diffuse as they
involve gradual changes in the rigidity of the mantle,
not a change in composition.
3. The lower mantle or mesosphere consists of most
of the mantle. This part of the mantle flows, but at
much slower rates than the asthenosphere.
4. The outer core is liquid iron (with some nickel and
other elements). This is the only internal layer of the
Earth that is a true liquid. The core-mantle boundary
is the one mechanical boundary that is also a
compositional boundary. Movement of the electically
conductive fluid in the outer core generates the
Earth's magnetic field.

5. The inner core is solid. It has the same composition

as the outer core, and is about half the diameter of
the core.
5. Types of Rocks (clasifications)
>IgneousRocks

Igneousrocksarecrystallinesolidswhichformdirectlyfrom
thecoolingofmagma.Thisisanexothermicprocess(itlosesheat)
andinvolvesaphasechangefromtheliquidtothesolidstate.The
earthismadeofigneousrockatleastatthesurfacewhereourplanet
isexposedtothecoldnessofspace.Igneousrocksaregivennames
basedupontwothings:composition(whattheyaremadeof)and
texture(howbigthecrystalsare).
Igneousrocksarecrystallinesolidswhichcoolfrommagma:theliquid
phaseofsolidrock.Magmasoccuratdepthinthecrust,andaresaidtoexist
in"magmachambers,"aratherloosetermindicatinganareawherethe
temperatureisgreatenoughtomelttherock,andthepressureislowenough
toallowthematerialtoexpandandexistintheliquidstate.Manydifferent
typesofigneousrockscanbeproduced.Thekeyfactorstousein
determiningwhichrockyouhavearetherock'stextureandcomposition.
Texture
Texturerelatestohowlargetheindividualmineralgrainsareinthefinal,
solidrock.Inmostcases,theresultinggrainsizedependsonhowquickly
themagmacooled.Ingeneral,theslowerthecooling,thelargerthecrystals
inthefinalrock.Becauseofthis,weassumethatcoarsegrainedigneous
rocksare"intrusive,"inthattheycooledatdepthinthecrustwherethey
wereinsulatedbylayersofrockandsediment.Finegrainedrocksarecalled
"extrusive"andaregenerallyproducedthroughvolcaniceruptions.
Grainsizecanvarygreatly,fromextremelycoarsegrainedrockswith
crystalsthesizeofyourfist,downtoglassymaterialwhichcooledso
quicklythattherearenomineralgrainsatall.Coarsegrainvarieties(with
mineralgrainslargeenoughtoseewithoutamagnifyingglass)arecalled
phaneritic.Graniteandgabbroareexamplesofphaneriticigneousrocks.
Finegrainedrocks,wheretheindividualgrainsaretoosmalltosee,are
calledaphanitic.Basaltisanexample.Themostcommonglassyrockis
obsidian.Obviously,thereareinnumerableintermediatestagestoconfuse
theissue.

Composition
Theotherfactoriscomposition:theelementsinthemagmadirectlyaffect
whichmineralsareformedwhenthemagmacools.Again,wewilldescribe
theextremes,buttherearecountlessintermediatecompositions.
(Compositionrelatestothemaficandfelsictermsdiscussedinanother
question.Ifthesetermsareconfusing,pleaserefertothatdiscussionbefore
continuing.)
Thecompositionofigneousmagmasisdirectlyrelatedtowherethemagma
isformed.Magmasassociatedwithcrustalspreadingaregenerallymafic,
andproducebasaltifthemagmaeruptsatthesurface,orgabbroifthe
magmanevermakesitoutofthemagmachamber.Itisimportantto
rememberthatbasaltandgabbroaretwodifferentrocksbasedpurelyon
texturaldifferencestheyarecompositionallythesame.
Intermediateandfelsicmagmasareassociatedwithcrustalcompressionand
subduction.Intheseareas,maficseafloorbasaltandcontinentalsediments
aresubductedbackintothecrust,wheretheyremelt.Thisallows
thedifferentiationprocesstocontinue,andtheresultingmagmaisenriched
inthelighterelements.Intermediatemagmasproducediorite(intrusive)and
andesite(extrusive).Felsicmagmas,thefinalpurifiedresultofthe
differentiationprocess,leadtotheformationofgranite(intrusive)or
rhyolite(extrusive).
>SedimentaryRocks
Inmostplacesonthesurface,theigneousrockswhichmakeupthemajority
ofthecrustarecoveredbyathinveneerofloosesediment,andtherock
whichismadeaslayersofthisdebrisgetcompactedandcementedtogether.
Sedimentaryrocksarecalledsecondary,becausetheyareoftentheresultof
theaccumulationofsmallpiecesbrokenoffofpreexistingrocks.Thereare
threemaintypesofsedimentaryrocks:
Clastic:yourbasicsedimentaryrock.Clasticsedimentaryrocksare
accumulationsofclasts:littlepiecesofbrokenuprockwhichhavepiledup
andbeen"lithified"bycompactionandcementation.
Chemical:manyoftheseformwhenstandingwaterevaporates,leaving
dissolvedmineralsbehind.Theseareverycommoninaridlands,where
seasonal"playalakes"occurincloseddepressions.Thickdepositsofsalt
andgypsumcanformduetorepeatedfloodingandevaporationoverlong
periodsoftime.

Organic:anyaccumulationofsedimentarydebriscausedbyorganic
processes.Manyanimalsusecalciumforshells,bones,andteeth.Thesebits
ofcalciumcanpileupontheseafloorandaccumulateintoathickenough
layertoforman"organic"sedimentaryrock.
>MetamorphicRocks
Themetamorphicsgettheirnamefrom"meta"(change)and
"morph"(form).Anyrockcanbecomeametamorphicrock.Allthatis
requiredisfortherocktobemovedintoanenvironmentinwhichthe
mineralswhichmakeuptherockbecomeunstableandoutof
equilibriumwiththenewenvironmentalconditions.Inmostcases,this
involvesburialwhichleadstoariseintemperatureandpressure.The
metamorphicchangesinthemineralsalwaysmoveinadirection
designedtorestoreequilibrium.Commonmetamorphicrocksinclude
slate,schist,gneiss,andmarble.

6. 3 broad groups of potential geologic problems and give 2

examples of each group
a. Geophysical hazards[3] encompass geological and meteorological
phenomena such as earthquakes, coastal erosion, volcanic
eruption, cyclonic storms, and drought.
b. Biological hazards can refer to a diverse array of disease and infestation.
Other natural hazards such as floods and wildfires can result from a
combination of geological, hydrological, and climatic factors

7. Differentiate types of geological hazards

8. Name atleast 3 types of adjustments to hazards.
9. Human persistent attitude towards hazards.