Techniques for estimating nutritive

values of feedstuffs

Ayesha Ahmad
2013-ag-2712

Techniques for estimating

nutritive
values of
feedstuffs
One of the most significant factors, which determine the nutritive value of a feed is its
digestibility. Digestibility data can offer an insight into the proper feeding of animals. Of
the various techniques that have been used to date the total collection is the most
reliable method of measuring feed's digestibility. However, it is time consuming, and
expensive. The time and expense involved in digestion experiments can be economized
by the use of indicator method where total feces are not collected. This method is the
most useful in evaluating digestibility of feedstuffs fed to captive wild animals. The
digestibility of a feedstuff may also be predicted from chemical composition of the feed.
This process involves development of multiple regression equations relating various
chemical components to in vivo digestibility. In vitro digestibility techniques provide a
quick, inexpensive and precise prediction of in vivo or conventionally determined
digestibility in ruminants
. Nylon bag technique is however, quite useful for evaluating kinetic aspects of digestion
in ruminants. Nutritive value of feeds is determined by a number of factors, including
composition, odor, texture and taste (Schneider & Flat, 1975). These factors are
generally measurable in the case of the animal as digestibility and intake. Digestibility is
simply a measure of the availability of nutrients. When digestibility is combined with
intake data, one can make an accurate prediction of overall nutritive value. Of the two
factors, intake is relatively more important than digestibility in determining overall
nutritive value because highly digestible feeds are of little value unless consumed by the
animal in question.

Digestibility usually provides a fairly reliable index of nutritive value because more
digestible feeds are normally consumed to a greater extent than less digestible feeds.
Only that portion which is soluble or is rendered soluble by hydrolysis or some other
chemical or physical change can be taken up into the circulation and assist in supplying
the animal body with material for building and repair of tissue or supply the energy
necessary for body functions. In addition, measures of digestibility are somewhat easier
to obtain than measures of intake and thus, considerable effort has been made by
animal nutritionists to develop effective means of determining digestibility. This paper
review different techniques used for the estimation of digestibility and factors that
affecting it. Total collection technique. The total collection (conventional digestion trial) is
the most reliable method of measuring a feed's digestibility. Unfortunately, however, it is

somewhat time consuming, tedious, and costly. Basically, the feed in question is fed in
known quantities to an animal.
Usually, the animal is restrained in an individual cage so that a quantitative collection of
feces can be made. Accurate records of feed intake, refusals and fecal output are kept,
and a sub sample of each (usually 10% of daily output in the case of feces) is retained
for analysis. When estimates of nitrogen balance are desired, urine output is also
measured. Three animals per feed are required as a minimum. The animals are usually
allowed from 7 to 21 days (d) to adjust to the feed, followed by a collection. Samples
can then be dried, ground, and analyzed for the nutrients of interest.

The most common arrangement for collecting the excreta of animals for digestibility
experiments is through the use of metabolic crates. A metabolic crate is actually a stall
or box large enough for the animal set on legs from 50 cm to 1 m high. It is so planned
as to permit the quantitative collection of feces and urine. However, a common criticism
of digestion estimation by total collection technique is that feed intake by animals is
sometimes abnormally low and erratic. This lack of appetite is in many cases
attributable to the fact that the animal may be too nervous or frightened to eat, resulting
from the close confinement made necessary by the very nature of the equipment used.
It is important that the experimental animals must be sufficiently comfortable during the
adjustment period. The space allowed to the animal must be large enough to permit
considerable freedom of movement. But conducting a digestion experiment may
normally entail appreciable annoyance to the animal. Some individual animals are
temperamentally unsuited to be used in such experiments and are too nervous to be
used in digestion trials. Mostly captive wild animals fall into this category. Even though
conventional digestion trials are the standard with which all other measures of
digestibility are compared, the values obtained still vary 1 to 4 % as a result of animalto-animal variation, sampling procedures and analytical errors. Difference technique.
Calculation of digestibility of a nutrient in a test diet is based upon the assumption that
digestibility of a mixed diet is equal to the summation of the proportions of the diet
supplied by each ingredient when fed alone. The digestibility of a nutrient in the test
feed stuff being fed in form of mixed feed is calculated as follow

A = Digestibility of nutrient in total diet; B = Digestibility of nutrient in basal diet (usually

already determined when fed alone; C = proportion of total nutrient in diet supplied by
basal diet (D) proportion of total nutrient in diet supplied by test feed.

Nylon bag techniques:

The history of the development of methods for the assessment of the value of feedstuffs
for animal production is a long one. In the early attempts in Europe feeding trials were
used, and workers also tried to predict the nutritive value of feedstuffs by the extraction
of the "solubles" with water, alkali, ether and alcohol. By the early nineteenth century
scientists in several European countries were publishing tables of the nutritive value of
feedstuffs, and were developing methods upon which many of our current techniques
are based. (For excellent reviews see Tyler 1975; Blaxter 1980). As knowledge
increased, the early methods were modified and developed, in order to improve the
reliability with which laboratory techniques could be used to predict nutritive value to the
animal. Although highly developed laboratory procedures are now available (for
example, acid detergent fibre, and in vitro digestion), the modifications which have been
introduced have often simply attempted to mimic the in vivo processes. For the
evaluation of feedstuffs, in vivo techniques are nearly always preferred. The use of the
artificial fibre bag, which will be discussed here, has the advantage of giving a very
rapid estimate of the rate, and extent, of tile degradation of the feedstuff in the
functioning rumen, without necessitating any procedure more complicated than simple
weighing. Quin et al (1938) used the fibre bag technique to investigate the digestion of
feeds in the rumen of cannulated sheep. They used cylindrical bags composed of a very
fine natural silk. Subsequent workers have used artificial fibres for the bags (Erwin and
Elliston 1959; Johnson 1966; Rodriguez 1968a). The artificial fibre bag (dacron bag,
nylon bag, rumen bag) technique, provides a powerful tool for the initial evaluation of
feedstuffs and for improving our understanding of the processes of degradation which
occur within the rumen. This paper will describe the techniques we are currently using
at the Rowett Institute and will suggest some ways in which we think the technique
could usefully be employed in the tropics. However, it must be remembered that the
technique has limitations as well as advantages. 196 Trop Anim Prod 1980: 5:3 There
are three important limitations. Firstly, since the sample is confined within the bag it is
not exposed to any breakdown due to chewing and rumination. Secondly food would
normally be able to leave the rumen once broken down to a suitable particle size.
Thirdly, it must be remembered that, strictly speaking, what is actually measured is the
breakdown of material to a size small enough to leave the bag and not necessarily a
complete degradation to simple chemical compounds. The results must therefore be
treated with due caution, and, in general, be used as qualitative indicators of general
principles. With these reservations, there are examples of ways in which the technique
can be used to make measurements of a more quantitative nature. One example is the
technique developed at the Rowett Institute for the study of protein degradation in, and
outflow from, the rumen (rskov and McDonald 1979). This technique will be discussed

in more detail in a later section of the paper. We propose first to describe the
methodology. Materials and Methodology Fibre bags: Various materials have been used
in the construction of the bags. Quin et al (1938), as already mentioned, utilized fine
silk, while Schoeman et al (1972) and Mehrez and rskov (1977) used Dacron material
obtained from an old parachute. Early workers rightly placed a great deal of emphasis
on the pore size of the bag material, since this regulates the passage of solid particles
from the bags. Rodriguez (1968a) reported that bag materials with 1680, 2303 and 2550
holes/cm gave similar values for the disappearance of dry matter from the bags.
Materials with pores of 20 and 35 have been found to give smaller dry matter losses
than from bag materials with 53 pores (Uden et al 1974), and Van Miellen and Ellis
(1977) considered 10 to be the maximum pore size if loss of solids wee to be
prevented. HS013 (nylon filter cloth currently being used at the Rowett Institute has a
pore size of 12 square. The important point is that the same material should be used in
any one trial, and that the bags should be well washed between trials - in order to
ensure the pores are cleaned out. If possible the bags should be checked periodically
under a microscope (to examine the pores), and the type of material used should be
described. The optimum size of bag has been investigated by a number of workers
(Rodriguez 1968a; Mehrez 1976). The optimum size is essentially a compromise
between the two opposing factors. On the one hand the necessity to have the bag large
enough relative to the sample size used, so as to ensure that rumen fluid can easily
enter the bag and mix with the sample. On the other hand there is the necessity to have
a bag small enough to be easily withdrawn through the rumen cannula. The effect of
sample size will be discussed later on, but we use a bag of about 140 x 90 mm when
laid flat. The bottom corners should be rounded (so as to prevent any of the sample
being trapped), and the bag can be closed either by tying or with a simple draw string
(Figure 1). These bags can easily be withdrawn through a cannula of 40 mm internal
diameter, and with care through a cannula of 30 mm internal diameter (the former
dimension is preferred). The material for the bags is cut out using a soldering iron (this
prevents fraying) and is sewn with a double line of sewing (Figure 1) using a polyester
thread. If necessary the bag can be colour coded with a nylon tag or draw string. Trop
Anim Prod 1980 5:3 197 Figure 1: Nylon bag as now used at the Rowett Institute
(Ceagana design) Treatment and preparation of samples: Preparation of the samples
for incubation is critical as they should represent, as far as possible, the materials as
they would appear in the rumen had they been consumed by the animal. Ideally,
masticated ingesta from animals fitted with an oesophageal cannula can be collected
(Bailey 1962), but in practice the use of a laboratory hammermill fitted with a 2.5 - 3.0
mm screen for dry feeds is adequate. Alternative methods for the reduction of particle
size, such as chopping, cutting, rolling and grinding, may have to be utilized if the above
mentioned methods prove to be unsuitable. Fresh forages and succulent feeds present
problems, particularly when attempting to describe in a quantitative way the form of
sample preparation. Minor and Hovell (1979) found the method of preparation of
banana leaf to be important. These workers used a domestic homogeniser to break the
structure of the leaf open. The procedure used was to cut the leaf into 20-30 mm

squares. Small
quantities of cut leaf were then homogenised for
20 - 30
seconds - sufficient to break the
structure of
the leaf open, but not to pulp the
leaf into a
puree. A similar technique was
used with
fresh grasses and other forages,
and with
experience a sample of uniform
appearance
can be produced. Any juice
expelled is
soaked up by the fragmented
forage. The
preparation of ,-resin forage is
an area that requires further work for it is
difficult to describe
quantitatively,
and the effect of degree of fragmentation has
not been
measured.

Other

methods:

The Kjeldahl
method or Kjeldahl
digestion :
in analytical chemistry is a
method for the
quantitative determination of
organic nitrogen in chemical
substances like ammonia developed
by Johan Kjeldahl in 1883.
The use of faecal indices. The methods using faecal indices to estimate
digestibility are based on established regression relationships between
faecal indices and the digestibility of dry or organic matter (Van Soest,
1982). The general model for these relationships is:
Digestibility of forage grazed = f (faecal index)
The faecal indices in this model are calculated on the basis of the nitrogen, lignin or
chromogen contents of the faeces, i.e. the components of faeces known to be closely
related to digestibility.17
17

The relationship is not causal. The two variables merely happen to go together i.e.
they are concomitant (Dicko-Tour, 1980) are only relevant to the site at which data
were originally collected or to sites with very similar vegetation and animal species
(Dicko-Tour, 1980; Semenye, 1987).
The estimation of digestibility via faecal indices involves the following steps:
conduct conventional studies to determine, from faeces and feed samples, regression
relationships between digestibility and the content of these substances in the faeces
(The principles of regression analysis are discussed in Module 11 of this section)

 analyse faecal samples collected in the field to determine the percentage(s) of

selected substance(s) in the faeces (The methods used to obtain faecal samples are
described above)
predict digestibility using the faecal indices calculated from these data.
The main advantages of this method are that it is relatively low-cost and results can be
obtained fairly quickly. Its chief disadvantage is that it is site-specific, and the derived
parameters and relations.
Rumen fluids. Rumen fluids are extracted from rumen-fistulated animals
and used in combination with buffers to simulate the action of saliva. The
substances are added to feed taken from the fistula, and the mixture is
heated at rumen temperature (39C) for periods of 24-48 hours (Church
and Pond, 1982). The Tilley-Terry (1963) method, which is widely used,
involves an additional stage in which the feed is further digested with acid
pepsin for another 48 hours. The residual represents the indigestible
portion of the feed.
In vitro analysis of consumed feed. When digestibility is analysed by in
vitro methods, samples of feed ingested are subjected to artificial tests
which simulatedigestibility under controlled conditions. The more
commonly applied methods involve the use of rumen fluids, chemical
fermenters and nylon bags (see Church and Pond, 1982).
Fibre analysis
The crude-fibre (Weende) method is described in most texts on animal nutrition. The
method has been widely used to determine the fibre content of feed, but it has two
serious shortcomings, particularly with respect to highly fibrous feeds such as crop
residues, straws etc. These are:
The method treats all fibre components (cellulose, hemicelluose and lignin) as
uniformly digestible. Ruminants can, however, utilise some cellulose and hemicelluose
though lignin is essentially indigestible. The digestibility of a feed therefore tends to be
underestimated.
Not all of the lignin and hemicelluose is extracted by the crude-fibre method. As a
result, a portion of these components is included in the nitrogen-tree extract (sugars and
starches) and is, therefore, assumed to be highly digestible. The digestibility of a feed
therefore tends to be overestimated.
Because of these shortcomings, Van Soest (1988) devised a method which separates
feed dry matter into two fractions - one of high or uniform digestibility and the other of
low or non-uniform digestibility. Feed samples are boiled in a neutral-detergent solution
and components are separated as follows:

 neutral-detergent solubles (NDS), consisting mainly of lipids, sugars, starches

and protein with a digestibility of about 98%, and
neutral-detergent fibre (NDF), consisting of plant cell wall components (lignin,
silica, hemicelluose and some protein). This fraction more closely corresponds to
the true fibre fraction than the estimate of the Weende crude-fibre analysis.