11/8/2015

AdjustingObservedGravity

DataAcquisition,ReductionofGravityData
Establishingbasestations
tietoIGSN71orotherabsolutereadingifpossiblebelowaresomeOKstationsclicktoseevalues:

establishlocalbase
closetoorwithinsurveyarea
stable,permanent,easytofind
goodcontrolonx,y,z(benchmark,roadintersection,airport)
canestablishnewbasebyloopingfromoldbase

DeterminingElevations
surveying(costs>=gravitysurvey!)
toposheet
inertialguidancesystem
altimeter
GPS,DGPS:GPSPrimer
RTKdualfrequencyDGPS(2unitswithrealtimecommunication/correctionbetweenthem)givescmlevelaccuracyin
secondscost(Feb.2001)isabout$45K
DEMs7.5MinuteDEM:30x30meterdataspacing
MoreonDEMs(10mvs.30m)

DeterminingHorizontalPosition
sameaselevation
digitizerhandyforgettinglatitudes

http://gravmag.ou.edu/reduce/reduce.html

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AdjustingObservedGravity
Tidalcorrection
secularvariationsingare(generally)undesirable
effectofSunabout50%ofMoon
eachhas12hourperiod(frontandbackbulge),
buttidalinequality...
2effects:
pullofbodiesonmeter
distortionofEarth(solidearthtide)addsabout12%tothiseffect
totalmagnitudeabout0.2,0.3mgal(refertotidalcorrectionlab)
tocorrect:
fixedrecordinggravimeter
locatedinornearsurveyarea
subtractvariationsfromsurveydata
probablymostaccuratecorrection,but$$
tidetables(gravity)
readtidalcorrectionforgiventimeandlocation
manynotapplywellnearwater
nolongerpublished
calculatetidaleffect
computerprogramyieldscorrectionfortimeandlocation
incorporatedintoScintrexmeter
includeindriftcorrection
datafromSandia'sLacosteandRombergModelGmeter,sittinginGilbert'slab,connectedtochartrecorder(lightline)dark
linefrommytidecomputerprogram

DriftCorrection
secularvariationsingareundesirable
instrumentdrift(DT,DP,creep),tides
assumptions
changesaresmoothandslow
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changesareindependentoflocation
driftestimatedbyreoccupationof(base)station
mustreoccupyevery2hoursorso:

usingsamebaseforentiresurveynotpractical(ornecessary):

Station
Base

Time
11:20

DialDivisions DriftRate
762.71

GN1
GN2

11:42
12:14

774.16
759.72

GN3
GN4

12:37
12:59

768.95
771.02

Base

13:10

761.18

Elapsed
Time

Correction

Corrected
Reading

shiftcorrectionthenextday...
http://gravmag.ou.edu/reduce/reduce.html

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Station
Base

Time
10:20

DialDivisions
763.68

GN5
GN6

10:42
11:14

775.16
765.42

GN7
GN8

11:37
11:59

765.35
770.32

Base

12:10

760.28

Shift

DriftRate

Elapsed
Time

Corrected
Correction Reading

Solutiontoabovedon'tlookatthisuntilyou'vetriedityourself!
3pointdriftcorrection
assumeg=at2+bt+c
evaluatea,bandcusinggknownatonestationatt1,t2andt3
Excelspreadsheetexample

Latitudecorrection
GeodeticReferenceSystemFormulaerefertotheoreticalestimatesoftheEarth'sshape
FromtheseGRSformulaeweobtainsInternationalGravityFormulae(IGF)
Severaldifferentformulaehavebeenadoptedovertheyears
Intheseequations, isgeographiclatitudeand
FirstinternationallyacceptedIGFwas1930:

iscommonlyreferredtoastheoreticalgravityornormalgravity

Thisformulawasdefinedbypendulummeasurementsin1906inPotsdam.Withmuchmoreaccuratedeterminationsof
absolutegravity,combinedwithsatellitemeasurements,itwasfoundtobeinerrorbyabout17mgals(seeequatorialg
inlaterIGFs).
TheGeodeticReferenceSystem1967providedthe1967IGF:

MostrecentlyIAGdevelopedGeodeticReferenceSystem1980,leadingtoWorldGeodeticSystem1984(WGS84)in
closedformitis:

TheIGFvalueissubtractedfromobserved(absolute)gravitydata.Thiscorrectsforthevariationofgravitywithlatitude
InternationalGravityFormula"Calculator"

http://gravmag.ou.edu/reduce/reduce.html

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Latitudecorrection:shortform
notethatoversmallrange,curveisnearlystraightlineslope

whereisatypicallatitudeforthe(small)fieldarea
milesnorth,inaboveformula
subtractthisamountforeachmilenorth
BurgerTable61

Freeaircorrection
"flagpole"correction
accountsfordecreaseing(r)duetochange(increase)inelevation(r)
doesnottakeinintoaccountmasswhichmaybeelevatingyou

couldpickdatum(e.g.,sealevel),compute"exact"difference,butoversmallchangesinelevation,h,changeisnearlylinear

notethat,onceIGFisremoved,wetakeelevationsrelativetosealevel,notcenterofEarth!
TaylorSeries

http://gravmag.ou.edu/reduce/reduce.html

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thisisthefreeaireffect:gdecreases(hencesign)withelevation
alternative"derivation":

howbiganeffect?takeg=9.83m/s2r=6371km,

correction:add0.3086timeselevationinmeters

Bouguercorrection

"bulldozer"correction
accountsformass(rock)responsibleforelevationchange(betweenobservationpointandsealevel,usually)
dependsondensityofmaterialholdingyouup(Bouguerdensity)
http://gravmag.ou.edu/reduce/reduce.html

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gravityduetoinfiniteslab,thicknessh(m),density(g/cm3):

slabholdingyouupincreasesgmustsubtractthiseffectout
requiresknowledgeofhand

ToBouguerorNotToBouguer?
SelectingReductionDensity
whilesealevelmaybedatum,variationinelevationoccursinnearsubsurface
methodsforselectingBouguerdensity:
1.StandardBouguerdensity=2670kg/m3
nominallyaveragecrustaldensity
ensurescontinuitybetweensurveys
2.Directmeasurement
collectsamples,core,drillsamples,handsamples
inaccessibilitymaynotberepresentative
3.Geologicmaptogetrocktypegetvaluesfromtables,graphs,etc.
handbooks(physicalpropertiesofrocksandminerals)
sedimentaryrockdensityhistograms
rockdensityranges
rockdensitymeansandranges
saltdensityvs.sediment
RockType
ice
seawater

Density
880920
10101050

shale
limestone,dolomite
sandstone
soil&alluvium

19502700
25002850
21002600
16502200

rocksalt
felsicigneousrocks
maficigneousrocks
ultramaficrocks

18502150
25502750
27003000
30003300

4.Densityprofile(Nettletonmethod)
collectcloselyspacedgreadingsovertopographicfeature
makelatitude,freeaircorrection
makeBouguercorrection,withvariousvaluesof
findwhichgivesleastcorrelationwithtopography

http://gravmag.ou.edu/reduce/reduce.html

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5.Logs
gammagammadensitylogs
raysource(usuallyCobalt),geigercounter
whenrays(photons)collidew/electronsinrock,Comptonscatteringcausesthemtobereflected
intensityofreflectedbeamdependsondensityofelectrons,whichdependsondensity
neutrondensitylogs
seismicvelocitylogs(duetoroughcorrelationofdensityw/velocity)
boreholegravitymeter(seewww.edcon.com)
measuresgto0.01mgal
mustovercomesmallholesize,hostileenvironment,selfleveling

"width"ofinvestigation("penetrationintosidesofborehole")~pointseparation
bestmethodforgettingtrueformationdensity
6.Linearregression(leastsquares)method
assumesnocorrelationbetweentopographyandsubsurfacedensity(i.e.,anomaliesarerandomlydistributedwithrespectto
elevation)
thereforecorrelationbetweentopographyandgwillbeduetoBouguerslab
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plotgfavs.elevation,h
fitlinethroughpoints
slopewillapproximate2Gsolvefor(Bouguerdensity)

LeastSquaresFit
datapairs:x1,y1x2,y2...xn,yn,wherenisthetotalnumberofdatapoints
straightline:y=mx+b,wheremistheslope,btheintercept
minimizethesumofthesquaresoftheresiduals(SSR):

settingderivatives=0givesthenormalequations:

thesetwoequationsareusedtosolveforunknowns,mandb.Forhomework,showthat:

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Problemswithlinearregressionmethodforgettingdensity:
ifdensityvaries(decreasesinthisexample)withelevation,willgetcurve

densitymaycorrelatewithelevatione.g.,Arbuckles:limestonesarehillformers,shalesarevalleyformers...
Bouguercorrectionatsea,underground

surfacesurvey

firsttermreplaceswaterwithcrust
secondtermBouguercorrectstosealevel
underwatersurvey(foraccuratevalueatsea)

undergroundsurvey

Othercorrectionstogravityatsea
notastableplatformasinlandgravity
accelerationscanbeoforder

,>>accuracydesired

correctionsalsoapplytoairbornegravity
Accelerationcorrection

http://gravmag.ou.edu/reduce/reduce.html

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shipcan'taccelerateupordownverylong,soaverageoverteliminatesaz(notsoforaircraft)

mustknowax,ay(accelerometers,gyroscopetokeepaccelerometerslevel)
naturalperiodoflandgmetertypically~10s,butwavesalso~10s,soshipgravimetermusthavemuchlongerperiod
Eotvoscorrection(Nettleton,p.116118)

importantforshipborneandairbornegravity
componentofvelocityinEdirectionincreasesapparentangularvelocity(CoriolisForce)
biggestsinglesourceoferrorinshipbornegravitycomesfromerrorinV,(althoughGPS,particularlyDGPS,probablyhelps
significantly)
centrifugalacceleration
componentinverticaldirection

effectinchangeinangularvelocity,(willbesmallcomparedtoonshiporevenplane)

ifvelocityisV,Ecomponentis
angularvelocityduetothismotionis

so,daVisgivenby

thereisalsoasimpleaccelerationinverticaldirectionduetototalvelocity,V

TotalEotvosCorrection
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AdjustingObservedGravity

ForVinknots,correctioninmgals
Example:10knotsEatequator=>75mgals!

Terraincorrection[TopographicCorrection]

Bouguercorrectionassumesinfiniteslabterraincorrectioncorrectsforthiserroneousassumption!
Bouguercorrectionworksforgentlyslopingsurfaces,liketopographyonbasement
error<3%forslope<1/5(seeAdamsandHinze,vol.3,SEGGeotech.&Environ.Gphy.,p.99)
Terraincorrection
alwayspositive
requiresdetailedinfoonelevationaroundstation,notjustatstation
sizeofterraincorrectiondependsonreliefanditsproximitytostation

BurgerTable63
HammerTerrainCorrectionChart

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TerrainCorrectionwithDEMs
adventofDEMshasmademediumtofarfieldcorrectionmucheasier
shortfieldcorrectionmaybedoneusing"newlyavailable,reflectorlesslaserrangefinders.Suchrangefinderspermita
detaileddigitalterraindatatobeacquiredinthevicinityofagravitystationwithinonly23minutes,permittingthegravity
meteroperatortoacquiretheterraindataneeded...atthesametimeasthegravitymeasurementsaremade."
GeodesyGroupatCurtinUniversityTerrainEffect
GeophysicalSoftware
SampleDEM:Contours,ColorShaded,ShadedRelief,Map
Ruleofthumb:30mDEMallowsterraincorrectionfromabout0.5kmout
Totalstation(esp.reflectorless)canbeusedforinnermostcorrection(timecomsuming)

Freeair,Bouguer,IsostaticAnomaly
latitudeandfreeaircorrectionvirtuallyalwaysmade,givingtheFreeAirAnomaly(FAA)
forenvironmental/explorationwork,someBouguercorrectionismade
forgravityinmgalsandelevationinmeters,then
TheStandardBouguerAnomalyusesBouguerdensityof2.67g/cm3

notethat,onceischosen,FACandBCcanbecombinedintoonecorrection:theelevationcorrection

theCompleteBouguerAnomalyalsoincludestheterraincorrection
sometimesmakeacorrectionforisostasy,givingIsostaticAnomaly

EstimatingSurveyError
dependenterrorsaddalgebraically
independenterrorsaddvectorially
sourcesoferror:
meterdial
meterconsistency
drift
latitude
elevation(FreeairandBouguerpartiallycancel)
terrain
others?

determiningerrorofcalculatedquantity

http://gravmag.ou.edu/reduce/reduce.html

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