iiSBE Net Zero Built Enironment 2014 Proceedings

iiSBE NET ZERO BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Nature-Based Building Performance: Net Zero Energy, Water, Carbon, and Waste
CONFERENCE PROCEEDING
17TH RINKER INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

RINKER SCHOOL OF CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
MARCH-2014
ii
iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014 Symposium

The iiSBE nZBE 2014 Symposium was held as an opportunity for design professionals, researchers,
industry, and government to exchange information on research, case studies, and emerging best practices
centered on the net zero built environment concept strategy. Although Net Zero Energy is the major
theme, the working group also collaborated on other Nature-Based Building Performance such as Net
Zero Energy, Water, Carbon, and Waste. Net zero is a strategy for setting performance targets for the
built environment based on the local availability of renewable energy and water resources. For example, a
net zero energy building produces as much energy from renewable sources as it consumes on an annual
basis. The same basic approach would be used to define net zero water, carbon, and waste strategies.
The symposium accepted the papers in the area of:
Designing low energy buildings in support of net zero energy strategies
Emerging strategies for net zero energy buildings
Technologies in support of net zero energy, water, carbon, and waste strategies
Net zero certification schemes
Regional, national, and local net zero strategies and programs
Case studies relevant to net zero energy, water, carbon solutions
Net zero energy communities
The nZBE Working Group is an international collaboration of academics, practitioners, and technologists
that exchanges research and information about best practices to stimulate widespread adoption of net zero
strategies. This was the first meeting of the iiSBE nZBE Working Group in North America and the intent
is to create a dynamic international collaboration among parties interested in net zero built environment
strategies. The next meeting of iiSBE nZBE will be hosted in Barcelona to foster the development of
renewable and closed loop systems in conjunction with the built environment.
iii
Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

17th Rinker International Conference, Gainesville, FL, 6&7 March
Scientific Committee:
Organizers:
(Members listed alphabetically)

William Braham, Ph.D. FAIA
Dr. Charles J. Kibert (Conference chair)
Director, Master of Environmental Building Design

Director, T C Chan Center for Building Energy &
Sustainability
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
Director of Powell Center for Construction & Environment

Professor of Rinker School of Construction Management
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
Daniel Campbell, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of Rinker School of Construction

Management
Powell Center Affiliate
Senior Systems Ecologist

Office of Research and Development, National Health and
Environmental Effects
US Environmental Protection Agency, Narragansett, Rhode
Island, USA
Dru Crawley Ph.D., FASHRAE, AIA

Director, Building Energy Performance Products
Bentley Systems, Inc.
Washington D.C., USA
Vanessa Gomes, Ph.D.

Vice President, iiSBE
Associate Professor. School of Civil Engineering, Architecture
and Urbanism
University of Campinas, Brazil
Daniel Nall, FAIA, P.E., LEED Fellow,

BEMP, HBDP
Senior Vice President
Thornton Tomasetti
New York, New York, USA
Robert Ries, Ph.D., AIA

Director, M.E. Rinker, Sr. School of Building Construction
Dr. Ravi Srinivasan
Dr. James Sullivan

Management
Powell Center Affiliate
Dr. Lantz Holzhower

Ph.D. Student of Powell Center for Construction &
Environment
Instructor of Rinker School of Construction Management
Powell Center Students:

Andrea M. valdes
Shirley N. Morque
Ruthwik Pasunuru
Hamed Hakim
Editors:
Paul Torcellini
Charles J. Kibert
Group Manager for Commercial Buildings Research

National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Denver, Colorado, USA
Director of Powell Center for Construction & Environment
Llewellyn Van Wyk, Ph.D.

Principal Researcher
Building Environmental Unit (Building Science &
Technology)
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa
Ravi Srinivasan
Lantz Holzhower
Graduate Research Assistant, Powell Center Affiliate
Hamed Hakim
Koshy Varghese, Ph.D.
Ruthwik Pasunuru
Professor of Building Technology & Construction

Management
Indian Institute of Technology Madras, India
Sandy Wiggins
Principal, Consilience LLC & Aye Partners LLC
Past Chair, US Green Building Council
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
iv

Table of Contents
iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014 Symposium ................................................................................................. iii
Scientific Committee ....................................................................................................................................................iv
Welcome messages ........................................................................................................................................................4
Track I (NZW/ Water Efficeincy)

Value and Limits of Net Zero Energy, Water, and Agriculture .....................................................................................7
An optimization model for scaling distributed DPR systems ...................................................................................... 21
Strategies for Demand Reduction for Net Zero Water Discharge A Comparative Analysis of Jamia Millia Islamia
University .................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Net-zero Building Water Cycle Decision Support ....................................................................................................... 56
Urban Ambient Net-Zero Water Treatment and Mineralization: System Design and Field Performance .................. 68
Exploring Air-Conditioning Condensate Recovery as a Water-Energy Infrastructure Synergy for Net Zero
Buildings...................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Net Positive Water ....................................................................................................................................................... 92
Track II (NZE/ Net Zero Energy Concepts)

Incorporating Net Zero Energy Building Concepts within the Construction Management Curriculum at Roger
Williams University ................................................................................................................................................... 113
Shifting from Net-Zero to Net-Positive Energy Buildings ........................................................................................ 128
Energy Services Framework towards Net Zero Energy House implementation in Portugal ..................................... 140
This Is Every Building: Achieving Market Rate Net-Zero-Ready ............................................................................ 154
Mapping Design Decisions for Early Phases of Net-Zero Energy Building.............................................................. 173
Cost Control Best Practices for Net Zero Energy Building Projects ......................................................................... 188
Technical and Business Solutions for Zero Net-Energy Ready and Zero Net- Energy Homes in the Hot Humid
Climate ...................................................................................................................................................................... 197
Renewable Energy as an Airport Revenue Generation Source .................................................................................. 213
Cost Optimality and nZEB target in building renovation of Portuguese residential buildings .................................. 231
Zero Net Energy and Corporate Sustainability Affecting Global Corporations Today ............................................. 242
Track III (Energy Efficient Strategies/Technologies)

Environment Adaptive Behaviors as User Satisfaction Assessment Criteria for Energy Efficient Cooling System
Design ........................................................................................................................................................................ 253
Watts Per Person Paradigm to Design Net Zero Energy Buildings: Examining Technology Interventions and
Integrating Occupant Feedback to Reduce Plug Loads in a Commercial Building ................................................... 264
Intelligent RNN Controller for domestic (residential) heating system ...................................................................... 326
Multimodal Sensing of Thermal Discomfort for Adaptive Energy Saving in Buildings ........................................... 344

Toward a 3D Heat Transfer Analysis in Dynamic-BIM Workbench ........................................................................ 356
Track IV (Impacts/ Assessment Methods)

Comparative Study of Environmental Performance of Primary Strength Grades of Ready-mixed Concretes .......... 369
Ecological Advantageousness of Net-Zero-Energy Buildings: Assessment Methods ............................................... 381
Closing Construction Materials Loops: A Case Study of Compressed Stabilized Earth Blocks as a Locally Available
Low Embodied Energy Walling Material .................................................................................................................. 393
Urban Performance Simulations A Review ............................................................................................................ 405
Track V (Case Studies / Residential-Commercial)

Energy Modelling as Part of a Comprehensive Residential NZE Strategy ................................................................ 414
Housing Refurbishment to Net Zero Energy Case Study .......................................................................................... 429
Improving building energy efficiency by discovering hidden stars: A case study from Australia ......................... 438
Analysis of Zero-Net Energy Districts; End Use, Urban Density and Energy Efficiency Prospects......................... 451
Decommissioning Energy of Buildings A Case Study ........................................................................................... 465
Track VI (Case Studies / Educational Facilities)

Understanding the challenges for low impact retrofitting case study ..................................................................... 476
NZEB Enhancement for a LEED Platinum Educational Facility .............................................................................. 488
Life beyond operational stage: exploring lifecycle zero energy definitions .............................................................. 499
Analysis of Meadowbrook Elementary School Performance Towards Net Zero Energy.......................................... 518

Welcome messages:
Welcome to the University of Florida and the iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment Symposium 2014!
Our goal is to facilitate an international collaboration of practitioners, academics, and policymakers to
explore emerging net zero strategies, policy, technologies, and case studies. Net zero is a powerful idea
that has rapidly gained public acceptance, captured its imagination, and is now prominent in the policies
of the United States and Europe. It is a very simple concept, yet also a very complicated notion, and it
provides hope that some of the ultimate goals of sustainability, living off local resources and closing
resource loops, can in fact be achieved. It distills the issue of setting targets for a sustainable built
environment into language that is both imaginative and reasonable and is consistent with the very core of
sustainability. As a result, net zero likely represents the cutting edge of the evolution of sustainable
construction.
One of the hoped for outcomes of this Symposium is the formation of a permanent iiSBE working group
that will continue the process of communicating relevant information about net zero built environment
directions to an international audience. We hope you will consider joining this new working group and
that you will become an active participant in its efforts to thoroughly explore this direction. We also hope
to launch some initial conversations with our Florida colleagues about creating a Florida Net Zero Energy
Schools Initiative that will take advantage of the exchange of information about the new crop of U.S.
schools powered entirely by the sun that will occur in this Symposium.
We wish you a stimulating, provocative, and productive Symposium and look forward to meeting you
over the course of the next few days. We welcome any opportunity to help make your stay In Gainesville
here as enjoyable as possible.
Dr. Charles J. Kibert
Professor & Director of the
Powell Center for Construction & Environment
Welcome to the Net Zero Built Environment 2014 Symposium, the M. E. Rinker, Sr. School of
Construction Management, and the University of Florida.
About 20 years ago, the Rinker School hosted a seminal conference on sustainable construction that
brought together some of the early thinking on how to improve the environmental performance of the
built environment. The forward-looking qualities of the papers presented then gives an indication of how
this symposium might be seen twenty years from now.
The papers in the net zero symposium explore the question of how net zero should be implemented from
several perspectives. Scales for zero net analysis range from building to urban region. The breadth of
subjects range from the technical to business to policy development. Whether you prefer a technical
viewpoint or would like to see net zero as a rallying cry for building scientists and the building
community in general, the idea of net zero hits a sympathetic chord and gets people excited about the
performance of the built environment, which is equally if not more important.
The work presented here is meaningful because implementing net zero built environment strategies that
lead to net zero built environments have the potential to significantly reduce environmental impact.

Reducing impact would improve environmental quality, improve quality of life, and lead to a better future
for all.
I hope that you have a productive experience at the symposium and enjoy the hospitality and collegiality
of the Rinker School, the College of Design, Construction, and Planning, and the University of Florida.
Dr. Robert J. Ries
Associate Professor & Director,
M.E. Rinker Sr. School of Construction Management
I am very happy to be asked to give you a few words of welcome to this very important conference on
Net Zero Built Environments.
There are lots of symposia and conferences that deal with building, but this one will deal with issues that
are on the cutting edge of current research interest. The relationship of zero energy and very low
emissions to climate change is obvious.
I am hoping to hear intensive explorations of zero operating energy, but also perhaps zero operating
emissions. Can we look for zero embodied energy and emissions? Not likely, but it is a worthy goal.
I am happy that the organizers decided to stretch the scope of this event to include Built Environment,
because I think that it will be hard to achieve such a high level of energy efficiency without going beyond
single buildings; e.g. to look for on the synergies between different kinds of buildings, infrastructure and
other systems in small urban areas.
Finally, I am happy that Charles Kibert and his colleagues have chosen to organize this event under the
banner, since the symposium goals are very much aligned with those of our organization.
I hope that the Symposium will achieve its goals, while giving delegates a taste of warmer weather than
that pervading the rest of North America.
Nils Larsson, FRAIC

Executive Director of the
International Initiative for a Sustainable Built Environment

Track I (NZW/ Water Efficiency)

Value and Limits of Net Zero Energy, Water, and Agriculture

D. Lantz Holtzhower1, Kevin Priest2, Rodrigo Castro-Ravents3, Robert J. Ries4
Rinker School of Construction Management, University of Florida 341 Rinker Hall, Gainesville,
FL 32611 USA, Phone: 352-514-1074, Fax: 352-392-9606
Emails: 1holtzhower@ufl.edu, 2kymav7@ufl.edu, 3rodcastro@ufl.edu, 4rries@ufl.edu
Abstract
This paper explores the applicability, value, and limits of a net zero paradigm to systems such as
energy, water, and agriculture. The study applies conventional net zero constraints at a residential scale,
i.e., production of goods or appropriation and/or conversion of resources that meets demands within a
given geographical boundary. Given variable energy demands and variable inputs in urban areas across
the contiguous United States a broad brush analysis of the capability of urban regions to achieve net zero
within a typical residential scale is examined.
The analysis indicates that given current solar photovoltaic performance and the assumptions
regarding residential footprints, 61% of the population in urban areas in the United States have the
potential to be net zero in terms of residential energy use and 35% of the population could meet net zero
water. In terms of agricultural production systems, the analysis shows that none of the urban areas can
meet net zero food given a standard diet.
The net zero paradigm most clearly applied to energy use in this analysis. Net zero as a paradigm for
residential potable water consumption was not as clear cut, and extending it to production systems was
found to be the least useful.
Keywords: net-zero impact, energy, water, production processes
1. Introduction
Net zero (NZ) as a paradigm can be applied to diverse systems such as energy, water, and goods
production systems. However, limiting different systems by a geographic or spatial boundary may be
more or less effective depending upon the characteristics of the system and the effects of distributed
production on the optimal use of resources. The analysis of NZ energy, water, and food production across
urban area clusters in the United States provided an opportunity to explore the applicability, value, and
limits of applying NZ to three diverse systems.
The NZ paradigm is similar to carrying capacity, or the ability of the human population to meet its
needs given the productivity of economic or agricultural systems. These are long standing concerns
(Malthus 1798) that have been examined in several different contexts (Ehrlich 1968, Brown 1981,
Costanza and Daly 1992). NZ is perhaps closest in spirit to an approach to evaluating carrying capacity
called ecological footprinting (Rees 1992, Wackernagel and Rees 1994, Rees and Wackernagel 1996).
Ecological footprinting converts human population material and resource demands into the land area
equivalents needed to meet those demands and compares the total land area equivalents needed for a
population with the available land area. NZ seeks to meet demands given a bounded area. Net zero from
7

an energy standpoint often focuses on renewable electrical energy generation and consumption, typically
at the building site scale. However, technological and site characteristics may limit on-site generation, and
since electricity can be transmitted, there may be more optimal locations and scales for defining zero net
energy systems.
The NZ concept applied to water aims at balancing water demand and supply within a given areal
boundary. This presupposes that the building system can procure an adequate water supply within its
boundaries, typically from rainfall. The mass balance approach ignores the impacts of changes in land
cover on the water cycle, which alter the systems dynamics. For instance, impervious surfaces from the
built environment increase run-off and reduce the infiltration of rain events. This alters stream-flow and
reduces groundwater storage. Consequently, zero net water assessment at the building site scale may not
minimize the impact on water resources at other hydrologically relevant scales such as the natural
drainage basin.
The NZ spatial constraints applied to goods production limits options for production systems. For
example, food production requires resources such as land area, energy, and water; other products require
raw materials and manufacturing facilities. There is likely to be more optimal strategies for locating
production systems than distributed and duplicated across numerous sites.
In the approach taken here, we calculate the productivity of bounded urban land areas and compare
them to the energy, water, and food demands of the population in these areas. Urban area clusters (UACs)
are home to about 80% of the population of the United States. The 3,535 UACs in the contiguous United
States range from small towns to major cities and population density varies from 113 to 3,867 people per
square kilometer. Assumptions regarding the demands for energy, water, and calories were made based
on state average household energy use and potable water use based on average household size and
building area, and the typical American diet. Inputs of solar energy, precipitation, and agricultural
productivity allowed for estimation of the availability goods and resources. The available resources were
compared to the demands for a typical residential household in each UAC to determine if the NZ
constraint was met or not met. The hypothetical household has three inhabitants and a building area of
approximately 220 square meters (U.S. Census 2013).
A geographical information system was used to integrate the data and produce data and maps for
analysis. The urban area cluster boundaries are from the Tiger Lines files (U.S. Census Bureau 2010b).
The population data for the UACs are from the U.S. Census Gazetteer (U.S. Census Bureau 2010a).
2. Energy
There are four different definitions of net zero energy buildings (Torcellini and Pless 2010) that agree
in that all specify renewable energy (RE) but differ on how net zero is calculated. We use net zero site
energy, where a defined area produces at least as much RE as it uses in a year when accounted for at the
site. The energy balance for each UAC is solely for residential buildings. For RE, we consider solar
energy, more specifically, photovoltaics (PV). As shown in Figure 1, some regions in the United States
are more or less suited for PV electricity production than others.

Figure 1. Average solar insolation is represented in kilowatt hours per square meter per day
(kWh/m2/day). The dark areas represent the UACs.
For converting insolation to annual kWh production per m2 of PV, called the energy power density
(EPD) in each UAC, Eq. 1 with a 97.5% inverter efficiency, a 85.0% derate factor, a 15.3% PV module
efficiency and a 70.3% space efficiency was used. Space efficiency takes into account self-shading for
ground mount and wind loading for roof mounted PV systems. The EPD for each UAC was generated
using the monthly and annual average global horizontal irradiance for the United States (Perez et al
2002).
EPD = SI x IE x DF x ME x SE x Days/Year
(1)
where:
EPD = Energy Power Density (kWh/m2-year)
SI = Solar Insolation (kWh/m2-day)
IE = Inverter Efficiency (.975)
DF = Derate Factor (.85)
ME = Module Efficiency (.153)
SE = Space Efficiency (.7035)
Residential energy consumption data was derived from the 2009 Residential Energy Consumption
Survey (RECS 2009). The non-electrical energy data were converted to kWh. A therm of natural gas
contains approximately 29.31 kWh, a gallon of heating oil, 40.60 kWh, a gallon of propane 26.80 kWh,
and a gallon of kerosene, 39.50 kWh. The conversion to kWh allowed for the comparison of whole house
energy consumption across different fuel types and to PV production in kWh. Table 1 shows the average
annual kWh per household per state. The annual household unit energy consumption (AUC) was
converted to kWh/m2-yr using the average building area per household. Once the annual consumption and
production were converted to kWh/m2-yr, the production and consumption could be compared and the
balance claculated for all UACs as per Eq. 2.
NBe = EPD AUC
(2)
9

Table 1. Average annual energy use per household per state in kilowatt hours.
StateName
kWh/kW
StateName
kWh/kW
StateName
kWh/kW
StateName
kWh/kW
StateName
kWh/kW
Alabama
23,508.96
Idaho
30,776.97
Michigan
36,147.73
New York
30,079.68
Tennessee
23,080.75
Arizona
19,326.13
Illinois
37,746.30
Minnesota
33,118.25
North Carolina
21,192.60
Texas
22,611.49
Arkansas
24,208.89
Indiana
30,763.48
Mississippi
23,508.96
North Dakota
33,118.25
Utah
30,776.97
California
18,025.06
Iowa
33,118.25
Missouri
29,360.71
Ohio
30,763.48
Vermont
33,894.96
Colorado
30,063.85
Kansas
29,815.89
Montana
30,776.97
Oklahoma
24,208.89
Virginia
25,163.81
Connecticut
33,894.96
Kentucky
23,508.96
Nebraska
29,815.89
Oregon
22,304.62
Washington
22,304.62
Delaware
33,894.96
Louisiana
24,208.89
Nevada
24,981.50
Pennsylvania
28,242.24
West Virginia
25,163.81
Dist. of Columbia
26,043.69
Maine
33,894.96
New Hampshire
33,894.96
Rhode Island
33,894.96
Wisconsin
30,261.70
Florida
16,318.05
Maryland
33,894.96
New Jersey
37,328.63
South Carolina
21,192.60
Wyoming
30,776.97
Georgia
26,238.90
Massachusett
s
32,068.95
New Mexico
24,981.50
South Dakota
33,118.25
3. Water
Unlike solar energy, water is a finite resource that constantly flows through the hydrologic cycle.
Freshwater represents only about 1% of the water available globally (Healy et al. 2007) which means that
while water is abundant, only a small fraction is available for human and other ecosystem uses without
energy intensive water treatment. Rainfall varies geographically as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 2. Precipitation distribution across the contiguous United States.

The NZ concept applied to water aims at balancing water demand and supply within a given areal
10

boundary. In one interpretation, this presupposes that the building system can procure an adequate water
supply within its boundary either in the form of rainfall, surface, or groundwater while mitigating impacts
on the hydrologic cycle.
The built environment impacts the hydrologic cycle through changes in land cover and water
abstraction. Land cover determines how precipitation partitions into run-off, infiltration and
evapotranspiration. For instance, the substitution of vegetated land cover by impervious surfaces increases
run-off and reduces infiltration which impacts groundwater renewal and its contribution on stream-flow.
In addition, water abstraction from surface and groundwater systems translate into changes in stream-flow
volume and variability. This is relevant for ecosystem health (Arthington et al. 2006), and the subject of
environmental or ecological flow standards (Richter et al. 2006 and Poff et al. 2010).
Consequently, the application of the NZ paradigm to water depends on evaluating the performance of a
building site within the drainage basin. For the purposes of this paper, rainwater harvesting is the method
chosen for supplying household water needs. Rainwater harvesting will be evaluated based on the
potential collected by geographical location and its impact on stream flow volume. This will allow
assessing the applicability of the paradigm at different spatial levels: single household as well as the UAC
level. Finally, the NZ water paradigm is applied to all UACs at the national level and the results reviewed.
The drainage basin is the spatial unit that captures the flow of water from the hydrologic cycle into
the mass balance equation (3). Precipitation (P) falls into a drainage basin and interacts with its surface.
On one hand, it equals stream-flow or run-off (Q), evapotranspiration (ET) losses and changes in storage
(S). Under a long term equilibrium, where infiltration balances out with base-flow from groundwater
into stream-flow, changes in storage can be ignored.
(3)
For the purpose of this study, the rainwater harvesting potential (RHpot) of an area (UA) is given by
equation (4), where the average collection efficiency is approximately 80% (Gould 1999). However, this
value represents the upper boundary of water capture. Sustainable limits of water collection require
considering both the evapotranspiration demands and the preservation of ecological flows within the
drainage basin.
(4)
Evapotranspiration embodies the metabolic demand of water by local vegetation and the resulting
evaporation from intercepted water flows. In a sense, this represents the natural water demands from the
ecosystem. The resulting balance as accounted by run-off represents the ecological flows, or the
hydrologic regime on which local ecosystems have adapted for their survival. This regime includes
temporal variability in its flow. However, for the purposes of this analysis, the cumulative annual flow
will be considered only on its total volume as presented in equation (5), where changes in soil water
storage are considered negligible.
(5)
Ecological flows refer to the natural stream-flow variability that is partly responsible for river systems
health. It includes a 20% presumptive standard for environmental flow protection (Richter et al 2011).
11

This establishes a range on which run-off can vary without having a negative impact on riverine
ecosystems. By aiming at preserving the ecological flows within a range of 20% of its original flow, a
benchmark for water collection can be established. Thus, equation (6) calculates the volume of rainwater
that can be harvested annually within the limits of the annual benchmark stream-flow (Q). This does not
consider the monthly or seasonal variability of precipitation and stream-flow, which should be accounted
for in more detailed calculations. For an in-depth assessment of seasonal water availability see Hoekstra
et al. 2012.
(6)
The carrying capacity provided by rainwater harvesting at a building site and at other spatial level
(i.e. urban centers or county-level) can be evaluated by subtracting the domestic water use (DOuse) from
the ecological rainwater harvesting (RHeco) volume. Similarly, equation (7) can also expand upon the
value of domestic water use to differentiate between indoor (DOin) and outdoor use (DOout). The resulting
balance (NBw) will show if the selected area is capable of satisfying its population water needs. When the
balance is zero or positive, the area can sustain its water demand through rainwater harvesting.
(7)
The hydrological capacity of the environment to support human settlements through rainwater
harvesting is studied at two different spatial levels in the contiguous United States. The first involves the
use of urban area boundaries, and the second, the building site level. The analyses use a geographic
information system (GIS) to evaluate total domestic freshwater withdrawals at both levels for 2010
populations, and calculate the balance between potential rainwater harvesting and domestic water
demand.
3.1 Urban area level

The urban boundaries are overlaid with 30-year precipitation and evapotranspiration averages that
cover years 1971-2000 from Sanford and Selnick (2013) based on the PRISM climate dataset (Daly et al
2008). The result is a map with precipitation and evapotranspiration average values for the UACs.
Available run-off for rainwater harvesting is calculated using equations (5) and (6).
The domestic water use data was extracted from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) water
use report for 2005 at the county level (USGS 2005). Freshwater withdrawals for domestic use include
public supply and self-supplied volumes. Domestic water use per capita was calculated by dividing total
freshwater withdrawals for domestic use by county population for the year 2005. Then, the per capita
value was multiplied by 2010 population in the UAC to estimate domestic water use for 2010. Finally,
the net balance (NBw) between available rainwater harvesting (RHeco) and domestic water (DOuse) is
calculated. The results show the water carrying capacity of urban areas across the United States.
4. Production
Next, the net zero paradigm is applied to food production as an example goods production system.
While food production may or may not be a consideration during building design and construction,
applying the NZ concept to food production could potentially impact the built environment and urban
planning. Similar to energy and water, the availability and productivity of food systems are heavily
12

dependent on climate, rainfall and land.

According to the USDAs 2010 Dietary Guidelines, the average semi-active adult needs between
2,000 and 2,500 calories per day to be considered healthy (USDA 2010). Of course, the source of these
calories can vary widely. The USDA recommends reducing the intake of foods containing high levels of
sodium and dietary cholesterol; other recommendations include reducing saturated fatty acids, solid fats,
added sugars and refined grains (Trumbo, 2002). Foods with high levels of whole grains, lean protein,
and free or low-fat dairy are recommended. As always, an increased amount of fruits and vegetables are
recommended in the report. For the purposes of this study, 2,200 calories per person per day are used,
and the recommended percentages of carbohydrates (47%), proteins (23%) and fats (30%) are followed
and broken down into food products as shown in Table 2. A typical selection of food is made and the
single sourced items in terms of area are used to determine the requisite area needed.
Table 2. Standard food diet and land area required for the United States.
Food Type
Serving
Amount
Total
Calories
Protein
Carbohydrate
Fat
Land Area Required

(square meter per
serving)
14.77
(% of Calories)
Apple
1 Large
110
Bagel
1 Regular
278
11
Beef
6 oz
197
Bread
2 slices
138
Broccoli
0.75 cup
25
2.89
Cheese
0.5 cup
228
76,318.65
Eggs
2 Large
143
0.88
Milk
1 cup
83
27,782.67
Potato
1 Regular
346
36.13
Brown Rice
1 cup
244
87.98
Chicken Salad
2 cups
171
0.74
Yogurt
6 oz
173
Beer
12 oz
64
2,200
23
47
30
Total
65,941.99
170,186.70
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Proteins and carbohydrates represent nearly two thirds of the required 2,200 calories per day. Fats are
included as 75% protein and 25% carbohydrates. Forty two acres are needed for this prototypical diet.
However, the diet is simplified and does not include many of the multi-ingredient prepared foods in the
typical diet. Therefore, the estimated land area is rounded to 50 acres or 202,350 m2 per person. Figure 3
shows cultivated and non-cultivated land area (USDA 2007) and the UACs. The map does not show all
farmland in the contiguous United States, but it does show the predominant relationship of farm land and
UACs.
Figure 3. Cultivated agricultural lands and the urban area clusters (UAC).
Per county agricultural land data is used to calculate a ratio of agricultural land (ALact) to total land (TL)
area by county (ALpercent) as shown in Eq. 8.
ALpercent [%] = ALact [m2] / TL [m2]
(8)
To determine the agricultural land available for food production within each UAC, the ALpercent for
the county containing the UAC is multiplied by the total land area in each UAC. The required area
needed for food production for each UAC is the population of the UAC multiplied by the 202,350 square
meters per person for the typical diet.
The actual agricultural land area (ALact)in each UAC is compared to the area required (ALreq)to
produce food for consumption based on the population and a typical diet. An area equal to or more than
the land area required to produce the requsite calories per person has a positive net balance in food (NBf),
as shown in equation (9).
NBf = ALact - ALreq
(9)
5. Results
The NZ energy analysis indicates that given current solar photovoltaic performance and the
assumptions regarding residential footprints, about 61% of the population in urban areas in the United
14

States have the potential to be NZ in terms of residential energy use. NZ energy is attainable in US
regions with greater insolation and/or lower heating and cooling demand. The northeast, upper midwest
and northwest regions would have less potential for residential NZ. Figure 4 shows the UACs with either
a positive or negative energy balance.
Figure 4. Energy balance for the UACs across the contiguous United States.
1,952 UACs representing about 35% of the population could meet NZ water through rainwater harvesting
based on baseline water consumption and per capita domestic water withdrawals. These regions are
primarily in the south- and northeast. In general, west of the Mississippi River precipitation is not
sufficient to meet demand given the water collection area and collection efficiency assumptions made.
Although some urban areas in the northeast and northwest do have considerable precipitation, the
population density is too high to allow sufficient collection area to meet NZ water. Figure 5 illustrates the
geographical distribution of the baseline domestic water mass balance.
15

Figure 5. Water balance for the UACs across the contiguous United States.
In terms of agricultural production systems, the analysis shows that none of the urban areas can meet
NZ food given the typical American diet, primarily due to the land area required for cattle. NBf is
calculated based on Eq. 9 and mapped as shown in Fig. 6.
Figure 6. Food production balance for the UACs across the contiguous United States.
5.1 Sensitivity Analysis

Sensitivity analyses were performed that examined the potential impact of energy and water
efficiency and changing diet on the potential for NZ. In terms of the energy balance, household energy
consumption was reduced by 10% and by 15%. These energy reduction estimates are in line with the
energy efficiency measures in the US Green Building Councils LEED green building rating system
16

(U.S. Green Building Council, 2008). If residential buildings were to become more efficient, and
household energy consumption were to reduce by 10 or 15%, 71 and 78% of the population in UACs
would have the ability to have a positive energy balance.
DeOreo and Mayer (2012) evaluated the decreasing trend in residential water use in the USA and
showed the impact of standards and retrofit studies in daily indoor water consumption. These values were
used to define the alternative scenarios for the sensitivity analysis. The alternative scenarios assume a
30% and 40% reduction in consumption from baseline values based on two high efficiency alternatives
defined in (DeOreo and Mayer 2012). Forty-five percent of the UAC population could meet NZ with a
30% reduction in consumption and 51% with a 45% reduction.
To reduce the required area per person for food production, animal products are substituted by nonmeat foods. The vegetarian diet has no meat, and the vegan diet has no animal products or by-products.
The land area required is drastically reduced from the baseline. Fifty-five percent and 70% of the UAC
population could meet NZ food with vegetarian and vegan diets respectively.
Table 3 and Fig. 7 summarize the results. Figure 7 shows the UACs where none, one, or two systems
could meet NZ constraints. Table 4 shows the percentage of UACs capable of meeting NZ on energy,
water, and food systems individually and in combination for the baseline and alternative scenarios.
Figure 7. Energy, water and food production balance under baseline conditions for the UACs across the
contiguous United States.
Table 3. Percent of population achieving energy, water, and food net zero criteria individually and in
combination in the baseline, improved efficiency, and high efficiency scenarios
Scenario
Energy
Water
Food
Baseline
Improved efficiency
High efficiency
(%)
61
71
78
(%)
35
45
51
(%)
0
55
70
Energy and
Water
(%)
19
32
42
Energy, Water,
and Food
(%)
0
22
36
17

6. Discussion, Limitations, and Conclusions

The NZ paradigm most clearly applied to solar energy use in this analysis. Although the renewable
technology used was limited to photovoltaics, the use of residential building area as a resource collection
surface is aligned with much of the residential scale renewable energy generation in the United States
today. Site scale RE generation is often seen as preferable to utility scale RE generation. From the
perspective of the building, it does not matter where the RE is generated. Many neighborhoods and
homes are constructed as low energy consumption, but may be improperly sited for on-site RE systems,
while other neighborhoods are sited for on-site RE systems, but have a higher energy use per unit area.
Furthermore, the scale at which grid-tied RE systems are installed relative to the capacity of the utility
grid are limiting factors. Intermittent production throughout the year is also a limiting factor for RE
systems without storage capabilities. A more constant source of renewable energy generation, such as
biomass or hydroelectric may be needed for a more balanced grid.
Using NZ as a paradigm for residential potable water consumption was not as clear cut. Although the
available collection area could be calculated, impacts on the environment from changes in water flows
due to the rainwater collection are not fully considered. At an urban area level, the amount of collection
space available promises to satisfy indoor domestic water use in some areas. The results show the limits
of rainwater harvesting to supply domestic water use. However, contrary to current practice, surface and
groundwater sources are not considered in this analysis, which currently does allow many regions to meet
demands. Lastly, considering the non-stationarity nature of the climate system (Milly et al 2008), a
solution that relies exclusively in rainfall for its supply is vulnerable. It is no longer certain that the
climate system will fluctuate within a near-term historical range, as evidenced by the alteration in means
and extremes of precipitation and temperature. Therefore, a water supply system needs to consider
sources of water supply that could provide water during periods of drought.
Extending the NZ paradigm to production systems was found to be the least useful. First, NZ does not
match the global scale of many current production systems that we rely upon for food and consumer
goods. The scale of production systems generally requires large markets rather than smaller and therefore
local production is generally not viable. That said, local food production is possible given changes in diet
and perhaps extending the NZ boundary to regions near urban clusters.
The study is preliminary and has several limitations that could be addressed in future work. For
example, as a first level analysis and typical housing and diet assumptions were made and used
consistently across all regions. An analysis that is able to identify and better respond to differences by
UAC would lead to a more nuanced analysis. Particularly, the production side did not carefully examine
the variability and suitability for crop production in agricultural land across regions. Second, the scale of
the analysis was the UAC, which served as the boundary of the NZ systems. However, in some cases, it
may be beneficial if the NZ analysis boundary for water, food, and even energy generation is extended.
NZ at the residential scale does not consider the potential for improved performance and greater
efficiency at larger scales. For example, a watershed outside of the UAC boundary may be preferable to
rainwater collection for a sustainable water supply, as can be seen in the case of Chicago, IL in Fig. 5.
Photovoltaics may be more productive when optimally installed in a larger array, water and waste water
treatment systems may be more efficient at larger scales and production systems generally will not be
feasible as currently configured if reduced to smaller scales. Lastly, temporal issues were not addressed,
which could affect all three systems examined. Renewable energy production and rainfall are
intermittent, as is food production in general. Storage was not considered in the analysis.
18

The broad application of the NZ paradigm could become a factor in design, construction, and urban
development as it acknowledges the systems carrying capacity. However, the applicability, value, and
limits of the net zero model to a given system in the built environment will depend upon the unique
resource availability and constraints of a site or region as well as the system boundary definition, its
spatial scale, and the specific impact reduction goals.
7. References
[1] Brown L. (1982). Building a Sustainable Society. W W Norton, New York.
[2]Costanza R., & Daly H. (1992). Natural capital and sustainable development.
Conservation Biology, 1, 37-45.
[3]Daly, C., M. Halbleib, J.I. Smith, W.P. Gibson, M.K. Doggett, G.H. Taylor, J. Curtis, & Pasteris, P.P. (2008).
Physiographically-sensitive mapping of temperature and precipitation across the conterminous United States.
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[4]DeOreo, W. B. and Mayer, P. W. (2012). Insights into declining single-family residential water demands. Journal
American Water Works Association. 104 (6), E383-E394.
[5]Ehrlich P. R. (1968). The Population Bomb. Ballantine Books, New York.
[6]Healy, R.W., Winter, T.C., LaBaugh, J.W., & Franke, O.L., (2007). Water budgets: Foundations for effective
water-resources and environmental management. (Circular 1308), U.S. Geological Survey.
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water scarcity: Blue water footprints versus blue water availability. PLoS ONE, 7 (2), e32688. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0032688
[8]Malthus T.R. (1798). An Essay on the Principle of Population.
[9]Mayer, P.W., DeOreo, W.B., et al. (1999). Residential end uses of water. AWWA Research Foundation. 310 p.
[10]Milly, P.C.D., Betancourt, J., Falkenmark, M., Hirsch, R.M., Kundzewicz, Z.W., Lettermaier, D.P. & Stouffer,
R.J. (2008). Stationarity Is Dead: Whither Water Management? Science. 319 (5863), 573-574. Retrieved from
doi:10.1126/science.1151915
[11]Poff, N. L., Richter, B. D., Arthington, A. H., Bunn, S. E., Naiman, R. J., Kendy, E., Warner, A. (2010). The
ecological limits of hydrologic alteration (ELOHA): A new framework for developing regional environmental flow
standards. Freshwater Biology, 55 (1), 147-170. Retrieved from doi:10.1111/ j.1365-2427.2009.02204.x
[12]Rees W. E. (1992). Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: what urban economics leaves out.
Environment and Urbanisation, 4 (2), 121130.
[13]Rees W., Wackernagel, M. (1996). Urban Ecological Footprints: Why cities cannot be sustainable and why they
are a key to sustainability. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 16, 223-248.
[14]Richter, B. D., Warner, A. T., Meyer, J. L., & Lutz, K. (2006). A collaborative and adaptive process for
developing environmental flow recommendations. River Research and Applications, 22 (3), 297-318. Retrieved
from doi:10.1002/rra.892
[15]Richter, B.D., Davis, M.M., Apse, C., & Konrad, C. (2012). A presumptive standard for environmental flow
protection. River Research and Applications. 28, 13121321.
[16]Sanford, W. E., and Selnick, D.L., (2013). Estimation of evapotranspiration across the conterminous United
States using a regression with climate and land-cover data: Journal of the American Water Resources Association,
49 (1), 217-230.
[17]Torcellini, P.; Pless, S. (2010). Zero Energy Buildings: A Classification System Based on Renewable Energy
Supply Options. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 21 pp.
[18]U.S.Census (2010a). Gazetteer Files. Retrieved January 26, 2014: http://www.census.gov/geo/mapsdata/data/gazetteer2010.html
[19]U.S.Census (2010b). TIGER/Line Shapefiles. Retrieved January 26, 2014: http://www.census.gov/geo/mapsdata/data/gazetteer2010.html
19

[20]Wackernagel M., Rees W. (1994). Our Ecological Footprint: Reducing Human Impact on the Earth. New
Society Publishers, New York.
[21]U.S. Census (2013). Median and Average Square Feet of Floor Area in New Single-Family Houses Completed
by Location. Retrieved December 22, 2013: http://www.census.gov/const/C25Ann/sftotalmedavgsqft.pdf
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January 6, 2014: http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/DietaryGuidelines/2010/PolicyDoc/ExecSumm.pdf
[23]U. S. Department of Agriculture (2007) Census of Agriculture. Retrieved January 6, 2014:
http://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2007/Online_Highlights/Ag_Atlas_Maps/Farms/
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December 2013: http://water.usgs.gov/watuse/data/2005/index.html
[25]U.S. Green Building Council. (2008). Homes reference guide. Washington, D.C.: The Council.
20

An optimization model for scaling distributed DPR systems

Tianjiao Guo1 , James Englehardt2
1
Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami,

McArthur Engineering Building, Rm. 325, 1251 Memorial Drive, Coral Gables, FL 33146,
United States
Email: t.guo1@umiami.edu
2
Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami,
McArthur Engineering Building, Rm. 325, 1251 Memorial Drive, Coral Gables, FL 33146,
United States
Email: jenglehardt@miami.edu
Abstract
Direct potable water reuse (DPR) has recently been recommended by the National Research Council
for consideration, to address increasing water demands and water shortages in remote areas. DPR
systems, which include the original water distribution and wastewater treatment systems, may represent a
potential low-energy replacement for aging water/wastewater infrastructures. However, centralized DPR
system would require high energy of distribution of treated water, raising questions as to optimal system
scale. In this study, results of the study of the optimal scale of DPR systems, considering population
density and topography of the study area are presented. Fractal landscapes were simulated using a
modified preferential growth algorithm. Treatment plants were allocated by agglomerative hierarchical
clustering, networked to homes by minimum spanning tree. Annual capital and operation and
maintenance (O&M) costs were discounted to constant 2012 US dollars, with multiple samplings
averaging across simulated population distributions. The cost of energy for residential hot water was also
included as a cost of providing water, to evaluate the overall cost of distributed systems considering
retention of wastewater thermal energy. Based on these results, distributed DPR systems show great
advantage in rural areas due to high piping and conveyance cost. While in urban and suburban areas,
system capital costs dominate other costs and show an economy of scale. However, this economy is not
marked unless fewer than 10 homes are served per treatment plant, on average, suggesting consideration
of distributed systems even in urban cases. Also, as expected, the unit cost of DPR water is highest in
rural areas. The effects of population distribution patterns and landscapes whose maximum elevation
difference is less than 150m on unit water price were not strongly indicated by the current model.
Keywords: Direct potable water reuse, hierarchical clustering, water, minimum spanning tree
1. Introduction
US water/wastewater infrastructure is aging and in need of repair or replacement now, offering an
opportunity for careful reassessment of the entire municipal water management system. A recent report
by the National Research Council [1] also found that The use of reclaimed water to augment potable
water supplies has significant potential for helping to meet future needs, . and then recommended
potable reuse with or without environmental buffer to be considered as a water management alternative.
21

For thoughts in detail system design, although most centralized treatment processes would show an
economy of scale in terms of capital and O&M cost [2], this effect is offset by the costs of wastewater
collection and water distribution, which favor decentralization. Thus distributed DPR systems may further
be considered, given that centralized DPR systems would require upgradient distribution of treated water,
whereas distributed systems would offer reductions in energy spent on conveyance and distribution. In
this way, a study in optimization of the scale of such systems, whether centralized or distributed, with
minimized unit water cost is needed.
While previous studies of the scaling of distributed DPR systems were not found, researchers have
optimized the design and scaling of conventional water and wastewater systems [3][4][5], also including
water distribution networks [6][7], sewer networks [8], and wastewater collection and treatment plants
[9][10]. However, these studies do not consider costs of both water distribution and wastewater
collection, together with treatment costs, in an integrated approach as would be needed to optimize the
design and scaling of distributed DPR systems. Also, these models are mostly suited to assessing sitespecific costs, than to the development of more generalized principles for minimizing life-cycle cost
including both capital and O&M, for systems without restriction on network configuration.
In general, the study is able to demonstrate a method to optimize the scaling of DPR systems without
initial constraints on system layout. A model is presented which simulates a general topographic and
population distribution map for an area, and then solves the optimization by numerical method with graph
algorithms as hierarchical clustering and minimum spanning tree. Results are expressed as life-cycle unit
water cost including each components capital and O&M cost, as a function of population density and
topography. Also, they can be initial general conclusions as a basis for the scaling of distributed DPR
systems.
2. Model description
A description of the model, which can be divided into steps of landscape generation, population
distribution, clustering of buildings in terms of DPR water service, pipeline network definition, and
computation of costs, is presented below. Besides, discussions of proposed landscapes and multiple
sampling methods are also offered.
2.1. Landscape building
Each landscape is defined by a square matrix [Z] with elements equal to the elevations at each
corresponding point in space. The dimension of the matrix is in the form of 2n+1, with a total pixels
N=4n+22n+1, where n is the level number based on the size and resolution of study area. In the model,
generation of the matrix is completed by the midpoint displacement algorithm [11], in which each
iteration can be expressed by updating the matrixs elements in positions (1,d), (d,1), (d,d), (d,N) and
(N,d) where d=(1+N)/2 with the mean value of sum of elements on the edges plus certain random noise:
a
_
a
_ b
a c
_ _
2
_ d
c
ab
2
abcd
4
cd
2
b
bd
C 2 n randn
2
d
(1)
22

in which C is a constant, n is the level number mentioned above, and randn is a random variable. The
process is repeated until the full matrix is obtained. And all elevation information is then loaded at the
beginning of the model as a fixed variable.
2.2. Population generation
A modified preferential growth algorithm [12] applied to a two-dimensional grid is implemented in
the model to generate simulated population distributions of selected population densities on the landscape
matrix just described. Thus, the algorithm is roughly similar to the Game of Life [13], with no death
mechanism. A one-story household of average 2.6 people [14], recorded as story degree of Si=1, is set as
the basic unit. Starts with n0 buildings randomly placed on the N-pixel study area, more one-story
buildings are placed on the landscape at each time increment with a combined probability of preferential
growth and baseline increase, until desired population density is reached. The preferential part is
determined by its degree ki (0ki8) which equals the number of buildings on the surrounding 3x3 pixels
(omitting itself in the center). At this point, ki only takes into account empty pixel. And the probability of
placing a new building, P1(i), is expressed as the degree at this pixel, ki + ( is a constant applied in all
empty pixels), divided by the total degree on the study area:
P1 (i)
ki
ki ( N nt )
(2)
When the population density reaches a threshold of 965 people/km2 (2500 people/mile2), a second
population generation process is proceeded with assumption that multi-story buildings can be constructed,
in which additional floors was indicated by a change from degree Si to degree Si+1. In this process the
preferential probability degree ki is extended, taking into account all pixels of the entire simulated study
area. The probability of a change from Si to Si+1, or of the addition of a new vertex at pixel i, P2(i), is:
P2 (i)
ki Si
k S
'
( N nt )
(3)
for pixels with a building, and:
P2 (i)
ki
ki S i ( N nt )
'
(4)
for pixels without a building.

2.3. Service clustering process
Following simulation of the population distribution, an agglomerative hierarchical clustering method
is initiated to determine the desired number of treatment plants within the simulated study area or,
equivalently, the number of clusters of buildings each of which is served by one treatment plant. It starts
with the assumption of nt clusters, which indicates each building is served by one treatment plant. At each
time increment two clusters, selected based on an optimal objective function, are merged to form one such
that buildings in these two clusters come to share one treatment plant. The treatment plants number, i.e.
the total cluster number, decreases to nt - m after m steps. The process is continued until all clusters are
merged to form a single large cluster. Accordingly, the number of clusters represents the extent of
decentralization. Once the clustering process is finished, the treatment plant is positioned near the lowest
house in the cluster, to maximize the use of gravity for the return of wastewater to the plant. In this way, a
series of arrangements of treatment plants from centralization to decentralization can be completed for
each certain distribution of population in the terrain.
23

2.4. Pipe networks within clusters

For each simulated cluster of buildings that shares one DPR treatment plant, a minimum spanning
tree (MST) is used to design the optimal water distribution/sewer collection network. To represent an
actual water/wastewater conveyance network, buildings are represented as vertices and the weights of
edges are set as the Euclidean distance between buildings, the same metric of hierarchical clustering
method that was described earlier. Since an MST has the characteristic of connecting all vertices while
minimizing the total weight of the edges, the simulated MST network will have the least total length of
pipe and least total distance of water conveyance. Further, it has been proven that the MST is unique if all
edges in the graph have distinct weights. Thus the algorithm for finding the MST will not affect the result
in most cases. In the process, the total length of edges representing pipelines is also obtained. Once the
network is constructed, an estimation of the water flow rate in pipe i, Qi, is also obtained by calculating
the total story degree of buildings whose water supply depends on the pipe i in cluster j,
S
j
j(i) ,
assuming each one story building has an occupancy of 2.6 people and each person has a water demand of
0.249 m3 (66 gallons) per day [15], Qi 0.65 * j S j (i ) (m3/d).
2.5. Cost estimation
For purposes of the present model, a treatment train comprising membrane bioreactor (MBR),
electrocoagulation, peroxone oxidation (mineralization), and granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption
is assumed for all treatment plants, based on previously work. The treatment train, which is designed for
residential urban net-zero water treatment system, can produce potable water with limited mineral content
at ambient temperature [17]. Cost of treatment train is calculated using cost functions concluded
previously [2].
When accounting for system capacities, peak factor should also be considered in design of DPR
plants. Due to lack of equalization basin and storage tank[17], a 1.4 peak factor (ratio of maximum day
flow to average daily flow) biological tank [15][17][18] and 1.39 times of size of flow capacity peroxone
tank [17] would be required in the current design of DPR systems. Additionally, according to Metcalf &
Eddy [15], a 37854 m3/d (10 MGD) wastewater treatment plant would have to treat 0.15 m3/d/capita (40
gpcd, gallon per capita day) infiltration in dry weather besides 0.23 m3/d/capita (60 gpcd) residential flow
of its service area. While a fully decentralized one-building treatment plant would not need to worry this
problem. If DPR plants have the same property, a linear relationship of size factor and original treatment
capacity can be assumed as: y=1+x/37854*40/60, in which x (m3/d) is the treatment capacity, y is the size
factor, in order to estimate the additional infiltration treatment capacities.
Another important element of capital cost is the cost of pipeline installation and water conveyance. In
the model, a cost function in terms of C / L K D in which C is the total capital cost ($), L is the
length (m), D is the diameter of the pipe (m), K ($) is the fixed cost, was used to calculate capital costs of
both water and sewer pipelines based on previous literature [16] and current estimate for the US [19]
including all necessary appurtenances, fire hydrants and service connections. As to pipeline O&M costs,
the cost to move the water through the pipes from treatment plant to end-user, and back to the treatment
plant are all estimated with the elevation difference across the pipeline assessed for each pipe in all
water/sewer networks. Gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy, and energy loss due to friction in
the pipe are calculated to estimate pumping energy needed to move the water. The selection of pipe
diameter, D (m), is based on flow rate in the pipe (m3/s), using empirical data for water pipes and for
sewer pipes separately [20][21]. Further it is assumed that water pipes smaller than 2.54cm (1 inch), and
24

sewer pipes of less than 3.81cm (1.5 inch), are not allowed by local code. After energy in each pipe is
calculated, a 30% pump efficiency is assumed, to calculate total energy to move the water in the system.
In addition, a water pressure enough to maintain a gauge pressure of 200,000 pascal (29 psi) for the
highest building was assumed in each water distribution system to ensure water supply. Electricity cost
was estimated based on the US national average rate of $0.12/kWh [22]. Further, the annual cost of
maintaining pipes was assumed at 4% of capital cost. And the capital cost of pump station in the model is
estimated as 20% of pipeline installation fee [23].
Because on-site DPR systems offer the potential to retain thermal energy (from water heaters) in the
water, the cost of residential water heating was considered in this study as a cost of providing water. This
cost was estimated based on the average residential hot water energy cost of $228 per household [26] and
average US per capita water use stated earlier. Based on Fouriers Law in cylindrical coordinates for 1-D
conduction in the radical direction, heat loss over unit distance qr (W/m) can be expressed as
qr
2k (Ti To )
, in which k is thermal conductivity of the material (W/(m*K)), Ti, To are
ln( ro ri )
temperatures inside and outside the pipe (K), and ro, ri are outside and inside pipe radii (m), an estimate
of ~121.9 m (400 feet) is the furthest that thermal energy in the water can be retained in copper 2.54 cm
(1 inch) diameter pipes with insulation having methylene di-isocyanate (MDI)-based rigid polyurethane
injected into the annulus between the service pipe and outer casing by a one shot factory process and a
thermal conductivity of 0.023W/(m*K). Therefore, an estimate of hot water heat loss is made based on
the average pipe length from buildings to treatment plant in the DPR systems, assuming no heat retention
for pipe lengths > 121.9 m, 80% heat retention for on-site systems, and linear variation in between, as an
additional component of the total cost of providing water.
Finally, costs were computed in constant 2012 US dollars in terms of GDP deflator [24], assuming
O&M costs are to be drawn from annual revenue funds, that is at an assumed 0% real interest rate
(available interest minus inflation). Capital costs were assumed funded by municipal bonds carrying
interest at 5%, based on US data on 20-year AA rated municipal bond rates [25].
2.6. Landscape scenarios
With the midpoint displacement method to be a general way to build a landscape, the most important
representative topographical factor of a landscape that may affect the cost of pipeline installation and
water conveyance energy, maximum elevation differences, is considered in the process of proposing
landscape scenarios. Letting the matrix [Z] representing the landscape of a study area, the maximum
elevation difference, Z, can be defined as:
Z=Max(Z)-Min(Z)
(5)
in which Z is the elevation that varies spatially.
To simulate flat, hilly, and mountainous topographies, elevation data found in Google Earth
software were used to obtain typical values of Z in Pinecrest, FL, Berwyn, PA, and Telluride, CO, as
example landscapes representing flat, hilly, and mountainous terrain, respectively (see Table 1 below). In
these three landscapes, the unit length of each pixel is set to be 25 m, which makes the 1025 x 1025
resolution study area a total area of 25600 x 25600 m2. Considering power saving and averaging urban,
the landscapes in urban and suburban cases were decreased to 1/4 of the original, resulting a 513 x 513
study area with an area of 12800 x 12800 m2. In general, the three landscapes have increasing Z values
as it goes from flat to mountainous.
25

Table 1. Proposed landscape scenarios

Population
Rural
Urban and suburban
Z=6.9m
Z=4.4m
Z=153.0m
Z=130.4m
Z=1665.8m
Z=1253.8m
Landscapes
1. Flat
2.Hilly
3.Mountainous
2.7. Multiple population sampling

In the model, three population densities in the cases of rural, suburban and urban areas are studied.
Population density of rural area is selected as that of farmlands between Lancaster and Downingtown in
Pennsylvania, ~96 /km2 (250 /mile2), with suburban as that of Berwyn, PA, ~772 /km2 (2000 /mile2), and
urban as that of City of Philadelphia, ~3860 /km2 (10000 /mile2), accords to US Census Bureau [27]. In
addition, multiple population sampling was used to simulate different distributions across the simulated
study area, and ensure a general result for each assumed population density. Costs were assessed and
recorded for each population distribution, and compared to the mean of previous results. And initial
results shows that the impact of randomness of population distribution under certain population density is
limited. Water cost data were converging as Figure 1 shows the data at 96 /km2 (250 /mile2) as one of the
most variable situation. Due to power limitation, each scenario in the model was run for 5 times and
results are shown in the mean of these 5 runs. Variations of total water price should be within
$0.03/1000 gallon. In general, a flow diagram of algorithms in the model sees Figure 2. Note that the
assumed landscape was held fixed during the processes, in order to learn the effects of other elements.
26

Averaged projected water price
$/1000 gallons
147.2
147
146.8
146.6
146.4
146.2
146
0
10
20
30
40
Sampling Times
50
60
Figure 1. Projected centralized water price at 96 people/km2 (250 people/mile2) in Land 1
Figure 2. A flow diagram of general algorithms used in the model.
3. Results
Random initial population distributions sampled from uniform distributions on 3 landscape scenarios
were simulated, and the model was run to assess the cost of providing water, including domestic hot water
energy, assuming 96 /km2 (250 /mile2), 772 /km2 (2000 /mile2) and 3860 /km2 (10000 /mile2) as shown in
figures in Table 2 on semi-log axes. Total costs are shown in the figures, as well as costs for O&M and
capital, and each component therein for DPR systems including pipelines and treatment processes.
As to optimal scale of DPR systems, result shows that the current model indicates water price is
lowest for distributed systems serving ~1.25 homes per treatment plant on average for 96 /km2, ~6635.7
27

for 772 /km2 and ~9124.1 for 3860 /km2. Shown in Table 2, piping and conveyance cost dominates the
water price in all 3 rural cases, indicates that the on-site DPR system might be needed in remote or arid
area. As to 6 urban and suburban cases, they are relative more expensive due to the lack of economy of
scale in terms of capital cost, while the price of distributed DPR system is still acceptable for systems
severing >100 homes, e.g. a high residential building. On the other hand, big centralized plants were
indicated to be slightly higher in cost, especially in 3 urban cases, which mainly because of oversized
MBR and peroxone tanks for large populations peak flow and infiltration. And in suburban cases, the
cost is relatively constant up to one plant per 1000 homes and increases only slowly from there to a value
of one plant per 100 homes.
Table 2. Decentralization water prices at various landscapes and population densities
Landscape
1.Flat
2.Hilly
3.Mountainous
Population
96 /km2
772
/km2
3860
/km2
In terms of influence of topographical variation, landscapes with a larger Z value tended to have a
higher projected water price in centralized systems in general, attributed mainly to higher water
conveyance and pipeline O&M costs. The landscape may increase the water price in centralized system
for up to ~$7/1000 gallon while it does not have a great impact on the on-site systems. For example, in
Figure 3 the results calculated at 772 /km2 (2000 /mile2) are shown.
28

Figure 3. Projected cost of water at 772 people/km2 on different landscapes.

As to population density, the influence may be huge as results shown in Table 2. A significant
decreasing water cost is indicated as the population density increases. Also, the difference becomes
neglectable when system scales are less than one per 100 homes. Results for Land 1 and different
population densities are shown in Figure 4 as an example.
Figure 4. Projected cost of water on Land 1 with different population densities.

In some cases plant may be constructed using available funds, so that a zero interest rate for capital
might apply. In that case, the capital cost of both pipelines and treatment plants would be 37.6% less
29

expensive, while O&M costs would remain the same. The marked effect of such differences in interest is
shown in Figure 5, for 772 /km2 and Land 2.
Figure 5. Cost of water for 1930 people/km2 and Land 2, assuming 0% interest and 5% interest.
4. Conclusion
The cost of providing water comprises (a) the cost of treatment including capital and O&M, and (b)
the cost of water conveyance including capital and O&M costs for the pipeline network, energy costs for
conveyance of water/wastewater and water heating. While most treatment unit processes have an
associated economy of scale, costs for the network tend to favor decentralization. In the case of DPR, two
factors motivate consideration of distributed systems. First, treated water conveyance back to the home
would in general be upgradient. Second, hot water would be retained if losses in insulated pipes could be
minimized.
Based on results presented here, the on-site DPR systems may be promoted in sparsely populated
areas in terms of lowest life-cycle water cost. While feasibility of fully decentralized treatment facilities
may be limited due to high system capital cost, partially distributed systems may be applicable for
systems serving >10 homes, especially when improved water reuse technology and insulation materials
become available. Thus, as expected, this study confirms population density as the first factor to consider.
Another important factor to consider was shown to be the municipal bond rate. However, distributed
systems may also represent a viable approach in general to introducing DPR to existing water/wastewater
service areas gradually, when they are considered as expansions or replacements for aging water/waste
water systems. Also, results of the current model did not indicate a major influence of topography on unit
water cost, especially for landscapes whose maximum elevation difference is less than 150m, though
factors such as difficulties encountered in excavation of pipelines in mountainous regions could not be
considered in detail.
30

5. Reference
[1] National Research Council. Water Reuse: Potential for Expanding the Nation's Water Supply Through Reuse of
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Bureau, Washington, DC (2012).
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(2003).
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(1976).
[17] J. Englehardt, T. Wu, and G. Tchobanoglous. Urban net-zero water treatment and mineralization: system
modeling and design. Water Res. 47(13):4680-4691 (2013).
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Agency, Washington, DC (2002). Reprot No. EPA/625/R-00/008.
[19] E. Vega. Personal Communication. Miami-Dade County Water and Sewer Department, Miami, FL (2013).
[20] FlexPVC Company. Water flow chart #1. (2013). http://flexpvc.com/WaterFlowBasedOnPipeSize.shtml
(Accessed 27 Jan 2014)
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by End-Use Sector, by State, January 2013 and 2012. Washinton, DC (2013).
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and Sewer Department, Miami, FL (2013). February 2013.
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Washinton, DC (2013). http://www.bea.gov/iTable/iTable.cfm?ReqID=9&step=1 (Accessed 13 Jan 2013)
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Selected Appendixes. Washington, DC (2003).
32

Strategies for Demand Reduction for Net Zero Water Discharge

A Comparative Analysis of Jamia Millia Islamia University
Ar.Kulsum Fatima 1 & Gauhar Mahmood2
1
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Architecture & Ekistics, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
110025, India, E-mail:kulsumreema@gmail.com
2
Professor, Department Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Jamia Millia
Islamia, New Delhi, E-Mail:aquaexplorers@yahoo.com
Abstract
Jamia Millia Islamia is a central university situated in Jamia nagar south Delhi. The Jamia occupies
an area of 209 acres of land in which 30% area has got 100feet deep soil. However 70% area is rocky.
The major source of water supply for the university is Ground water only 7-10% of the total requirement
is met from Municipal Water Supply. The idea is to study the variations in Water Availability & Water
Demand over a period of time. Modeling for water demand as per land use pattern 2003 Past & 2013 Present Scenario to understand the Water Deficiency arising due to the growth of University via land
Acquisition & growth in population. And a comparative analysis is generated for University increased
annual demand of 1029268.6 kilolitres from 821415.71 kilolitres.
The study was carried out for water requirement of Jamia Millia Islamia using Indian Standard code of
Practices IS 1172. And a quantitative estimation is assessed on the basis of following components:
Students Requirement
Staff
Residential Quarters
Hostels
Horticulture
In view of the Water Deficiency, Depleting Ground Water level & Increasing Water Demand
effecting Stage of Ground Water Development within the University Campus. Total water availability
study was carried out using the prescribed formula by central ground water board & ground water
estimation committee along with Nabards Norms and local norms.
Further Water Conservation & Management Strategies including recycling of water, usage of Dry plants,
utilizing Rejected RO Water, Drip Irrigation, AC Makeup Water, etc are proposed to enhance water
management while reducing Fresh Water Demand. And to get Stage of ground water development under
prescribed regulation of Nabards norm. By virtue of which the decline of water level has to be prevented
& the sustainable development needs to be achieved.
Keywords: Ground Water, Water deficiency, Water discharge, Water recycling
1. Introduction
Jamia Millia Islamia is a central university situated in Jamia nagar south Delhi. The Jamia occupies
an area of 209 Acres of land in which 30% area has got 100feet deep soil. However 70% area is rocky.
The major source of water supply for the university is Ground water, the measure hydraulic structures are
shallow & deep tube wells. Only 7-10% of the total requirement is available from Delhi jal board.
33

Jamia Millia Islamia being a central university is growing day by day and the student population in Jamia
increases exponentially. From 13,466 of Total Population in 2003 to 37,422 by 2013 which is almost an
increment of 36% over a period of ten years. Similarly the Built up area in 2003 was 80,225.6424 meter
square whereas in 2013 it has increased upto 1, 18,469.2885 meter square.
In the early days of university the water requirement was very less as compared to ground water potential
but with the year 2000 the water scarcity started due to faster declining of water level. The situation
became serious in year 2003 owing to the drastic change in landuse pattern in which a number of
buildings have been constructed along with the increment in hard areas including roads & paved areas.
Further in 2013 the situation become even worse due to the high rate of development with increased
constructed area as well as paved areas. Along with the introduction of the concept of centrally
Aiconditioned Buildings, Reverse Osmosis Water Systems, introduction of Glass as Building fabric
within the university Campus, etc has been the contemporary factors leading to tremendously high water
demand at present.
The surrounding area development is another reason because the Jal Board water supply is not
available in the surrounding areas of Jamia Millia Islamia. The ground water is the only source in the
surrounding areas, this has led to a water management crises in the university and most of the shallow
tube-wells got failed.
In the year 2003 UGC has allocated a grant of rupees 14lakh for the development of rain water
harvesting system in Jamia Millia Islamia. The study for feasibility & design of rain water harvesting
system was carried out in where unlike the central ground water board recommendation. The paved &
constructed open areas were also included for rain water harvesting apart from traditional rooftop
harvesting. Apart from these the horticulture & lawn areas were provided proper embankment with
micro-injection well system in order to capture the rain water for proper recharging of ground water.
The water requirement analysis of Jamia Millia Islamia was worked out as per Indian standard code of
practice IS-1172 and the ground water potential & rain water harvesting potential were also worked out as
per ground water estimation committee formula 1996. As Noticed the stage of ground water development
is not in comfortable stage as a result the water table further declined comparatively with a slow rate
before the adaptation of rain water harvesting system in 2003.
The requirement modelling study was carried out and accordingly the calculations for the requirement
model were done as a result the stage of ground water development was achieved under grey stage of the
Nabards Norm.
The above study may be treated as a classic example of ground water management with controlled
development of land uses & maybe duplicated in other parts of India. Especially in the institutional areas.
2. Analysis & Discussion

The ground water management study for
Jamia Millia Islamia was carried out with a
concept of simple hydrologic equation which is
inflow (differential output) output = Storage. In
this respect the equation indicates that if the
inflow factor is greater (>) outflow factor = +ve
(positive storage) and the water table will not
get the declining trend. However if the outflow
is greater than inflow than the storage becomes
34

ve(negative) and as a result the water level will acquire the declining trend. The inflow factor here was
treated as water availability and the outflow factor was treated as requirement. Accordingly the
calculations were made which are as follows:
2.1. Hydrological Setup of Study Area
Delhi experiences about 622mm of rainfall as an annual average in which the central verge of Delhi
including India gate, chanakyapuri, NDMC Zone of Delhi experience about 800mm of rainfall followed
by 600mm of rainfall between India gate & nizammuddin areas covering southern & south eastern part of
Delhi & North & north eastern part along Yamuna.
The lowest rainfall is recorded in the Saket & Vasant Kunj Area which is about 400mm of Rainfall.
Further the rainfall characteristics of Delhi is erratic and most of the time above & below average level by
virtue of which the replenishment of ground water become further difficult specially with a withdrawal
rate of 321% of the replenishment. This clearly necessitates the artificial recharging of Delhi area with a
pace of urbanization where most of areas are covered and Natural replenishment is deteriorated.
2.2. Water Demand is calculated using IS-1172 along with analysis of all types of Land Uses as
Projected by the 2003 & 2013 Master Plan of Jamia Millia Islamia. Since the first conception of
Mater Plan for the University in 2003 it has a mix-landuse within zones and therefore Actual
Zone Based Water Demand Data is not available which limits the applicability of zone wise
water demand estimation. Therefore a quantitative estimation for 2003 & 2013 water demands
are assessed on the basis of following components:
Students Requirement (Day Boarders)
Staff (Teaching & NonFigure 1 Annual rainfall Delhi
Teaching & Visiting
Faculties)
Residential Quarters (both Teaching & Non-Teaching)
Hostels (Boys & Girls)
Horticulture Water Demand
Table 1 Jamia University Annual Water Demand
Total Students
Student
Regular students college
School
School (SFS)
Part-Time (evening Students)
Staff
Teachers Regular
Non-Teaching Staff
Jamia University Annual Water Demand

Total
Population
Population
Total Demand
Demand
2003
2013
2003
15
15
15
15
45
45
5599
13675
2067
18345
2067
875
875
10608
32895
Annual Demand (kilo litrs. /
year)
492
1098
824
1238
Total Demand
2013
83985
31005
31005
13125
159120
205125
275175
0
13125
493425
58078.8
180100.125
22140
49410
37080
55710
35

Visiting Faculty
Residences
Staff Residences
(5person/residence)
Hostels
Boys
Girls
15
50
100
1640
2162
Annual Demand
750
72300
26389.5
1500
94290
34415.85
135
301
203175
276075
Annual Demand
74158.875
100767.375
593
1203
324
753
917
1956
Annual Demand
80055
43740
123795
45185.175
162405
101655
264060
96381.9
6,17,603.36
9,01,015.0752
135
135
409
Horticulture
Total
13466
37422
8,21,415.71
13,12,680.32
2.2.1. Student Water Demand is Calculated based on the total student data available for 2003 & 2013.
Including the strength of Regular College Students, School Students, Evening School (SFS)
Students and Part-Time Evening students for Graduate & Postgraduate courses. While taking per
day demand as 15liters per day based on the useable period of time for the student occupancy. For
365 days this demand is calculated to be 58,078.8 kilo liters/year for 2003 & 1,80,100.125
kiloliters/year for 2013 with a 67.75% increment.
2.2.2. Staff Water Demand the water requirement for staff occupancies have been calculated separately
for the Regular Staff & Non-teaching staff with a Daily demand of 45 liters/day depending on the
hourly occupancies required on Campus. Whereas the calculations for the daily water demand has
been taken 15 liters/day for the visiting faculties based on the short duration of their stay within
university campus. The total demand for staff turns out to be 26,389.5 kiloliters/year for 2003 &
34,415.85 kilo liters/year for 2013 with a 23.32% increment in demand.
2.2.3. Residences the calculations are made for the total number of accommodation within Jamia
campus and the calculation is made including the area under Ajmal bagh, Mujeeb Bagh & Jamia
Enclave which is accommodating Jamias Non-Teaching Staff, Regular Teaching Staff & People
from Jamia Administration respectively. Further a consideration of assuming 5persons/residence is
made for calculating the total water demand for these residential occupancies and therefore as per
Indian Standard code of Practices IS 1172 a daily demand of 135liters/day is taken for the annual
water demand calculation which turns out to be 75,807 kilolitres/year for 2003 & 1,03,006.7
kilolitres/year for 2013 with a 26.40% increment in demand.
2.2.4. Hostel The water demands for Jamia Student Hostels are calculated separately for Girls & Boys
Hostels respectively. Again assuming the water demand as the IS code to be 135 liters/day the
expected total water annual demand is calculated to be 45,185.175 kilo liters for 2003 & 96,381.9
kiloliters/year for 2013 with a 53.11% increment.
2.2.5. Horticulture the Horticulture demand for the university is calculated assuming the 5liters/meter
square/per day requirement for the Green area calculated separately for 2003 & 2013 scenarios. In
2003 landscape was not much developed all it comprised was ground turf grass and only 40% of site
area was Green/planted rest were open lands which does allow percolation of rainwater but need not
to be watered. And also earlier the plant species use to be xerophytes consuming 40% less water
36

whereas in case of 2013 landscape design & details are more elaborate with added fountains, green
parks (for example: rose park) and for the need of beautification hydrophytes have become
dominant in number leading to an enhanced demand for horticulture water in 2013 scenario. The
demand was calculated to be 6, 17,603.36 & 9, 01015.0752 kiloliters/year respectively with a
31.45% increment in demand.
2.3.
Water availability Total water available on site is calculated including Rainwater Potential,
Ground water potential & the quantity of Water supplied by Jal Board on site to Jamia University
Campus. And the Quantitative Assessment is as Follows:
2.3.1.
Analysis of Landuse master plan for water availability As per Hydro-Physiographic
Zoning the entire Campus is divided under 10 different zones from Zone 1-10 depending on the
Hydrological Structure/ Analysis of the prevailing site properties for micro-analysis.
Table 2 Built & Un-built Proportions among zones
2003
Zone
1
Zone
2
Zone
3
Zone
4
Zone
5
Zone
6
Zone
7
Zone
8
Zone
9
Zone
10
2013
Land Area
Built
Unbuilt
Green
Area
Hard
Paved
Asphal
t road
Built
Unbuilt
Green
Area
Hard
Paved
68155.1
3359.9811
64795.1189
49244.2
9036
10885.
57998
4665.2
48561
6653
61502.1
46741.
596
10332.
3528
Asph
alt
road
4428.
151
66998.67
17306.182
49692.488
35281.6
6648
10087.
57506
4323.2
46456
19887
47111.67
33449.
2857
9563.6
6901
4098.
715
120388.16
6900.37
113487.79
68092.6
74
31776.
5812
13618.
5348
8718.2
111669.96
67001.
976
31267.
5888
1340
0.4
98111.22
11203.86
86907.36
73002.1
824
9733.6
2432
4171.5
5328
19143
78968.22
66333.
3048
8844.4
4064
3790.
475
24137.51
2272.6136
21864.8964
14212.1
8266
5356.8
99618
2295.8
14122
5251.068
18886.442
12276.
1873
4627.1
7829
1983.
076
122072.45
11538.1779
110534.2721
69636.5
9142
28628.
37647
12269.
3042
12246.5
109825.95
69190.
3485
28444.
92105
1219
0.68
89149.04
10702.294
78446.746
50990.3
849
19219.
45277
8236.9
0833
10249
78900.04
51285.
026
19330.
5098
8284.
504
62545.8
1589.5602
60956.2398
42059.8
0546
13227.
50404
5668.9
30301
19382.88
43162.922
29782.
41618
9366.3
54074
4014.
152
116080.49
10506.1
105574.39
74957.8
169
21431.
60117
9184.9
7193
15038
101042.49
71740.
1679
20511.
62547
8790.
697
62304.04
4846.31
57457.73
749717.0312
4136.9
5656
68571.
46854
60403.3975
80225.4488
9652.8
9864
16000
0.0933
1900.643
829942.48
43667.8
748
521145.
4694
118469.3
711473.1915
45906.
5821
49370
6.8905
10147.
77078
15243
6.4107
4349.
045
6532
9.89
The Built up/covered area in 2003 was 9.6% of the total site area which increased upto 14.2% in 2013
w.r.t total site area. Which lead to the enhancement of rooftop area majorly affecting the storm water
runoff while reducing on the quantity of water getting absorbed through soft green spaces which have
reduced from 62.79% in 2003 to 59.4% in 2013 (W.r.t the site area)
37

Figure 2 Jamia Master Plan 2003
Figure 3 Jamia Master Plan 2013
Built Unbuilt Proportions 2003
Built Unbuilt Proportions 2013
250000
200000
150000
Asphalt area
Hard Paved
100000
50000
0
Figure 4 Built Unbuilt Proportions 2003
Green Area
Unbuilt
Built
Figure 5 Built Unbuilt Proportions 2013
1.1.1. Rainwater Availability Considering an Average Daily Rainfall Intensity 611 (mm) and a raining
period of 30 days, the intensity is calculated to be 20.7~21mm. Whereas the Rain Water potential is
calculated separately for Built (Rooftop) Areas with 0.85as coefficient factor and Un-built Areas
are further divided owing to the variation in coefficient factor:
1.
Open Green/Soft Areas,
2.
Hard Paved Open Surfaces &
3.
Asphalt Road Areas,
Having 0.7, 0.65 & 0.3 coefficient factor respectively as given in the table below.
The total rain Water Potential comes out to be 947860.4341 cu.m./year for 2003 and 960459.7994
cu.m./year for 2013.
38

Table 3 Zone Wise Potential for Rain Water Availability 2003
2003 Zone Wise Potential for Rain Water Availability

Green Area Hard Area
Asphalt Road
Built Area
Potential
Potential
Area Potential
Potential
Q=CxIxA
Q=CxIxA
Q=CxIxA
Q=CxIxA
Zone 1 58600.7055 12028.5659
2379.276766
4855.17269
Zone 2 41985.1831 11146.7704
2204.855693
25007.43299
Zone 3 81030.2821 35113.1222
6945.452748
9971.03465
Zone 4 86872.5971 10755.6549
2127.492173
16189.5777
Zone 5 16912.4974 5919.37408
1170.865202
3283.926652
Zone 6 82867.5438 31634.356
6257.345144
16672.66707
Zone 7
60678.558 21237.4953
4200.823248
15464.81483
Zone 8 50051.1685 14616.392
2891.154454
2296.914489
Zone 9 89199.8021 23681.9193
4684.335684
15181.3145
Zone 10 51964.771
10666.453
2109.847846
7002.91795
620163.11
176800
34971.449
115925.77
Total Potential
2003
77863.72086
80344.24224
133059.8917
115945.3218
27286.6633
137431.912
101581.6914
69855.6294
132747.3716
71743.9898
947860.4341
Table 4 Zone Wise Potential for Rain Water Availability 2013
2013 Zone Wise Potential for Rain Water Availability

Green Area hard Area
Asphalt Road
Built Area
Potential
Potential
Area Potential
Potential
Q=CxIxA
Q=CxIxA
Q=CxIxA
Q=CxIxA
Zone 1 55622.4992 11417.2498
2258.357112
9613.585
Zone 2
39804.65
10567.8543
2090.344798
28736.715
Zone 3 79732.3514 34550.6856
6834.201552
12597.799
Zone 4 78936.6327 9773.10691
1933.142026
27661.635
Zone 5 14608.6629 5113.03201
1011.368969
7587.79326
Zone 6 82336.5147 31431.6378
6217.24703
17696.1925
Zone 7 61029.1809 21360.2133
4225.097142
14809.805
Zone 8 35441.0753 10349.8213
2047.21739
28008.25871
Zone 9 85370.7998 22665.3461
4483.255281
21729.91
Zone 10 54628.8327 11213.2867
2218.012756
2746.428413
587511.2
168442
33318.2441
171188.12
Total Potential
2013
78911.6912
81199.56404
133715.0376
118304.5166
28320.85713
137681.592
101424.2964
75846.37261
134249.3112
70806.56058
960459.7994
39

Due to the enhancement in built-up area

in case of 2013 there is a 1.3%
improvement (12,599.365 cu.m/year) in
university rain water potential from: 9,
47,860.4341 cu.m./year in 2003 to 9,
60,459.7994 cu.m./year in 2013 against the
water demands of 2,03,812
kiloliters/annually in 2003 & 4, 11,665.25
kiloliters/annually in 2013 (As calculated in
Section2.2) . As compared to the increase in
water demand which is almost by 50% the
rain water potential has negligible
improvement over the time.
1.1.2. Ground water Availability is less in
northern parts of the campus and
increases in depth towards South
from <8.0 Meters to 12.0 Meters. However the majority of area the existing ground water level is
between 8.0 to 10.0 meter
Figure 6 Depth to Water Level Table for Jamia
Table 5 Zone Wise Ground water Potential for 2003
& 2013 respectively.
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Zone 4
Zone 5
Zone 6
Zone 7
Zone 8
Zone 9
Zone 10
8.0-10.0
Meters
8.0-10.0
Meters
<8.0 Meters
8.0-10.0
Meters
<8.0 Meters
8.0 12.0
Meters
8.0-10.0
Meters
10.0 12.0
Meters
<8.0 Meters
8.0-10.0
Meters
water
fluctuati
on Level
0.12
0.12
2013
water
fluctuation
Level
Ground Water
Availability 2013
Q=AxWKFxSp.y
ld.
15550.8285
1.5
11070.378
11926.1971
1.5
8480.1006
0.16
18158.0464
0.75
13400.3952
0.12
20857.7664
1.5
14214.2796
0.16
3498.38342
0.75
2266.37304
Rocky
0.08
26528.2253
2.1
18450.7596
mix
(Soil+Rocky)
0.12
18827.219
1.5
14202.0072
Rocky
0.08
14629.4976
2.1
7251.370896
Soil
mix
(Soil+Rocky)
0.16
16891.9024
0.75
12125.0988
0.12
13789.8552
1.5
10872.61155
mix
(Soil+Rocky)
mix
(Soil+Rocky)
Soil
mix
(Soil+Rocky)
Soil
Spe
cific
Yiel
d
2003
Ground Water
Availability
2003
Q=AxWKFxSp.
yld.
Total
Extractable 70%
160657.921
11246.054
112333.3745
7863.336214
40

As per Nabards Norm only 70% of the total Ground Water Potential can be harnessed in 2003 scenario it
is 11,246.054 cu.mtrs. & in case of 2013 it 7,863.336214 cu.mtrs. Owing to the change in Water
Fluctuation levels over the period of time separate values have been taken into account for 2003 & 2013
Scenario with reference to the soil type available within each zone of the site area.
Table 6 Total water Availability on Site (as calculated for 2003 & 2013 Respectively)
Water Resources
1
2013
115925.7735
171188.1219
Green Area
Hard Paved
620163.1086
176800.1031
587511.1997
168442.2338
Asphalt road
34971.44896
33318.24406
Total RWHP
947860.4341
960459.7994
Ground water potential
160657.9214
112333.3745
Absractable Quantity I=70% GW

Potential
11246.0545
7863.336214
109500
109500
10,68,606.489
10,77,823.136
+9216.64706
RAINWATER harvesting
Built
Unbuilt
Addition/Reduction
2003
Jal board water (300ltr/day)

Total water Availability
+12,599.36534
-3382.71828
Over the period of time Rainwater Potential has increased due to the increment in Rooftop area
providing improved rooftop runoff. However due to the depletion of ground water table over the period of
time & also because of inadequate replenishment of the same. The water fluctuation level has reduced in
2013 as compared to 2003, leading to a reduction of 3,382 cu.mtrs of ground water. However the quantity
of Jal Board Water supply remains the same.
2. Objectives & Scope of Study
2.1. Adaptation of zoning for Jamia Millia Islamia based on hydrogeology soil & vegetation cover
for the justification of Landuse master plan versus water availability.
2.2. Analysis of area for entire zone on micro grid to calculate the ground Water demand analysis.
2.3. Assessment of Water Availability on Site
2.3.1.Calculation of Ground water potential for University
2.3.2.Assessment of Rain water potential for University Area
2.4. To analyze water demand as per IS 1172 and to compare the reduction in demand using water
draft modeling.
2.5. To achieve a comparative scenario for 2003 & 2013 including water demand & water
availability. And accordingly to suggest water recycling and other water saving techniques in
order to reduce the gap between demand & availability of water on-site.
3. Modeling for water demand as per land use pattern for 2003 & 2013
3.1. Students The water demand/consumption for student parameter is calculated equal to
58,078.8kilolitres/year in 2003 with an increment of 67.7% demand in 2013 with 1,80,100
kilolitres/year as per IS-1172. Both the demands are further modeled considering the following
factors:
3.1.1. Water savings during winter vacations, summer vacations, observed National
Holidays & for Sunday & Saturdays
3.1.2. On the criteria of Attendance, percentage of students having attendance in a range
of 100%-60%
41

3.1.3. Demand calculated in section2.2 doesnt take into account the Floating Population
Demand during summer entrance examination period where in 2000 litres of surplus
water is used.
Table 7 Student Water Usage Modelling
Considerations
N
o.
da
ys
2003 Total Population 10,608

Kil
Dema
Tota
o
nd
Total
l
lItr
Reduc Annual
Pop
es/
tion/A Deman
ulati
Da
dditio
d
on
y
n
Total No. of Day

Boarding Students
including Regular
Students, School
Students, SFS School
Students & Part-Time
Evening Students
enrolled in University the
total Water Daily
Demand as per IS-Code
(excluding Floating
Population Demand
during entrance
examination period summer vacations)
36
5
106
08
Winter vacations (25

days) 100% of Population
25
106
08
Summer vacations 100%

of total Population
60
106
08
16
106
08
52
973
3
14
5.9
95
52
875
13.
12
5
1365
18
0
106
08
28
64
1.6
1312.
74
Observed National
Holidays (Including 3
Saturday & 1 Sunday)
Saturday & Sunday
Holidays for Regular
Students from Colleges &
Schools
Part-Time Evening
Students havin classes on
Saturday & Sundays
Modelling Student Water
Demand as per the
attendance for a period of
180days - running
semester (for college
students)
15
9.1
2
15
9.1
2
15
9.1
2
15
9.1
2
328
95
493.4
25
328
95
493.4
25
1233
5.625
328
95
493.4
25
2960
5.5
328
95
493.4
25
7894.
8
973
3
145.9
95
1518
3.48
28189.
2
875
26876.
46
328
95
58078.
8
39
78
95
47.
2
25
45.
92
15
18
3.4
8
31254
.6
2013 Total Population 32,895

Dema
Tota
nd
l
Kilo
Total
Reduc
Pop lItres
Annual
tion/A
ulati /Day
Demand
dditio
on
n
26824.
2
180100.12
5
65019
.41
115080.72
13.12
5
1365
116445.72
8881
6.5
4070.
756
112374.96
4
42

30 days 100% Attendance 30
106
08
15
9.1
2
5% Students having
100% Attendance
18
0
530.
4
7.9
56
10
10% Students having

90% Attendance
16
2
106
0.8
15.
91
2
11
10% Students having

80% Attendance
14
4
106
0.8
15.
91
2
12
65% Students having

75% Attendance
13
5
689
5.2
10
3.4
28
13
10% Students having

60% Attendance
10
8
106
0.8
15.
91
2
14
20% Students having

Medical
18
212
1.6
31.
82
4
%Reduction
47
73.
6
14
32.
08
25
77.
74
4
22
91.
32
8
13
96
2.7
8
17
18.
49
6
57
2.8
32
27
32
8.8
6
328
95
493.4
25
1480
2.75
164
4.75
24.67
125
4440.
825
328
9.5
49.34
25
7993.
485
328
9.5
49.34
25
7105.
32
213
81.7
5
320.7
263
4329
8.043
75
328
9.5
49.34
25
5328.
99
657
9
98.68
5
1776.
33
8474
5.743
75
53.7241
37.604172
Student Water Useage Modelling

50000
45000
Water Demand
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
30 days
100%
Attendanc
e
Days
5%
Students
having
100%
Attendanc
e
10%
Students
having 90%
Attendanc
e
10%
Students
having 80%
Attendanc
e
65%
Students
having 75%
Attendanc
e
10%
Students
having 60%
Attendanc
e
20%
Students
having
Medical
30
180
162
144
135
108
18
Student Population 2003
10608
530.4
1060.8
1060.8
6895.2
1060.8
2121.6
Water Demand 2003
4773.6
1432.08
2577.744
2291.328
13962.78
1718.496
572.832
Student Population 2013
32895
1644.75
3289.5
3289.5
21381.75
3289.5
6579
5328.99
1776.33
Water Demand 2013
14802.75 7 Student
4440.825 Water
7993.485Usage
7105.32
43298.04375
Figure
Modelling
43

4.2 Staff Departments & Offices where Jamia Employees Water Demand is calculated as per IS-Code
45litres/person for Permanent staff includes Teaching & Non-Teaching Both and only 15litres/Person for
the Visiting Faculty coming to the University.
Table 8 Staff Water Usage Modelling
Staff Water Usage Modelling

2003
2013
Dail
y
De
man
d
(Ltr
s.)
Tota
l
Pop
ulati
on
Daily
Deman
d
(litres/
day)
Kilo
lItres
/Day
Teachers Regular
45
492
22140
22.14
824
Non-Teaching Staff
45
109
8
49410
49.41
123
8
Visiting Faculty
15
50
750
0.75
100
Total Demand
Winter vacations (25
days) Min. 15 Days is
Outgoing (60% of
Population)
Official Tours Durations
10 Days (10% of Staff
Population)
Demand
Reducti
on
72.3
Total
Annual
Demand
Tota
l
Pop
ulati
on
Dail
y
De
man
d
(litr
es/d
ay)
370
80
557
10
150
0
26389.5
Kilo
lItres
/Day
Dem
and
Redu
ction
37.08
55.71
1.5
94.29
34415.85
45
954
42930
42.93
643.95
123
7.2
556
74
55.67
4
835.1
1
45
159
7155
7.155
71.55
206.
2
927
9
9.279
92.79
6797.25
8815.05
Full Time Going in

Summer vacations 20%
of total Population
45
318
14310
14.31
858.6
412.
4
185
58
18.55
8
20% Study Leave
45
318
14310
14.31
5223.15
412.
4
185
58
18.55 6773.
8
67
25.6%
5.7%
19592.25
Total
Annual
Demand
1113.
48
44
25600.8

Staff Water Useage Modelling

30000
25000
Reduced Demand,
25600.8
20000
Reduced Demand,
19592.25
15000
Winter vacations
(60% of Population),
835.11
Winter vacations
(60% of Population),
643.95
10000
5000
2013
20% Study Leave,

5223.15
Official Tours (10%
of Staff Population),
71.55
Summer vacations
Summer vacations
20% of total
20% of total
Population,
1113.48
Population, 858.6
0
0
2003
20% Study Leave,

6773.67
Official Tours (10%

of Staff Population),
92.79
Figure 8 Staff Water Usage Modelling
4.3 Staff Residences Total Demand for Staff Residences is calculated as per IS code and is further
modeled based on t5hje criteria of usage of occupants who will be the Jamia Employee & his wife and his
childrens (on an average 3children/person) and 1servant/house considered under floating population.
Separate population strength is calculated for 2003 301 Dwelling Units & for 2013 409 Dwelling
Units. Further Modelling has been done considering following 4 factors:
4.3.1 Winter vacations (25 days) Min. 15 Days is Outgoing (60% of Population)
Factor1
4.3.2 Official Tours Durations 10 Days (10% of employees will be taking their wifes also) Factor2
4.3.3 Full Time Going in Summer vacations 20% of total Population
Factor3
4.4.4 60% Population will be Going for Half Duration (30days)
Factor4
For Modeling Purpose a break of the above strength is made which is as follows:
Table 9 Residential Water Usage Modelling
Residential Staff Water Useage Modelling

2013
2003
No.
Person
Tota
l
Pop
ulati
on
Daily
Dema
nd
(Ltrs.)
Kilo
lItre
s/Da
y
Dem
and
Red
ucti
on
D
e
m
an
d
A
dd
iio
n
Total
Annual
Deman
d
No.
Pers
on
Tota
l
Pop
ulati
on
Kilo
lItre
s/Da
y
Dema
nd
Reduc
tion
De
m
an
d
A
dd
iio
n
45
Total
Annual
Demand

Assuming 5person/Unit
for the total of 301
Dwelling Unit
Accommodations provided
by University the total
Water Daily Demand as
per IS-Code (excluding
Floating Population
Demand)
Including 1 Servant/Unit
(Floating Population)
Total
1A
Jamia Employee
(Using 45ltrs./day
during working hours
as a Staff on Campus)
therefore as per code
135-45=90 litres of
daily demand.
1505
135
203
.17
5
301
15
4.5
15
Summer Vacations
(40% Professionals
preferring to Work &
Staying back due to
Exam Duties & other
Research Works)
120
.4
60.
2
180
.6
Factor 3
Factor 4
3
903
541
.8
54.
18
Factor 1
Factor 2
3A
301
180
.6
150
.5
Factor 2
Outgoing (Childrens)
90
90
90
90
90
90
120
120
120
27.
09
16.
254
13.
545
5.4
18
16.
254
108
.36
65.
016
6.5
016
180
.6
120
21.
672
Factor 4
541
.8
120
65.
016
301
135
40.
635
9887.8
5
243
.81
135
.45
6
5
0.
1
6
10.
836
Factor 3
House-Wife (Full day

Occupancy)
1647.9
75
75806.
85
1806
Factor 1
2A
74158.
88
276
.07
5
100767.37
5
409
6.1
35
2239.275
245
4
103006.65
409
368
10
36.8
1
245
.4
204
.5
22.
086
18.
405
331.
29
184.
05
163
.6
14.
724
39551.
4
81.
8
245
.4
122
7
736
.2
73.
62
7.3
62
22.
086
147
.24
88.
344
8.8
344
1325
.16
88.3
44
245
.4
29.
448
1766
.88
736
.2
88.
344
2650
.32
409
55.
215
35260.
34
14831.
78
13435.65
8
8
3.
4
4
8695.8
9
325
.08
487
.62
975
.24
65.
016
130
0.3
2
195
0.4
8
204
5
11816.01
441.
72
662.
58
53742.6
47911.896
20153.475
46

4A
Considering 20% of
the total Strength as
Working the water
demand will be
reduced from 135 to
90ltrs. (15% NonJamia Workers & 5%
Jamia Workers)
60.
2
90
5.4
18
197
7.5
7
Factor 1
180
.6
135
24.
381
365
.71
5
Factor 2
30.
1
135
4.0
635
Factor 3
60.
2
135
Factor 4
180
.6
135
301
15
Servant (In-coming)
(Floating Population)
Factor 1
Factor 2
Factor 3
Factor 4
Total Estimated Population
(Persons)
Total Demand Reduction
180
.6
30.
1
60.
2
180
.6
180
6
15
15
15
15
81.
8
7.3
62
245
.4
33.
129
40.
635
40.
9
5.5
215
8.1
27
487
.62
81.
8
11.
043
24.
381
731
.43
245
.4
33.
129
4.5
15
2.7
09
0.4
515
0.9
03
2.7
09
Kilo Litres
11228.
81
1647.9
75
40.
635
4.5
15
54.
18
81.
27
926
6.5
86
1467.3
75
409
245
.4
40.
9
81.
8
245
.4
245
4
6.1
35
3.6
81
0.6
135
1.2
27
3.6
81
6
5
0.
1
6
2687
.13
1209
2.08
5
2015
.347
5
4030
.695
1209
2.08
5
2239
.275
1343
.565
223.
9275
447.
855
1343
.565
4596
5.87
4
12763.868
2239.275
1119.6375
8
8
3.
4
4
Total Demand
65919
89571
Reduced Annual Daily Factored Demand
57302.
57
46727.841
Jamia Staff Residences Water Demand Daily Breakup

4%
Jamia Staff - 90Litres/Day

25%
Outgoing Childrens 120Litres/Day
38%
33%
Housewifes -135Litres/Day
Servants -15Litres/Day
Figure 9 Jamia Staff Residences Water Demand Daily Breakup
47

4.4 Hostel Students The total Demand of water consumed and required in both Girsl & Boys Hostel is
modeled considering the following factors:
4.4.1 Water Consumption Liter/Person - Reduced Liters/Person Daily Demand considering 15litre/day
getting used at school/college duration, reducing it from 135 to 120litres/day for all working days.
4.4.2 Modeling Based on No.Days - Reduced Annual Daily Factored Demand including 60days of
Summer Vacations, 25Days o Winter Vacations, Festival Outgoing Holidays & Educational Tour
Duration calculated for the Vacant hostels Scenario.
Table 10 Hostel Water Usage Modelling
Hostel Water Usage Modelling

2003
Daily
Dem
and
(Ltrs.
)
Boys
Girls
No.
day
s
1A
1B
52
Tot
al
Pop
ulat
ion
Daily
Dem
and
(litre
s/day
)
80.055
29220.
075
120
3
1624
05
43740
43.74
15965.
1
753
1016
55
917
123.8
45185.
175
195
6
917
12379
5
123.8
Total
Popula
tion
Kilo
lItres/
Day
135
593
80055
135
324
Modelling Based on Water

consumption (litre/person)
52 Days
(Saturday &
Sundays) with
135
litres/Person
Demand
313 Days with
(135-15=120)
Students using
15litres during
Class Hours
Total
Annu
al
Dema
nd
Daily
Dema
nd
(litres/
day)
135
Dem
and
Redu
ction
6437
.34
195
6
2013
Kil De
o
ma
lItr nd
es/ Re
Da duc
y
tion
162
.40
5
101
.65
5
59277.825
37104.075
96381.9
2640
60
264
.06
137
31
40879.
86
313
Total
Annual
Demand
87198.48
120
917
11004
0
110.04
3444
2.5
195
6
2347
20
234
.72
734
67
135
917
12379
5
123.8
3094
.88
195
6
2640
60
264
.06
660
1.5
Modelling Based on no.days
2A
2B
Winter
vacations (25
days) 100% of
Population
Summer
vacations 100%
of total
Population
25
12627.
09
60
135
917
12379
5
123.8
7427
.7
26934.12
195
6
2640
60
264
.06
158
44
48

2C
2D
50% Student
outgoing for
Festivals for a
maximum
duration of
10days
25% Students
outgoing for
Educational
Tours for a
Min. of 7 Days
10
135
917
12379
5
123.8
1237
.95
195
6
2640
60
264
.06
264
0.6
135
917
12379
5
123.8
866.
565
195
6
2640
60
264
.06
184
8.4
Total Demand
Reduction
28252.77
37.
47
3
37.4734
60264.36
Hostel Student Water Demand Modelling

120000
100000
96381.5
80000
87198.5
60000
40000
60264.4
45185
2013
40880
2003
26934.1 28253
20000
12627
37.473
37.47%
Actual
Demand
Total Reduction
Demand
%
Reduction
Figure 10 Hostel Student Water Demand Modelling

4.5 Horticulture Considering a period of 30days for Rain. 20days with (Rain water Flow) Flood
Irrigation for plants & 10days (Non-Flow of Rain Water) for Drip Irrigation.
Table 11 Horticulture Water Usage Modelling
Horticulture Water Usage Modeling
5ltr/m2 per Day (10m2=50ltr.)

60 Days of Flow & 10 Days of Non-Flow =365-70
Total Demand Reduction
2003
2013
617603.36
499158.88
901015.0752
728217.6635
1,18,444.48
1,72,797.4116
Horticulture Demand is calculated as per the green area availability in both the scenarios of 2003 &
2013. Owing to the difference in Useage profile of these inbuilt areas, with varying details of landscape
49

design & plant species Useage there is an increment of 31.45% in total water demand which is further
reduced while considering the criteria for rainy season when plants need not to be watered during 60days
of flow & 10days of non-flow. However in 2003 there were usually soil beds were only used with less
landscape details whereas the culture of planter pots have increased in 2013 leading to increased
maintenance & water requirement.
4.6 Demand Reduction is achieved on site using Water Draft Modeling for the 5 parameters initially
used for calculating Actual Demands as per IS-1172 which is calculated equal to 8,25,063 kiloliters/year
and is been reduced to 6,20,387.9 kilolitres/year with a significant reduction of 2,04,675.935kilo liters
annually for 2003. And similarly for 2013 the total demand is calculated as 13, 169, 19.525
kiloliters/year which is further reduced to 9, 58,399.9535kiloliters/year with a significant reduction
of 3, 58,519.5716 kiloliters/year.
Table 12 Comparative Reduced Water Demand for 2003 & 2013
Total Water Demand

2003
Modelling Factors
Student Water Useage
Modelling
Staff Water Useage
Modelling
Residential Staff Water
Useage Modelling
Hostel Water Useage
Modelling
Horticulture Useage
Modelling
Total water Demand
Stage of Ground
Water Development
2013
Annual
Demand
Calculated as
per IS-1172
Demand
Reduction in
kilo/litres
Annually
Reduction
Quantity
Annual
Demand
Calculated as
per IS-1172
Demand
Reduction in
kilo/litres
Annually
Reduction
Quantity
58078.8
26876
31202.8
180100
112375
67725
26389.5
6797.25
19592.25
34415.85
8815.05
25600.8
75807
57303
18504
103006.7
46727.84
56278.86
45185.175
28252.77
16932.405
96381.9
60264.4
36117.5
617603.36
499158.88
118444.48
901015.0752
728217.6635
825063.835
620387.9
204675.935
1316919.525
958399.954
77.20932296
58.05578636
122.1832675
88.9199649
Grey
White
Black
Black
172797.4116
358519.5716
*2000 litres Surplus Water Demand for Student consumption
50

Total water Demand

1400000
Annual Demand 2003
Calculated as per IS-1172
Demand Reduction 2003
1200000
1000000
Annual Demand 2013

Calculated as per IS-1172
Demand Reduction 2013
800000
600000
400000
Total demand
Horticulture Useage Modelling
Hostel Water Useage Modelling
Residential Staff Water Useage Modelling
200000
0
Staff Water Useage Modelling

Student Water Useage Modelling
Modelling
Parameters
Figure 11 Comparative Water Demand for 2003 & 2013
5. Analysis & Recommendations

Delhi has a draft of 321% as mentioned in section 2.1 Hydrological setup of Study Area. And Jamia
University Campus was at 77.209% in 2003 under Grey Area Category and at 95.6% in 2013 therefore
the Water Requirement modeling has been done to reduce water demand & improve the stage of ground
water development within the university area. And to reduce the quantity of Water Withdrawal from site
to bring it within acceptable SWD as per Nabards norm.
As per the stage of Ground Water Development (SWD) Nabards Norm,
SWD=Draft/Availability*100
<65%
white
>65% - 85 %< Grey
>85%
Black
This clearly implies that in 2003 Jamia University falls under Grey Area as per the Actual demand of
8,25,063.835 with 77.2% of SWD leading to water quality depletion whereas with a reduced demand of
6,42,362.836 with 58.05% SWD the university campus got a better potential for water sustainability and
enhancement in Sustainable Natural replenishment Cycles. While reducing Universitys dependence on
municipal water supply. Therefore making it a self sustaining campus in terms of water demand &
consumption.
But when compared to the situation in 2013 having 13, 16,919.525 with 121.8675291% SWD which
falls in Black area it is further reduced upto 9, 58,399.9535 with 88.9% which makes it fall under Black
area. Due to the rise in population with new courses & new departments opening up in the university in
past 10years the water demand has increased whereas the availability of water has been depleting
continuously and the situation does not implicate a comfortable range of water withdrawal &
corresponding replenishment of Ground Water Table. And also the urban development in surrounding
51

areas has also been adding pressure over the natural water reservoir. Leading to the imbalance generated
due to the difference in Water Demand & Water Supply as calculated. Thus making it difficult to
maintain water sustainability and decline in water table within site.
1400000
Kilolitres/year
1200000
1000000
Water Demand
800000
Reduced Demand
600000
Total water Available
400000
Rain water Potential
200000
Ground Water Potential
0
90'S
2003
2013
20's
Water Demand & Availability

Figure 12 Water Demand & Availability Comparative for 2003 & 2013
Water Draft Modeling for the 5 parameters is done in accordance to local norms to utilize water
availability in the best possible spectrum. And there are no significant improvements achieved by the
virtue of Water Draft Modelling in case of 2013. Therefore Further Considerations are made to balance
water supply & demand for the 2013 scenario for water to be handled better within site.
Total Water Availability is calculated including rainwater potential, groundwater potential & Jal
Board water potential. This turns out to be more than the water demand on site as calculated using IS1172 for 2003 scenario whereas incase of 2013 the total availability is less than the total demand with
inflow factor lesser (<) outflow factor = -ve (negative storage) responsible for the declining trend of
ground water table. Therefore the following recommendations are suggested for best management
practice for sustainable water utilization & resource management.
Proposed
Future Recommendations
1 Reverse Osmosis Rejected Water treatment & Utilization
in 2003 there were no water purification systems installed in However the recommendation should
the university whereas in 2013 they have been introduce on be to have a centralised RO which is
large scale. Therefore assuming 10litres/person/day as the cheap
as
compared
to
average water quantity of drinking it becomes equal to 1, domestic/individual systems. Also
36,590.3kilolitres/annually and generates 54,636.12kilolitres this will allow centralised collection
of waste water on annual basis. Therefore this rejected & usability of rejected RO water
quantity of water could be utilized in offsetting horticulture which would be more effective than
water demands by planting Salt resistant plants in university the present scenario where these RO
landscape as this rejected water will be having high systems are located individually
quantities of salt content.
within each department & is mostly
728217.6635 kilolitres annually is reduced to 673581.5435 getting wasted as discarded water
kilolitres annually which is 7.5% Reduction in Horticulture instead of being utilised for recycling
Demand
purpose.
2 Water Treatment Plant
52

1(MLD) million Liter/day capacity water treatment plant Proposed treatment Plant at faculty
working in Faculty of Dentistry. Total 356000 kiloliters of of engineering & technology due to
water will be available annually to deal with horticulture its centralised location & high
issues.
population.
Effective Irrigation Methods
Drip Irrigation for Trees - 728217.664 kilolitres/year will get Further as part of future
reduced to 509752.364 kilolitres/year which will be a 30% propositions Dry Land Plants are
(218465.2991) Reduction in Horticulture Demand.
suggested. Along with Reduce turf
Sprinkler System for Ground Cover - 728217.664 grass areas by Grouping turf areas
kilolitres/year will get reduced to 509752.364 kilolitres/year which can increase watering
with a significant reduction of 218465.2991 kilolitres/year efficiency and significantly reduce
evaporative and runoff losses.
which will be a 30% Reduction in Horticulture Demand.
Mechanical Taps/Sensor taps
Sensor Taps offer 70% savings whereas Mechanical offers 25%. Since Sensor Taps could be
a lot of water is wasted when turning the tap on and off manually. implemented in controlled
Therefore advanced taps are a better option where water is dispensed zones
specific
to
exactly when needed without wasting. However Sensor Taps are very administrative Staff or
sensitive & have a short life with high maintenance demand which residences
where
make them unsuitable instead Mechanical Push Button Taps are continuous monitoring &
recommended to be used by students as the majority of the population maintenance is easy. This
in order to save on the water wastage. This leads to a saving of will lead to an enhanced
approximately 25% among the water usage head for student water savings of 70%.
demand which is 493425 kiloliters for strength of 32,895 students
reducing it to 370068.75 kiloliters with a significant quantity of saved
water equal to 123356.25 kiloliters of water every year.
Water Demand for Air Conditioning
In 2003 only Department of Mass Communication was Air However the water demand
conditioned and now in 2013 main Administrative Office, VC Office, for air conditioning is going
Mass Communication & Ansari Auditorium are all Centrally Air- to increase in the future
Conditioned buildings. With a onetime requirement of 5liters/meter with further developments.
square = 58.992151 kilolitres and 2liters/square meter/day requirement As the entire campus is not
for make-up Water 8612.854046 kilolitres annually. This has been fully Air-Conditioned. And
further modeled considering the criteria of 7 months Useage with 5 also the water wasted from
working days in week, this comes out to be
Window AC units will need
3610.319641 kilolitres/year, a reduction of 41.7%.
effective
collection
Secondly there are few window units operating in the campus for mechanism for its reuse.
some specific laboratories & Dean Offices of the various departments.
As they are working only in 25% of the covered area therefore
assuming 1window AC Unit producing 20liter/day of Discarded
Water, operating for 12hours in a room size of 10x20mtrs. The
approximate quantity of water available is 385.999804 Kiloliters/year.
Table 13 Water Balance - Demand & Availability
Water Balance
2013
Reduction
Reduced
Addition
Extra
Extra Water
53

Modelling Factors
through
Water
Reuse
Demand
through
Water
Savings
Water used
for
Offsetting
Flushing
demands
Annual
Demand
Calculated as
per IS-1172
Demand
Reduction
in
kilo/liters
Annually
180100
112375
34415.85
8815.05
103006.7
46727.84
96381.9
60264.4
901015.075
2
RO
Rejected
Water
Treatment
Pant water
Drip
Irrigation
Sprinklers
Mechanical
taps
Water
Discarded
from
Window
AC Unit
1316919.52
5
728217.6
635
958399.9
535
547763.8
323315.66
35
122.183267
5
88.91996
487
50.82131
29.9971
Black
Black
White
White
Student Water Usage

Modelling
Staff Water Usage
Modelling
Residential Staff
Water Usage
Modelling
Hostel Water Usage
Modelling
Horticulture Usage
Modelling
Reused water
Water Savings
Total water Demand

Stage of Ground Water
Development
54636.12
317581.5
435
410636.1
2
356000
Total AC
Water
Requirement
on Site
Total
Flushing
water
Demand
3669.311792
224448.17
218465
218465
123356.2
5
560672.24
98
385.9998
042
332554.768
228117.4818
9239.104466
6. Conclusions
With Water Reuse from RO Rejected Quantity & water Treatment Plant there is a significant
reduction from 7, 28,217.6635 to 3, 17,581.5435 kiloliters in Horticulture Demand. This as per the
Nabards Norm will have White Stage for Ground water Development with 50.8% SWD ratio bringing it
under comfortable limits as compared to the actual calculated demand falling under Black area.
Further under the head of Water Savings of 5,60,672.2498 kiloliters/year is used to offset the AC Makeup
Water demand and also the Total Toilet Flushing Water Demand on campus which is 3,669.311792 & 2,
24,448.17 kiloliters/year respectively. With the incorporation of this reduction the stage of ground water
development is again reduced to 29.9%.
54

However the left over water 332554.768 kiloliters/year is further subtracted from the reduced demand
of 323315.6635kiloliters/year leaving 9239.104466kiloliters of water as an extra quantity. Wherein the
water balance achieves a Zero Discharge. And Further Efficiencies as part of practice can be added
through Leakage Control Monitoring Monitoring flow through SCADA Action Unit, with online
monitoring throughout university area.
The water balance also suggests the future construction in university campus based on the total water
available. For example a new Girls hostel will need high water demand with less built-up area whereas a
new department/center will have less water demand but will need more built-up space. Therefore the
Future expansion as per Jamia building profiles & infrastructure needs further elaboration such that the
remaining part of Jamia land & land areas to be acquired by the university in future should get
incorporated into landuse master plan with sustainable measure else the university water balance will
become zero.
7. References:
[1] Report of the Ground water Resource Estimation Committee, Ministry of Water Resources Government of India,
New Delhi 2009
[2] Feasibility and Design of Rainwater Harvesting Master Plan of Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi, Presentation by
Prof. Gauhar Mahmood, 2007
[3] Feasibility & design of Comprehensive Water management Plan of Jamia Millia Islamia Campus, New Delhi
Presentation by Prof. Gauhar Mahmood & Sadiqa Abbas, 2013
[4] Master Plan Jamia Millia Islamia 2007, Building Dept. Jamia Millia Islamia
[5] Report on Geophysical Investigation for tube well site Selection at Mandoli Prision , Delhi, submitted by Ground
Water Division Aqua Explorer, New Delhi
[6] Baweja, BK & Karanth KR (1980) Groundwater recharge estimation in India, Tech Sr H. Bull 2, Central Ground
Water Board.
[7] Program objective series Problem/34, 1985-86, Groundwater quality in the union territory of Delhi, Central
Board for the prevention & control of water pollution, New Delhi.
[8] ICMR, 1975, Manual of standards of quality for drinking water, Indian Council of Medical Research, New
Delhi.
[9] H M Raghunath, 2006, Hydrology: Principles, Analysis and Design
[10] David Keith Todd, Larry W. Mays (2004) Groundwater Hydrology.
[11] Water Resource Modeling A key theme to achieve zero discharge for proper water resource planning &
management Jamia Millia Islamia a case study- Author Ar.Kulsum Fatima
55

Net-zero Building Water Cycle Decision Support

Caryssa M. Joustra1 and Daniel H. Yeh2
1
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, 4202 E.

Fowler Ave., ENB 118, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
cjoustra@mail.usf.edu
2
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, 4202 E.
Fowler Ave., ENB 118, Tampa, FL 33620, USA
dhyeh@usf.edu
Abstract
Consumption of limited energy, water, and material resources within the building sector drives the
need for integrated building management strategies that alleviate the pressure placed on the environment.
Net-zero buildings balance inputs with outputs in order to offset external impacts associated with
structure operations. Historically the net-zero concept has been applied to the building energy budget;
however, the popularity of achieving net-zero compliance has expanded to carbon emissions, waste
generation, and water consumption. Concordant to the building energy subsystem, the water subsystem
consists of multiple demands and sources that dynamically interact. The resultant building water cycle is
unique to each building; and thus flexibility is prerequisite for decision support tools regarding water
management, and a generic strategy toward net-zero water compliance does not apply. In addition, data
from net-zero energy buildings highlight balanced consumption and production over an annual basis that
is not consistent at higher levels of resolution. Unlike the energy sector, the option does not exist to
return surplus water supplies to the surrounding infrastructure as an offset credit. Therefore, adoption of
water storage systems and analysis of trends at seasonal, monthly, daily, or even hourly intervals become
crucial facets for attaining net-zero water use. The STELLA (www.iseesystems.com) software allows for
the creation of a dynamic integrated building water management (IBWM) model capable of emulating a
variety of building water cycles and management actions. The inherent flexibility of the water
prioritization framework and temporal scale supports the allocation of the IBWM model as a net-zero
water decision support tool for building stakeholders. Development of the model shows that the building
water cycle, and net-zero feasibility, depends on design considerations, occupant behavior, and local
climate. Resulting water profiles from controllable demand and supply-side management techniques will
be presented.
Keywords: decision support, systems modeling, fit-for-purpose, net-zero water, water prioritization,
building water cycle
1. Introduction
The built environment is supported by resources supplied from the natural environment in terms of
raw materials, energy, and water. Consequently, the construction and operation of building structures
significantly impacts the quality of both the human system in which they reside and natural systems to
which they are linked. The magnitude of the built environments effect is evident by the substantial
56

portion of electricity consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, material use, waste output, and potable
water consumption attributed to the industry [1, 2]. In the United States, 40% of all energy and 13% of
all water is directed to buildings. In addition, occupant health may be compromised by pollutants that
reduce indoor environmental air quality in structures where people spend the majority of their time [2].
As a result, organizations and groups aim to limit the impacts of the built environment and protect human
health by challenging building projects to meet rigorous standards through integrated sustainable
solutions.
Building certification programs include the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
set of rating systems and the Living Building Challenge (LBC) program [3, 4]. Developed by the United
States Green Building Council (USGBC), the LEED analytical framework evaluates the degree to which
projects accomplish desired positive goals based on achievable credits [5]. Many LEED credits specify a
requirement that aims to limit initial resource use or reduce overall consumption through reuse and
recycling. Examples include reducing energy and water use through the installation of high-efficiency
fixtures, offsetting energy consumption through on-site or off-site renewable generation, or offsetting
potable water consumption by utilizing rainwater or recycling on-site wastewater sources [6]. LBC
consists of performance-based standards that certify projects that at a minimum meet net-zero conditions,
but ideally are regenerative and restorative [4]. LEED and LBC both rely on a set of credits for
certification. However, all LBC credits are required; whereas projects pursuing LEED certification are
given flexibility in the number and type of credits pursued. Both programs act as drivers to transform the
building industry. LEED strategies address traditional linear consumption of resources and persuade
building sites to implement actions that take steps toward cyclical, or closed loop, solutions; but the
rigorous approach taken by the LBC system is enforced by net-zero compliance that makes closed loop
systems a requirement.
At its core, net-zero emphasizes balance so that the sum of all inputs is offset by comparable outputs.
The balance of consumption and production of resources embodies the core concept of sustainability by
maintaining development without compromising the availability of resources required in the future [7].
The persistence of resources external and internal to the site encourages the sustainability of raw
resources and building operation. Net-zero strategies protect resource availability in two possible ways.
Balancing the net-zero equation is easier when the inflow of resources is reduced or eliminated, thereby
causing the required production output to decrease. Examples include recycling resources on-site in order
to reduce overall demand, or producing renewable resources for utilization on-site. Replacing
consumable resources to achieve net-zero also preserves availability. Sites connected to an infrastructure
grid that serves both the building site and accepts resources produced by the site for allocation off-site
provide the opportunity for offset. By ensuring availability, net-zero promotes resource security; and as a
result, protects on-site building functions and overall development.
The energy sector receives the majority of net-zero applications [8-12]. However, the importance of
responsible management of emissions, waste, and water has been acknowledged; and interest in applying
the net-zero equation within these sectors is increasing, both individually and collectively. For example,
the United States Army is piloting net-zero facilities, including net-zero energy, net-zero waste, and netzero water, with the goal of having 25 net-zero sites by 2030 [13]. The Army recognizes the critical
advantage of security of both resources and the facility inherent in net-zero projects. Additional benefits
include better control of future resource costs, better predictability of resource costs, and flexibility to
meet new building standards [14].
57

Decision support tools are prevalent for the design and analysis of building energy functions which
aid net-zero energy achievement. However, limited tools exist regarding the building water cycle.
Building water support tools generally follow a calculator format where the user inputs static values for
water behavior that produce limited results regarding overall water use [15-18]. In contrast, building
energy tools include dynamic capabilities in order to accurately capture building consumption over
various time frames. The resolution of water calculators is often limited to annual averages for residential
structures, whereas building energy tools cover a range of resolutions down to within hour time steps and
possess interface flexibility to evaluate multiple building types [19]. Inclusion of alternative and
renewable sources is crucial in order to evaluate net-zero realization. Renewable or alternative sources
are commonly included in energy models, whereas alternative water sources, if included, are limited
within building water tools. Further development of water-based tools is necessary for improved decision
support regarding efficient building water cycle management and net-zero feasibility. This paper
investigates the calculation of net-zero water and presents a decision support model to aid in water
neutrality. The net-zero water equation must agree with accepted equations regarding building energy,
where the balance of resource production and consumption are evaluated. The model must be able to
dynamically track potential water flows into, throughout, and exiting from the building system.
2. Building water cycle

Familiarity with the drivers and pathways within the building site is prerequisite for net-zero water
assessment. A building is a system operated by multiple subsystems, including energy and water. The
subsystem created by the movement of water throughout the site can be described as the building water
cycle. Historical management of the building water cycle mirrors a paradigm shift in water resources
management that can be compared to the natural hydrologic cycle. The building system boundary that
houses its water cycle includes the building structure in addition to applicable vegetation and hardscapes.
Both the natural and building water cycles map water flows throughout the system. In the natural cycle,
water is contained within the global system boundary representing the net-zero goal. Recycling within
the natural cycle ensure that water consumption is matched by water production. Conventional building
design imports potable water flows from environmental sources for consumption within the building.
Once used, water is labeled as waste and discharged from the building site. Managing water using linear
processes results in higher environmental impacts through resource depletion. Sustainable design
encourages conservation measures in order to decrease overall water use. Water reuse and recycling
techniques that mimic natural processes further reduce the need for potable water supplies. Both
conservation and the creation of balanced water feedback loops are necessary in order to achieve the same
net-zero efficiency as the natural cycle.
The building energy framework consists of individual loads that exert a demand, as well as available
energy sources that serve the loads. Similarly, the building water cycle is formed by water fixture
demands served by available water sources. Opportunities to increase water efficiency or create closed
loops towards net-zero water accomplishment depend on the existing components of the building water
cycle, such as building demands, available water sources, and occupant behavior patterns.
2.1. Building water demands
Designed water demands depend on the type of building and affect the overall quantity of
consumption. Demands vary among building types. A residential home includes water demands related
to cooking and showering that may be non-existent in commercial or industrial facilities. The magnitude
58

of each demand is also important. A shower in an office building may demand less water than showers in
a multi-family residence. Inclusion of demands also differs within the same building type. Aesthetic
water features in office buildings require evaporated water to be replaced, thereby creating an additional
demand not found in all structures. Therefore, demands found in the building water cycle are sitespecific. The varying magnitude of water consumption by demand causes outcomes from similar water
efficiency strategies to also be unique to the building site. Multiple demand-based conservation measures
exist that decrease overall building water use and guide the building water cycle toward the net-zero ideal.
Irrigation Approximately one third of water use in the residential sector is directed to landscape
irrigation [20]. Implementation of native or water-efficient species substantially decreases or
potentially eliminates the irrigation demand. When irrigation systems are necessary, underground
drip delivery is more efficient than above-ground sprinklers; and soil moisture or rainfall sensors
prevent additional water losses and limit consumption.
Drinking, hygiene, cooking, and cleaning Efficiency for most indoor water demands depends on
the installed fixtures. Low-flow faucets or aerators exceed efficiency rates set by building
standards and minimize losses. Consumption of drinking water is a human necessity that cannot
be minimized. Hygienic practices such as showering, hand-washing, cooking, and cleaning allow
for water use reduction, but not elimination.
Sanitation Like faucet fixtures, high-efficiency toilets and urinals reduce water use. Contrary to
faucet fixtures, devices exist that do not require additional water inputs. Examples include
waterless urinals and composting toilets.
Process water Process water demands include boilers, steamers, industrial dishwashers, ice
machines, pre-rinse spray valves, and cooling systems. Cooling tower water demand depends on
the make-up water required to balance losses from the system, such as evaporation or periodic
bleeding of circulating water. Increasing the residence time of cooling tower water reduces the
amount needed for replenishment.
Safety Although normally dormant, the possibility exists for a demand regarding fire
suppression systems within buildings. Conservation measures are unable to be applied to
emergency systems in order to ensure safety.
Recreation and aesthetics Swimming pools, fountains, and other water features incur an
operational water demand after reaching their initial desired water volume. Water must be added
over time in order to maintain desired levels, and make-up flows depend on losses from
evaporation, infiltration, and general usage.
2.2. Building water sources
Demands within the building water cycle require fulfillment using available water sources.
Consumption of all water sources sets the amount of water that must be generated in order to achieve netzero balance. Accessibility to individual water sources depends on the supporting infrastructure, location
of the building site, and building demands. Centralized sources supplied by extensive infrastructure
networks include potable water and reclaimed water. Potable water is analogous to drinking water.
Reclaimed water is produced at municipal wastewater treatment facilities by treating collected waste
streams to high-quality standards. Building location affects the availability of rainwater and stormwater
supplied by precipitation. Rainwater refers to water intercepted or captured before reaching the surface;
stormwater is assumed to have a lower quality due to the interaction with material on the ground level. In
addition to driving overall consumption, demands within the building also determine the availability of
59

sources generated on-site. Wastewater generated from fixtures can be categorized as either greywater or
blackwater depending on the water quality. Water originating from faucets, showers, and other lowstrength sources is considered greywater, whereas blackwater includes discharge streams from toilets and
urinals. Meteorological conditions and the presence of a cooling demand affect the availability of
condensate as an alternative water source. Condensate is ideal for non-potable water demands due to its
high quality and limited treatment requirements [21]. Potable water has traditionally been utilized for all
building demands; however, net-zero water buildings need to incorporate additional sources within the
buildings water source portfolio.
Adoption and integration of water sources within the building system is not uniformly executed.
Municipal reclaimed water is considered a sustainable option for regions where water is scarce [22]. In
the United States, reclaimed water mainly fulfills landscaping demands via distribution systems separated
from municipal potable water. However, dual-plumbing within buildings allows non-potable sources
such as reclaimed water to enter the building water cycle and offset potable water consumption.
Greywater and blackwater sources originating from wastewater streams follow occupant usage and have
the advantage of being continuous. However, limitations on practices that return treated wastewater
streams to the building may restrict water recycling loops due to potential public health risks [23].
Despite health and regulation challenges, on-site systems exist that facilitate wastewater reuse and
recycling. Membrane bioreactors (MBR) utilize physical and biological processes to treat wastewater
within a small footprint. The quality of greywater and blackwater streams can be elevated for nonpotable building applications [24-27]. An MBR recycles wastewater within the Helena Building in New
York City for cooling, toilet flushing, and irrigation [28]. Buildings in warm climates that require cooling
and dehumidification produce condensate suitable for collection and use such as in San Antonio, Texas.
A local shopping mall produces about 950 liters of condensate per day, and the central library produces
approximately 163,000 liters per month [29].
2.3. Occupant Behavior
The building water cycle is affected by occupant interactions with water end-uses. The behavior of
an occupant varies based on location. For example, it is likely an occupant will exert a higher hygienic
demand at home rather than in a commercial setting. Specific variables controlled by occupants include
the number of use events for a demand fixture and the duration of the use event. The variability among
occupant groups should be acknowledged when predicting water consumption and generation for net-zero
analysis.
3. Net-zero water
Definitions regarding net-zero water buildings are limited. The U.S. Army defines net-zero water
buildings as facilities that maintain the same quantity and quality of natural water resources, such as
groundwater and surface water, by decreasing consumption and directing water to the same watershed
[13]. Ecosystem protection is also stressed within the LBC net-zero water standard, which mandates that
the building only use harvested precipitation or recycling loops to meet all of the building needs [4].
Chemical treatment of water is prohibited; however, the standard currently exempts the highest-quality
potable water demands, such as sinks, faucets, and showers, which are highly regulated. In a related LBC
standard, the ecological component of net-zero water in the LBC framework is further explained as onsite management, or hydrologically acceptable off-site management, of all stormwater and used project
water. Olmos and Loge [30] define net-zero water use as the balance between annual potable water use
60

and annual rainfall. According to their study, the collection of precipitation into a wetland area for local
groundwater recharge defines the level of offset available for municipal water consumption in order to
achieve net-zero. All definitions are applicable to individual building sites, or larger campuses and
communities. However, the quantitative achievement in each example differs based on the considered
flows and system boundary.
3.1. System boundary
When the boundary is drawn such that it includes the environment holding the water source,
municipal water production, and subsequent treatment and discharge, building water use appears to be a
minor factor. In this case, the environment becomes the resource stock that requires net-zero balance
water consumed must equal water generated in order to preserve the volume. Within this wide view of
water use, water is removed from its natural source and conditioned at a centralized water treatment
facility in order to meet quality standards. Treated water is then distributed to building structures through
a pipeline network to meet customer demands. On-site water is consumed by a variety of end uses, and
wastewater is generated simultaneously. Using a separate sewer infrastructure network, wastewater flows
are directed to a centralized wastewater treatment facility where the water quality is improved before
returning to the natural source stock.
The municipal water cycle agrees with the ecological protection mandated by some net-zero water
requirements. Water consumed by buildings equals wastewater generated. The two streams are
comparable due to shared quality standards that occur at the beginning and end of the cycle, making
wastewater a renewable water source. However, this wide water cycle view includes challenges/faults
that limit efficiency and support net-zero approaches at the building scale. The transportation of water
within the pressurized distribution results in leakage losses. Therefore, not all of the water produce is
delivered and consumed by the customer. The natural water source used for water production is often
different from the location where treated wastewater is discharged. For example, pumping water from an
underground aquifer for potable consumption and returning the used flow to a surface river disrupts the
ecological cycle. In this case, the availability of the resource has changed and may no longer be fairly
compared for net-zero balance. Pursuing net-zero by incorporating municipal facilities also affects
infrastructure networks and security. Aging infrastructure networks incur stress due to changing
population demands and require continuing maintenance. Vulnerable distribution systems and centralized
treatment facilities reduce security of connected building sites. Facilities reliant on centralized processes
are sensitive to service disruptions and variable pricing, whereas self-sufficient sites can better control
resource flows and costs.
Minimizing the system boundary to the building site highlights potential flows that must be addressed
in order to evaluate net-zero water. Distribution losses are limited, and water quantities are easier to
verify within the smaller system boundary. Inflows include potable water, municipal reclaimed water,
and precipitation. Wastewaters and runoff outflow from the boundary. Net-zero analysis requires water
consumption to be compared to water generation. The demands within the building drive consumption
that can be met by any municipal or alternative water source. However, water generated on-site is
constrained to wastewater and precipitation flows. Wastewater results from the building operation and is
therefore an internally generated source that can be freely utilized. Precipitation occurs regardless of the
buildings existence and initially contributes to an existing cycle. Utilizing captured precipitation in order
to offset or eliminate municipal supplies supports building self-sufficiency, but may affect overall
61

resource availability. Therefore, preservation of hydrologic flows is a necessary component for net-zero
water analysis.
3.2. Definitions
The following terms are proposed based on the discussed net-zero water considerations and
borrowing from concepts within the energy field.
3.2.1. Net-zero water: In regards to energy, the term net is used to compare inputs and outputs of the grid
system [9]. A net-zero energy building sells to the grid as much energy as it acquires from the grid on an
annual basis. The grid requires that the same electrical currency is used in order to facilitate bidirectional
flow ensuring consistent quality; electricity produced by centralized power plants and electricity sold
back to the grid by building sites maintains the same functionality.
The lack of a bidirectional water distribution system places buildings pursuing a net-zero water goal
at a disadvantage. The quality of water exiting the building system is generally much lower than the
water entering the boundary due to the acquisition of contaminants from end uses. In practice, the quality
difference is evident by separate water delivery and water discharge infrastructures. Conceptually, the
inequality of the building input and output streams does not allow for mathematical computations
regarding offsets. Water equality may be attained after treatment, whether by a centralized treatment
facility or on-site processes. However, net-zero compliance does not only rely on quantity and quality
equivalence of building consumption and generation streams. The equality presented by the net-zero
equation infers that nothing has changed, yet relocating water sources alters the original water cycle.
Therefore, demonstrating that water generated from the building site is returned to the ecosystem from
which it originated is necessary for full net-zero credit. In some cases, the originating ecosystem may
encompass the building site, which would allow for on-site treatment and infiltration to count towards the
net-zero goal.
3.2.2. Zero water: The difference between net-zero and zero is the amount of interaction with
infrastructure. Zero-energy buildings produce and generate all energy on-site and without reliance on
grid services [9]. Similarly, zero-water compliance requires that the building water cycle operates
independently from water and wastewater municipal systems. On-site wastewater recycling is crucial to
zero-water success, and alternative water supplies are limited by the regional climate. However, the
preservation of the local ecosystem must be considered when collecting precipitation for on-site use.
Inability to utilize the continuously produced municipal water supply requires precise management of
variable on-site water sources. Climate-based sources, such as rainwater and condensate, are
intermittently produced and do not necessarily correlate with building demands. Storage is necessary in
order to allow for water of acceptable quality and quantity to be applied according to dynamic water
demand profiles.
3.2.3. Life-cycle zero water: The term life-cycle zero water building (LC-ZWB) is proposed based on the
life-cycle zero energy building (LC-ZEB) concept [9]. Evaluating net-zero over the lifetime of the
building shows whether net-zero resource balance is achieved within the life-cycle. For net-zero energy
analysis, the embodied energy of all building materials is annualized and added to the annual operation
energy for comparison to renewable energy generated by the building [9]. The same framework, when
applied to water, requires that the embodied water required for the manufacture and transport of materials
62

be considered over the building lifetime. Achievement of net-zero water over the building lifetime may
be an unachievable objective without innovative techniques for on-site renewable water generation.
Unharnessed energy sources in terms of solar radiation, gravity, temperature differentials, wind velocities,
and other natural phenomena are largely available for the fulfillment of building energy demands;
whereas water sources are confined to a sensitive circuit that relies on temporal and spatial applications.
4. Achieving on-site water balance

4.1. Approach
Defining the project goal and boundary is the first step toward operational water balance. The
boundary for a zero water project is limited to the building site, whereas a net-zero water venture may
have its boundary expanded to include the watershed in which it resides. The resultant boundary affects
the availability and end points of water sources.
Building water consumption depends on the sum of all end uses. Building water demands should be
catalogued and grouped by importance, as well as all potential sources. The resulting inventory of
building demands and available sources creates the foundation for fit-for-purpose connections to be made
for water balance attainment and discloses the magnitude of water offset that the project goal requires. A
zero water building project will require an offset for the sum of all water consumption. A net-zero project
served by municipal water within a shared watershed may determine that consumption volumes
exceeding precipitation require offset for net-zero balance.
Remaining steps follow the hierarchy used in other resource management schemes, such as those
adopted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Army [13, 31]. Reducing source
consumption is accomplished using conservation measures directed at water fixture installations and
occupant water use habits. Further water offsets require water reuse, followed by water recycling. Water
reuse measures require limited treatment of source waters and extend the residence time of water within
the building through repurposing. Water recycling is achieved by creating closed loop water cycles that
require treatment stages in order to maintain water quality. Irrigation using low-strength greywater from
showers and faucets is considered a reuse strategy; a water recycling loop is achieved by collecting,
treating, and re-applying blackwater from toilets for flushing. Conservation, reuse, and recycling
measures should be revisited until the project goal is realized.
4.2. IBWM model for decision support
The approach for water neutrality is illustrated using an IBWM model created with the Systems
Thinking Experimental Learning Laboratory with Animation (STELLA) visual modeling software [32].
The model dynamically tracks thirteen potential building water demands and seven potential water
sources (Table 1). Interactions among demand and sources are dictated by an inherent prioritization
framework that allows for user manipulation [33]. Graphical inputs for water demand and supply profiles
allow for assessment of multiple building types, and control of pathways between sources and demands
supports simulations regarding allocation of alternative water supplies and creation of recycling loops.
An office building with approximately 50,000 square feet and 200 occupants is assumed for the
simulation. Full occupancy is experienced during weekdays, but drops to 5 maintenance occupants on
weekends. Water demands and sources are inventoried. Water demands within the building site include
toilet and urinal flushing, bathroom sinks, irrigation, and cooling. Additional demands for light cooking
and drinking water consumption are also included. Additional scenario attributes are provided in Table 2.
63

The baseline demand profile (Fig. 1a) shows that landscaping and the cooling tower exert the highest
demand which seasonally varies. Indoor water use remains relatively constant due to stable occupancy.
In the initial case, all demands are fulfilled using municipal potable water; although rainwater,
condensate, and wastewater sources exist.
Table 1. Water demands and sources built into the IBWM model.
Demands
Sources
Landscaping
Laundry
Drinking
Potable water
Green roof
Firefighting
Process water
Reclaimed water
Cooling
Showers
(Generic stock 1) Rainwater
Urinals
Kitchen sinks
(Generic stock 2) Stormwater
Toilets
Bathroom sinks
Condensate
Greywater
Blackwater
Following the water neutrality scheme, the feasibility of canceling demands is investigated (Fig. 1b).
Reduction is necessary in this scenario as the sum of all potential water sources is much less than the sum
of demands. The irrigation demand is eliminated through the use of native vegetation suitable to the
region. A dry cooling tower system removes the need for make-up water, but may disrupt condensate
availability. However, the overall reduction of water use outweighs the condensates potential offset.
Next, conservation measures are implemented (Fig. 1c). Low-flow faucets reduce the water
consumed during hand and dish washing, but do not affect the drinking water consumed by occupants.
High-efficiency toilets and waterless urinals decrease the water consumption and wastewater generation
associated with sewage conveyance, but simultaneously reduce the potential wastewater source stream.
Water reuse measures are now evaluated based on the reduced demand profile. Rainwater harvesting
for toilet flushing is assessed. In the case without long-term storage, the flushing demand must be
supplemented with potable water when rainfall is low (Fig. 1d). When storage is included, the rainwater
source is efficiently utilized and meets all flushing demands (Fig. 1e). In cases where regulations
mandate potable water as the sole source for hygiene and human consumption, the building has achieved
near zero water compliance. Now that annual rainwater exceeds the annual building demand, the project
may also achieve net-zero water status if ecosystem balance is demonstrated.
Achieving the zero water designation requires on-site water recycling and unconventional alternative
water application. Adding a wastewater recycling loop for flushing demands allows the rainwater stream
to be allocated to other demands (Fig. 1f). It is possible for rainwater to fulfill the potable demands, and
this practice occurs in many regions [34]. The model shows zero water compliance when rainwater
allocation for sinks and drinking is implemented in addition to wastewater recycling for flushing, still
assuming that discharged flows are environmentally managed.
Table 2. Description of simulated IBWM model scenarios.
A. Baseline
Faucet flow rates of 2.5 gallons per minute (gpm), toilets rated 1.6 gallons per
flush (gpf), urinals rated 1.0 gpf
B. Elimination
Native landscaping and dry cooling implemented to eliminate water demand
C. Conservation
Faucet flow rates of 1.5 gpm, toilets rated 1.28 gpf, urinals waterless (0 gpf)
D. Reuse (no storage)
Rainwater harvested from 10,000 square foot roof area with no long-term
storage, rainwater applied to flushing demands
E. Reuse (storage)
Rainwater harvesting system includes 1000 gallon cistern
F. Recycling
All wastewaters applied for flushing applications, rainwater from cistern
allocated to potable demands (drinking, kitchen sinks and bathroom sinks)
64

Figure 1. IBWM model simulation showing progression toward net-zero water and effects of strategies
(A) baseline case, (B) elimination of demands, (C) conservation measures, (D) water reuse using
rainwater without long-term storage, (E) water reuse using rainwater with long-term storage, and (F)
wastewater recycling. Graphs illustrate water use in gallons per day over the course of one year.
65

5. Conclusion
Although historically energy-focused, net-zero management is expanding to include all resources
including water. Decision support frameworks and tools regarding net-zero water are limited due to
generally recent interest, but existing groundwork associated with net-zero energy provides a basis for
water application. Borrowing from the energy sector, building water neutrality has been introduced in
terms of net-zero water, zero water, and life-cycle zero water, whereby the location and time period of
production and generation of water sources determines the designation. A framework for achieving water
neutrality is based on existing hierarchal approaches and includes the application of conservation, reuse,
and recycling measures, respectively. An IBWM model has been developed in order to overcome the
deficiencies in current water management tools and allow for decision support regarding water neutrality.
The simulated scenario demonstrates the flexible and dynamic model capabilities necessary for water
analysis.
Attributes of the building water cycle present opportunities for further research and discussion
regarding water neutrality achievement. The model scenario utilized simulated data; but building-specific
data is required if water neutrality is to be realized, thereby creating a need for water sub-metering. In
addition, uncertainty in demand-side and supply-side water estimations compels the inclusion of
probability within net-zero analyses.
6. Acknowledgements
This research is supported by the USGBC Green Building Research Fund #230. This material is
based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0965743. Any
opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations in this material are those of the author(s) and do
not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
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Musall, B. Karlsson and P. Torcillini, Load matching and grid interaction of net zero energy buildings, EuroSun
Conference, (2010) Graz, Austria.
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building A review of definitions and calculation methodologies, Energy and Buildings, 43, 4 (2011).
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Virgin Islands.
67

Urban Ambient Net-Zero Water Treatment and Mineralization: System

Design and Field Performance
Tingting Wu1*, James D. Englehardt2
1
Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami

1251 Memorial Drive, Coral Gables, FL, USA, 33146
Email: tingtingwu@miami.edu
2
Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami
1251 Memorial Drive, Coral Gables, FL, USA, 33146
Email: jenglehardt@miami.edu
Abstract
A pilot scale denitrifying net-zero water treatment process, which was designed to mineralize
pharmaceuticals at ambient temperature, pressure, and pH, was constructed at a residence hall on the
University of Miami campus. The system was placed into recycle mode, returning treated water to the
Net-Zero Water Apartment for all uses except drinking and cooking in June 2013, after 6 months singlepass treatment with disposal to city sewer. Water quality data has been collected during both treatment
modes. COD of the wastewater generated from the apartment is ~250 mg/L; TN 50 ~70 mg/L with about
80% as NH3-N and about 20% as organic N. COD is reduced to <15 mg/L by MBR and further
decreased to the level of below detection (<1 mg/L) by peroxone treatment. With addition of carbon
source and alkalinity, TN of MBR effluent is less than 10 (about 25 mg/L without chemical feeding).
Generally, the product water meets U.S. primary and secondary drinking water standards. pH is between
7.5 ~8 and turbidity is less than 0.2 NTU. Due to the retention of wastewater thermal energy, along with
the tropical weather in Miami FL, the treated water temperature has been above 30C. NO3-N
concentration is between 1~3 mg/L. After 4 months operation in recycle mode with 10~20% rainwater
make-up, TDS of treated recycled water is approximately 400 mg/L. It has been found out that residual
concentration of H2O2 needed for disinfection is much higher than designed value, partially due to the
accelerated decomposition of H2O2 at higher temperature (>30C). Further development and study are
needed regarding trace peroxone byproducts, the need for GAC or other polishing process e.g. for a small
drinking water stream, and sludge management options.
Keywords: net zero water treatment, ambient, direct potable water reuse, mineralization
1. Introduction
The increasing water demand, rapid population growth and sprawling development require better
management of water resources. Water reuse is an important strategy to address the scarcity of
freshwater. On the other hand, water and wastewater treatment and conveyance account for
approximately 4% of US electric consumption, with 80% used for conveyance [1, 2]. Net zero water
buildings refer to the building systems that are off-grid, i.e., neither withdraw nor release water off-site
[3]. These buildings utilize treated municipal wastewater as a stable, non-seasonal freshwater source and
would alleviate demands for a portion of the energy used for water conveyance, and for the treatment of
68

drinking water for pesticides and toxic chemical releases in source water. Also, treatment could
concentrate on mineralizing potentially-endocrine disrupting pharmaceuticals which are not easily
regulated in terms of environmental half-life.
The biggest barrier to net-zero water buildings might be public acceptance, which may eventually be
improved by civil educations. Technologically, although any water quality may be achieved given todays
technologies, treatment of water to high purity at low energy is still a challenge. Furthermore, domestic
wastewater typically contains nitrogen loads much greater than urban and suburban ecosystems can
absorb. Hence, nitrogen needs to be returned either to rural areas or to the atmosphere to avoid nitrate
contamination of the groundwater. In addition, for net-zero water treatment, low emissions to the
environment is also a must since no further engineered treatment off-site is available.
A first design for an urban/suburban net-zero water treatment process, including potable treatment,
denitrification, and mineralization of effluent organics at ambient temperature and pressure, and circumneutral pH, was proposed by Englehardt and his coworkers [3].The treatment process is comprised of
membrane bioreactor (MBR), iron-mediated aeration (IMA), vacuum ultrafiltration (UF), and peroxone
advanced oxidation, with minor rainwater make-up and provision of H2O2 disinfection residual. Similar
to biological systems, minerals accumulate in the recycled water under ambient conditions, subject to
precipitation by IMA, salt-free treatment, and 10~20% dilution with rainwater. Thermal energy in the
wastewater is retained. The pilot scale field system serves a four-bedroom, four-bath apartment with
kitchen and laundry, supported by a US National Science Foundation Emerging Frontiers in Research and
Innovation (EFRI) award. The system was placed into operation for treatment of apartment wastewater
and disposal to city sewer at the beginning of 2013. In June 2013, the system was placed into recycle
mode, returning treated water to the Net-Zero Water Apartment for all uses except drinking and cooking.
Water quality data has been collected during both single-pass treatment and recycle mode.
2. System Design and Operation

Schematic of the pilot scale net-zero water treatment process is illustrated in Figure 1, with
size/capacity of each unit.
Wastewater from the unit is collected in a below-grade septic tank with 2~3 days retention time.
R, BioMicrobics Inc., Shawnee, KS) via a
Supernatant is then pumped into MBR (Membrane BioBarrier
submersible pump. MBR, includes anoxic and aerobic chambers separated by a perforated baffle. 109
mg/L ethanol as carbon source and 30~128 mg/L alkalinity as CaCO3 are added into the anoxic chamber
to facilitate nitrogen removal. Filtration pump is controlled by water level in the tank and doses
approximately 800 L filtered water into dosing tank each time. The filtration rate was 5.6 LPM at system
start-up and no decrease was observed during the first 6 months and decreased to 4.2 LPM another 5
months later. MBR effluent is stored in the dosing tank and then pumped into IMA reactor. 10~15%
rainwater, collected from the roof (~930 m2) of the residence hall building and stored in a cistern, is also
pumped into IMA at the same time. Extra water in the system is disposed to city sewer from the treated
water tank periodically. The IMA reactor is a 57 L tank fitted with twelve 2.54 cm diameter iron rod
anodes and cathodes. A constant current of 0.7A is supplied via a DC power supply, which is ON only
when there is flow through the reactor. 90 LPM air is supplied by a diaphragm air pump through a 30 cm
diameter fine bubble disc placed at the bottom of the reactor. A propeller mixer is used to mix iron-riched
liquid. The air pump and mixer is running continuously. Water flows from the IMA reactor to the
flocculation tank (114 L, FKC Co., Ltd., Port Angeles, WA) and then to the UF tank by gravity.
Ultrafiltration unit is comprised of 16 ZW-10 membranes (GE Power &Water, Ontario). Filtration
69

happens intermittently with approximate 70 L dosing into the following clearwell (625 L) each time. The
membrane filters are backwashed for 15 sec every 20 min, during which aeration is provided at 900 LPM.
Peroxone process is operated in batch. One tank (3.79 m3) is treatment tank while the other is filling tank
accepting water from clearwell intermittently. Water in ozone treatment tank is recirculated between the
tank and the ozone system where it is treated with peroxone and UV (12.6 mW/cm2). Typical ozone
dosage is 5 mg/L/h and ozone/H2O2 mass ratio is maintained no less than 3.4. After 24 hrs treatment the
total organic (measured as COD) concentration is reduced to below detection (0.7 mg/L). Peroxone
treated water is pumped into the treated tank (5.12 m3) when the filling tank is full and then the two ozone
tanks switch. Approximate 1500 L water fills into the treated tank each time. Retention time in ozone
R, Marietta, GA) mounted
treatment tank is 2~3 days. Dual GAC filters (CQE-CO-02051, Crystal Quest
in series, providing polishing treatment of peroxone treated water, were in operation for 3 months before
recharge. The two GAC cylinders were removed from the line in late September 2013 due to possible
biofilm growth in the carbon media. Instead, faucet carbon filters (Culligan FM-15A) and inline shower
carbon filters (Culligan ISH-100) were installed at each taps and shower in the residence hall unit.
15% hydrogen peroxide solution was added into the treated water to provide 35~65 mg/L residual. 30
g/L of silver was also added to the treated water beginning 10/2013 to provide synergetic disinfection.
The system was switched to chlorine disinfection in 12/2013.
Figure 1. Schematic of the pilot scale net-zero water treatment process
3. Sampling and Analysis

Product net zero water (referred to as NZW hereinafter) is sampled three times per day using 500 mL
high-density polyethylene wide mouth laboratory bottles. pH, conductivity /TDS, and dissolved oxygen
(DO) are measured with Orion Star A3295 multimeter (Thermo Scientific, USA). Turbidity is measured
70

with a nephelometer (Monitek Nephelometer TA1, Galvanic Applied Sciences USA, Inc.). Hydrogen
peroxide is measured by iodometric titration [4]. E. coli measurement is conducted following EPA
Method 1103.1. Temperature of the sample is measured using an alcohol thermometer at the site before
the sample is transported to the laboratory. Samples including cistern water are also taken along the
treatment train and COD, total nitrogen, nitrate and ammonia are selectively measured, using Hach
reagents and methods.
NZW was sampled and sent to a certified external laboratory (Florida-Spectrum Environmental
Services, Inc., Ft. Lauderdale, FL, USA) for full drinking water analysis. Samples were collected at 17:00
10/15/2013 with sample containers provided by Florida Spec. The samples were then stored in a
laboratory refrigerator at 4 C and transferred to the external lab in the next morning.
4. Field Performance
Water Usage of the Residence Hall Unit (LPM)
Water usage is plotted in Figure 2 for the period of September, 2013. The actual water demand of the
residence hall unit is approximately 50% of the design capacity, with an average flow of 0.54 LPM.
However, as expected in a small mutli-process water treatment system, significant fluctuation was
observed with a peak flow of 24.22 LPM and peaking factor of 45. In general, the smaller the system, the
less buffering capacity it has and the more vulnerable it is to hydraulic fluctuations and exceptional
conditions.
30
Average: 0.54 LPM
Peak: 24.22 LPM
25
20
15
10
5
0
09/01/2013
09/10/2013
09/20/2013
09/30/2013
Figure 2. Water usage in September, 2013

Main water chemistry parameters of NZW and city water are compared Figure 3. As can be seen,
turbidity and pH of NZW are generally lower than those of city water, with medians of 0.08 vs 0.12 NTU
and 7.7 vs 9.5, respectively. The high pH of city water is probably due to the presence of alkalinity
minerals. Because of the thermal energy effectively maintained in a net zero water system and the tropic
weather of the plant site, temperature of NZW is above 30 C. NZW is supersaturated with dissolved
oxygen, which is even more pronounced after GAC cylinders were removed from the line, due to a)
during the peroxone process, mixtures of ozone and oxygen (>90%) was continuously injected into the
water and b) residual hydrogen peroxide in NZW decomposed into water and oxygen. After about 4
months operation in recycle mode, TDS concentration in NZW reached 400~450 mg/L, as compared to
71

Turbidity (NTU)
pH
Temperature (oC)
less than 200 mg/L in city water. As a low-energy and low-emissions plant, salts are not removed from
the current treatment process except precipitation by IMA, but diluted with 10~15% rainwater. As a result
high quality mineral water is produced.
34
32
30
28
NZW
City water
26
24
10.5
10.0
9.5
9.0
8.5
8.0
7.5
7.0
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
Total Dissolved Solids

(mg/L)
Dissolved Oxygen
(mg/L)
0.00
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
GAC cylinders removed
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Figure 3. Water chemistry (NZW vs. City water)
72

Organics is measured as COD and the reduction along the treatment train is shown in Figure 4. COD
in the residence hall unit varies from less than 200 mg/L to more than 300 mg/L. More than 90% of COD
in the raw wastewater is removed by MBR, resulting in less than 15 mg/L in dosing tank water. With the
dilution of rainwater and some removal by IMA process, COD in clearwell is usually less than 10 mg/L.
The residual organics are then completely mineralized during the advanced oxidation process of
peroxone.
350
300
COD (mg/L)
250
200
150
100
50
BDL
0
Septic
Dosing
Clearwell
Peroxone
Figure 4. Reduction of chemical oxygen demand (COD) along net-zero water treatment train (BDL:
below detection limit, 0.7 mg/L; sampled between Jul., 2013 and Dec. 2013)
Concentration changes of nitrogen species along the treatment train are plotted in Figure 5. It can be
seen that total nitrogen in the raw wastewater of residence hall unit is around 60 mg/L, most of which is
present as ammonia nitrogen. MBR effluent (dosing tank water) contains less than 10 mg/L TN with
majority being nitrate-nitrogen, indicating very effective nitrification/denitrification processes. IMA unit
slightly reduces nitrogen further and resulted in 2 to 3 mg/L NO3--N in final NZW, which is below the
secondary drinking water standard of 10 mg/L NO3-N.
During 5 month recycle operation from 07/2013 to 11/2013, E. coli occurred 17 times (Figure 6)
mostly with less than 10 counts in 100 mL water. Residual hydrogen peroxide gradually increased from
20~30 mg/L to 40~60 mg/L. 30 g/L silver was also added into the treated water since 10/2013.
However, it seemed that E. coli can occur at H2O2 concentrations both as low as ~20 mg/L and as high as
>60 mg/L. It was then noticed that E. coli tended to be detected right after the treated tank was filled.
Since dissolved ozone during the peroxone process usually provided Ct values of more than 100
mg/Lmin, several magnitudes higher than that needed for E. coli inactivation [5], it was believed that
biofilm could have grown in the pipe between ozone treatment tank and the treated water tank. Therefore,
the pipe was disinfected with 10% H2O2 and peroxide injection point was also moved as described in the
system operation section in early November, 2013. Occurrence of E. coli in the treated water tank has
been greatly reduced thereafter. However, hydrogen peroxide may not be a good choice for disinfection
because:
73

80
Total Nitrogen (mg/L)
60
40
20
0
Septic
Dosing
Clearwell
100
Ammonia-Nitrogen (mg/L)
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
Septic
Dosing
Nitrate-Nitrogen (mg/L)
0
Septic
Dosing
Clearwell Peroxone
NZW
Figure 5. Reduction of nitrogen species along net-zero water treatment train (sampled between Jul., 2013
and Dec., 2013).
74

(1) As a strong oxidant and nonspecific bactericide, hydrogen peroxide is more effective against Grampositive than against Gram-negative bacteria such as E. coli [6]. (2) Hydrogen peroxide can decompose
into oxygen gas and water in aqueous solution and its decomposition is substantially accelerated to a nonacceptable level at high temperature or in the presence of some metallic impurities. Due to the tropical
weather of project site and thermal energy retained in the water, water temperature in the treated water
tank is usually > 30C and the decomposition rate of hydrogen peroxide was found to be as high as 10~20
mg/L per day. Therefore, stability of the disinfectant during periods of rest has been a major concern with
the approach and sometimes resulted in E. coli re-growth in the previously sterilized water. Due to the
operational difficulties caused by hydrogen peroxide and its unsatisfactory disinfecting performance even
with the addition of silver, the system was switched to chlorine as the secondary disinfectant in
December, 2013.
120
Hydrogen Peroxide (mg/L)
100
H2O2
80
E. Coli occurrence
60
40
20
0
7/1/2013
8/1/2013
9/1/2013
10/1/2013
11/1/2013 12/1/2013
Figure 6. E. Coli. occurrence vs. residual hydrogen peroxide concentration

Total of 115 contaminants, including inorganic contaminants, synthetic organics, secondary
contaminants, disinfection byproducts, radionuclides, volatile organics and total coliform were analyzed
for the NZW sample sent to the external lab. Part of the results is shown in Table 1. The only compound
exceeding the MCL was bromate. Bromate is a well-known by product of ozonation if bromine/bromide
is present in the water [7]. Possible sources of bromine/bromide in the NZW include city water remained
in the system at the start of recycled mode, and rainwater as well. A study showed that the average
concentration of Br in rainwater across the Plynlimon region was as high as 15.6 g/L, i.e., 25.1 g/L as
bromate [8] and the average bromide concentration within natural waters in the United States is ~100g/L
[9]. The most suitable technology that may be used in net-zero water treatment might be electrochemical
process, where bromide is oxidized to bromine at the anode and subsequently volatilized with carbon
dioxide [10]. Application of this technique in the current project is being investigated now.
75

Table 1. Partial results of product water analyzed by certified external laboratory (sampled on
10/15/2013)
Inorganic contaminants
Secondary contaminants
Disinfection byproducts
(mg/L)
(mg/L)
(g/L)
Arsenic
0.000160 Aluminum
0.0007 Chlorite
1.76
Barium
0.0000600 Chloride
80.7 Bromate
86.3
Cadmium
0.0000700 Copper
0.0002 Monochloroacetic Acid
0.79
Chromium
0.00116 Iron
0.000800 Dichloroacetic Acid
0.45
Cyanide
0.00200 Manganese
0.0000900 Thrichloroacetic Acid
0.36
(total)
Fluoride
0.0420 Silver
0.0000600 Monobromoacetic Acid
0.47
Lead
0.0000600 Sulfate
57.7 Dibromoacetic Acid
0.37
Mercury
0.0000706 Zinc
0.000500 Chloroform
8.7
Nickel
0.000290 Color*
0.00/7.03 Bromoform
0.19
Nitrate as N
8.72 Threshold
1.00 Bromodichloromethane
0.08
Odor
Number**
Nitrite as N
0.0210 Total
374 Dibromochloromethane
0.12
Dissolved
Solids
Selenium
0.000410 MBAS
0.0603 Total Trihalomethanes
8.7
(TTHM)
Sodium
72.9
Antimony
0.000100
Beryllium
0.0000100 * Unit: Pt-Co
Total Coliform
Absent
Thallium
0.00000800 ** Unit: T.O.N.
5. Conclusions
System operation and field performance of a pilot-scale urban net-zero water treatment process are
demonstrated and evaluated. pH of the product water measures between 7.5 and 8, and turbidity measures
less than 0.2 NTU. NO3-N concentration generally fall between 1~3 mg/L. After four months of operation
in recycle mode with 10~20% rainwater make-up, TDS of the treated recycled water was approximately
400 mg/L. Importantly, the residual H2O2 concentration needed for disinfection has been found much
higher than the design value, partially due to the accelerated decomposition of H2O2 at the higher
temperature (>30C) of the water which retains waste thermal energy. While excess peroxide can be
removed with point-of-use filters, stability of the disinfectant during periods of rest has been an issue with
the approach. Therefore, system was switched to chlorine disinfection recently. Sampling and analysis by
a certified external lab on 10/15/2013 indicated the product water met 114 of 115 FDEP drinking water
standards, with the only exception being bromate. Further study of sludge management and bromate
removal is recommended.
6. References
[1] R. Cohen, B. Nelson and G. Wolff, Energy Down the Drain: The Hidden Costs of California's Water Supply, Natural
Resources Defense Council, Pacific Institute, (2004), Oakland, CA.
[2] ICF Consulting, Water and Sustainability: U.S. Electricity Consumption for Water Supply & TreatmentThe Next Half
Century, EPRI, (2002), Palo Alto, CA.
[3] J. Englehardt, T. Wu, G. Tchobanoglous, Water Research 47, 4680-4691, (2013)
76

[4] G. Gordon, W. J. Cooper, R. G. Rice and G. E. Pacey, Disinfectant Residual Measurement Methods, 2nd Ed., AWWARF and
AWWA, Denver, CO. (1992)
[5] J. C. Crittenden, R. R. Trussell, D. W. Hand, K. J. Howe and G. Tchobanoglous, MWHs Water Treatment: Principles and
Design, third ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York (2012)
[6] M. Wagner, D. Brumelis, and R. Gehr, Water Environment Research 74, 33-50, (2002)
[7] U. von Gunten, Water Research 37, 1469-1487, (2003)
[8] C. Neal, M. Neal, S. Hughes, H. Wickham, L. Hill and S. Harman, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 11, 301-312, (2007)
[9] M. Siddiqui, W. Zhai, G. Amy and C. Mysore, Water Research 30, 1651-1660, (1996)
[10] D. E. Kimbrough and I. H. Suffet, Water Research 36, 4902-4906, (2002)
77

Exploring Air-Conditioning Condensate Recovery as a

Water-Energy Infrastructure Synergy for Net Zero Buildings
Pacia Diaz1, Jennifer Isenbeck2, and Daniel Yeh1
1
Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa,

Florida, 33620, USA
2
Facilities, University of Tampa, Tampa, Florida, 33606, USA
Email: 1phernan2@mail.usf.edu, 2jisenbeck@ut.edu and 1dhyeh@usf.edu
Abstract
Air conditioning condensate is the waste stream from a standard building function; geographic
regions with hot and humid climate provide ideal conditions for the recovery of significant volumes of
high quality water. Yet, this nuisance water is rarely considered a resource and is quite literally routed
and poured down the drain. In a time of water scarcity, extended periods of drought, changing climate
and high urban water demands, buildings can increase community resilience by providing an independent
source of water for non-potable uses and partially offsetting potable water demands. As an added bonus,
this high quality water is obtained with minimal additional energy use or need for treatment. This paper
compares issues related to traditional water use (from centralized treatment facilities) to the benefits of
condensate recovery in buildings and gives direction on which non-potable uses for which condensate
would be most ideal. This emerging strategy contributes towards net zero water and energy buildings
while also being climate resilient. Architects, mechanical engineers and urban planners should look to
include this resource in building design; policy makers should adjust regulations to allow for this and
other alternative water sources for indoor use.
Keywords: alternative water supply, climate adaptation, climate mitigation, condensate recovery, net
zero energy, net zero water, resilience, sustainability, water-energy nexus
78

1. Introduction
Condensate is the resulting waste product from air conditioning. The air conditioning (AC) process
requires humidity removal from the air in order to provide thermal comfort to building occupants. As
humid air blows past cooling coils, moisture in the air condenses and is routed away from buildings and
disposed of as waste (Figure 1). This nuisance water (commonly referred to as clear waste by
mechanical engineers) is now being seen in a new light as a sustainable strategy that contributes toward
net zero installations as well as increases resilience in urban areas.
Global and regional average temperatures will continue to rise as a result of changing climate;
temperatures will possibly rise as high as 11.5F by the end of the century, depending on different
emissions scenarios [1; 2]. Higher temperatures will increase evaporation levels, causing for more water
to stay in the air (humidity). Air conditioning may become the norm and humidity removal from
buildings may become more prevalent
as climate changes. Therefore,
Cooling
OA
Mixing Zone
SA
capitalizing on the waste stream from
Section
this compulsory and energy intensive
OA
Outside Air
investment in buildings is compelling
RA
Return Air
RA
SA
Supply Air
given our contemporary climatic and
anthropogenic issues.
CONDENSATE
This paper:
Figure 1. Air conditioning condensate production
Compares traditional building water supply methods (from centralized treatment

facilities) to the benefits of condensate recovery,
Highlights criteria in determining the feasibility of condensate system implementation,
and
Shows how condensate recovery fits and contributes towards net zero strategies in the
built environment while increasing building and community water resilience.
2. Motivation
2.1.
A solution to urban water supply issues

Issues related to water scarcity in urban areas is a large motivator to look to alternative water supply.
Even in metropolitan areas, where drought planning and redundant infrastructure has been constructed,
reliable water supply efforts sometimes fail. For instance, in 2009, Tampa Bay, a large metropolitan area
on the Gulf coast of Florida, experienced water scarcity as a result of a three year drought. Conditions
were such that water reserves from their 15.5 billion gallon reservoir ran dry. Even with 130 million
gallons of water remaining at the bottom of the reservoir, there was insufficient hydraulic pressure for
distribution. Water managers satisfied demands by pumping from groundwater sources, putting
ecosystems at risk. These conditions led to the toughest watering restrictions ever imposed in the history
of this area [3; 4]. Although planned contingencies were in place, demands were not met as anticipated.
Water scarcity is also caused by anthropogenic impacts, such as the high concentration of people at a
single location. This condition applies pressure on resources, such as water and energy. Population
increases will affect US cities directly, with an anticipated increase of water use of 50 percent by 2025
[5]. Over 81 percent of the population of the United States is found in urban environments [6]. A large
percentage of that population - 52 percent - lives in coastal areas and is expected to grow significantly,
79

which translates into higher demands for water, higher potential for exploitation of sensitive coastal
aquifers, and increased pressure on already stressed infrastructure [7; 8; 9].
Water scarcity is also exacerbated by climatic conditions. Historic precipitation trends are changing
by extending dry seasons or causing them to shift [10; 11]. These changes affect the ability for water
managers to anticipate seasonal water supplies or to design water related infrastructure [12; 13].
Finally, water scarcity is also impacted by the economy. Approximately six billion gallons of treated
water is lost each day due to leaky pipes in the US, the equivalent of 14 percent of the nations water use
[14]. A lack of funds has caused water infrastructure to fall into disrepair; an estimated one trillion
dollars is needed to repair and replace the existing drinking water system [15].
2.2.
A water-energy infrastructure synergy

Improving water supply systems by implementing on-site strategies does more than just provide
alternative water supply; it also conserves energy. The water-energy nexus - the interdependency that
water and energy have on each other makes this possible. Consider that water is essential to generate
power and that power is necessary to treat and move water; although water is not directly consumed, this
water is generally discharged after use, not recycled for reuse. Power producers and water consumers will
be competing for the same resource [16]. Water sources are being depleted as populations grow, and
changing climate is also impacting water availability. Some regions of the United States may need to
reassess the value of energy and water resources and consider new technologies and approaches to
optimize economic growth. According to the Department of Energys report to Congress, one way to
address this challenge is to seek water-energy infrastructure synergies [17]. AC condensate recovery is
one such example. In 2006, energy consumption in residential and commercial buildings was dominated
by air-conditioning; 39 percent and 32percent respectively [18]; the end products are cooled air and water.
AC condensate recovery is a synergistic opportunity which needs to be harnessed as potential alternative
water source, making the best out of an energy intensive practice.
Given the above issues with the reliability and efficiency of water supply in the urban context, the
installation of a condensate recovery system in air conditioned building can improve the resilience of
water supply within buildings and urban communities.
3. Current strategies
3.1.
Water efficiency
Potable water is in high demand in urban areas. Growing water scarcity is moving water managers to
look to different ways to stretch existing water resources. Potable water use reduction strategies that
have been implemented other than watering restrictions by water management districts include
conservation, recycling and alternative water sources. Conservation is promoted by the installation and
use of low flow fixtures (such as toilets, faucets and shower heads), water efficient appliances and
inverted rate structures.
3.2.
Alternative water sources

However, conservation measures alone do not provide sufficient relief. Substituting potable water
with alternative water for non-potable uses is yet another way of reducing the amount of potable water
use. For example, reusing or recycling wastewater (or reclaimed water) is a way of reusing water a
second time and minimizing the amount of potable water that is needed. It is readily available in the
urban setting, particularly where centralized wastewater treatment facilities exist, often for outdoor uses
80

such as irrigation. Although treated wastewater is a fairly constant and drought-proof alternative water
source in an urban environment, only 2.5 percent of the nations wastewater is reclaimed [19; 20].
Substituting potable water with yet other alternative sources, such as rainwater and stormwater
harvesting, presents the challenge of adequate storage capacity for the existing demand. Storage
containers are usually the most costly part of the system [21].
3.3.
Green building certification

Green building rating systems are another way to encourage water efficiency in buildings and
building sites. The LEED EBOM rating system includes several methods for water conservation. AC
condensate recovery can contribute towards both the reduction of potable water use as well as the
substitution with alternative water sources for nonpotable use [22].
4. Net zero strategy

The net zero is another strategy which not only
looks to conserving water; it is multifaceted. It consists
of limiting the consumption of resources be it water or
energy to only that which buildings can produce;
waste, emissions and other building impacts are also
aimed to be zero. The United States Army has adopted
the net zero strategy and developed a hierarchical
approach to achieving net zero installations (Figure 2).
The most aggressive measure - reduction is at the top
of the inverted triangle. As different measures are
applied, then disposal or waste is minimized. Air
conditioning condensate recovery contributes towards
all three aspects of net zero.
Figure 2. US Army net zero hierarchy [23]
The Army defines each net zero dimension as

follows:
Net Zero Energy an installation that produces as much energy on site as it uses, over the course of
a year [23],
Net Zero Water limits the consumption of freshwater resources and returns water back to the same
watershed, so as not to deplete the groundwater and surface water resources of that region in quantity
and quality over the course of a year [23],
Net Zero Waste an installation that reduces, reuses, and recovers waste streams, converting them to
resource values [23].
Condensate recovery can contribute towards net zero strategies in all three of these dimensions (Table
1). However, as it may not be practical to implement condensate recovery in every circumstance, one
must consider if it is a worthwhile pursuit, depending on the application. One must also consider the
benefits of implementation as opposed to traditional methods. This paper examines how this sustainable
practice can contribute toward achieving net zero goals.
4.1.
Net zero water

The overarching goal in recovering condensate is to limit the consumption of natural water resources.
In doing so, it contributes towards limiting groundwater exploitation and surface water depletion.
81

However, prior to implementing a condensate recovery system in a building, a determination must be

made as to the volume potential that can be used to offset an installations water consumption.
4.1.1. Quantity: volume potential
Geographic location
Geographic location plays a significant role in how much condensate can be obtained. Ideal locations
are those where warm and humid climate is prevalent as well as where AC systems have a high number of
cooling days. ASHRAE climate maps and charts depict this climate criteria being prevalent in zones 1, 2
and 3 of the Central and Eastern United States (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. US climate zone map [52]

Issues in calculating
If AC condensate is a readily available water source, especially in areas where hot, humid seasons
coincide with highest water demands, how much can be collected? Is there a way to predict condensate
production?
Collecting condensate from buildings is, in theory, relatively simple, since (for the most part) air
conditioning systems are already designed to remove moisture from the air. The potential for collecting
condensate, however, can vary significantly.
There are several factors that must be considered when calculating the volume potential. These
factors vary between building use and geographical area.
Dehumidification for buildings varies: One important factor to consider is not only the size, but the
type of building. All air conditioning processes are not created equal, especially when it comes to
dehumidification [24]. For example, air conditioning systems for industrial buildings may require
less dehumidification than those for commercial or residential buildings.
82

Airstream composition: Collection potential also depends significantly on the airstreams

composition. Generally, the air stream is made up of dry air and water vapor. The air that passes
through the air conditioning process (in large buildings) will generally consist of a ratio of return air
(recycled air from within the building) and outdoor air. Each of these can be of different temperature
and humidity levels. Therefore, evaluating each source separately and estimating the thermodynamic
state of the mixed air is a necessary first step in performing calculations.
Ton hours per season: Air conditioning units do not run constantly, 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.
Units cut on and off throughout the day. Settings can vary between seasons. With the current green
movement coupled with the economic climate, there are those that may choose natural ventilation
during select times of the year to conserve energy, especially in residential applications. These
factors should be taken into consideration and adjustments made for accurate monthly/yearly
production rates.
At the moment, there is no commercially available software that accurately calculates volume
potential. However, depending on the level of accuracy needed, there are a couple of different methods of
estimating the volume potential. One is the technical method used by mechanical engineers which
involves the use of the psychrometric chart. This method involves using properties such as humidity,
specific humidity, enthalpy, wet-bulb temperature, dew-point temperature, and specific volume. By
knowing any two independent properties of the air, the thermodynamic state can be determined [25; 22;
26]. These factors should be taken into consideration and adjustments made for accurate monthly or
yearly production calculations:
Calculations using the psychrometric charge would reflect the estimated production rate at peak
conditions. Actual production rates would most likely be less. Production rates would be similar to
that of a juicer - an initial high flow rate when air conditioning system cycles on and a dwindling rate
as the system continues to run and remove humidity from the air.
Air conditioning units do not run constantly, 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. Units cut on and off
throughout the day.
Not all the water vapor would be condensed out of the air. Some water could potentially be
reabsorbed as vapor into the air as it blows past the cooling coil and drip pan.
Settings can vary between seasons. With the current green movement coupled with the economic
climate, there are those that may choose natural ventilation during select times of the year to conserve
energy, especially in residential applications.
Another method for estimating condensate potential is through the use of online calculators, like the
one developed by the San Antonio Water system [27). These calculators do not account for fluctuating
conditions like those mentioned in the previous section. However, they can serve to provide a ball-park
calculation, when needed.
Literature provides few documented case studies of metered condensate production. Those that have
been published only provide calculated estimates. The EPAs Laboratories for the 21st Century: Best
Practices, Water Efficiency Guide for Laboratories cites findings on condensate recovery rates based on
the load factor and cooling equipment tonnage. Depending on the rate of ambient humidity, the
conclusion was that from 0.1 to 0.3 gallons of condensate could be collected for every ton-hour of
operation [28; 29; 30]. Another study bases its estimates on predicted weather data and calculated
production rates, rather than measured results [31].
83

4.1.2. Quality: fit for purpose

Recovered condensate needs to be of suitable quantity and appropriate quality to match the intended
use for it to be of benefit. As AC condensate recovery becomes a more acceptable alternate source to
satisfy water demands, it is important to understand the applicability and potential treatment necessary for
the collected condensate. In some cases, condensate can go virtually untreated; in others, treatment
methods should be considered based on efficacy, cost, safety and long term maintenance.
Precautions
Water that collects on the evaporator coils of cooling systems can initially be considered as fairly
high quality water; it is practically the same quality as distilled water. However, once condensate comes
in contact with air conditioning equipment surfaces (including drain pans and coils), dust, mildew and
other undesirable elements potentially can contaminate the water being collected. Quality diminishes due
to the organic content drawn in through the air conditioning system during the formation of the
condensate. Left chemically untreated, stagnant, warm-water sources provide an ideal environment for
Legionella [32]. Although condensate leaves the cooling coil at a temperature well below that which
Legionella typically grows, it can still survive at low temperatures [33]. Therefore, it is important to keep
in mind the potential health risks once it is collected and stored.
The exposure pathways for Legionella can be by either aerosol or direct contact. In the case of
aerosol, inhalation of aerosol droplets, usually within one meters distance from the source can be
sufficient for exposure. Although there are no documented cases of Legionella exposure caused by
aerosols generated by toilet flushing or air streams from air handling equipment, precautions should be
taken in treating condensate being used for this application [34; 35].
Metals
Heavy metals may be present due to the condensates contact with the cooling coils and other parts of
the air conditioning equipment. There may be the slight risk of lead contamination (from solder joints in
the evaporative coils) building up to dangerous levels in soil continually irrigated with the water [36].
Safety concerns
Mold and mildew growth on coils and condensate collection can be passed on to condensate
collection media. The design of system components, such as tube size and distance, velocity of the air
upon reaching the coil, condensate pan size, and the slope at which components are positioned can
contribute to moist undesirable conditions [37]. When attempting to recover condensate from buildings
where the AC system is already in place, steps should be taken so that bacteria does not spread or
multiply [38]. There is also the possibility of a cross connection between potable and non-potable water
within buildings, increasing the chances of accidental ingestion of non-potable water. Measures should
be taken which reduce this risk, such as the biodegradable injection of dyes to indicate non-potable water
or the labeling of pipes or facilities which use non-potable water. Permanent signage with recommended
language, such as "reuse water not for human consumption is being required by State and local agencies
[39].
Treatment requirements
Since an individual disinfection method has not always been successful against Legionella, a
combination of disinfection treatment is recommended. For example, in addition to a chlorine residual, a
84

supplemental disinfection method, such as ultraviolet light sterilization, may be used in order to
effectively prevent outbreaks [39; 35].
Choosing the appropriate type of disinfection or treatment is dependent on the intended use of
condensate (see Table 1 for EPAs recommendations). For example, if recovered condensate is intended
for irrigation purposes, it may require minimal treatment, especially if used with drip irrigation systems.
When utilized for plant process water, water treatment procedures are already in place for anti-microbial,
anti-scaling. Therefore, the condensate becomes integrated with the treatment process [40].
Table 1. Types of available treatment based on intended end use quality needs [40]
4.2.
Net zero energy

Since water and energy are inextricably connected, water conservation practices should be considered
just as important as reduced energy consumption, as it translates into less energy use. AC condensate
recovery can play a significant role in this effort.
In urban environments, the water source is usually located at a remote location from where the
demand resides. Water treated at centralized locations is generally transported long distances through an
85

extensive network of pipes to a treatment plant where chemicals and energy are needed for treatment and
delivery; this is not a very sustainable practice.
Using alternative water sources of inferior quality, such as reclaimed water (recycled wastewater), for
non-potable uses in and around buildings, is another strategy that is being widely implemented in an
effort to conserve natural resources. Reclaimed water is readily available in the urban setting, particularly
where centralized wastewater treatment facilities exist. It is often made available for outdoor uses such
as irrigation. Tapping into this resource also minimizes pollutant loadings and discharges into urban
waters, especially in land-locked areas. [19]. Lack of extensive implementation of wastewater recycling
may be due in part to the capital expense required for infrastructure in terms of tertiary treatment and an
extensive secondary distribution system; a challenge in todays economy.
Distribution and treatment of water in centralized facilities requires energy. Energy consumption for
water supply distribution varies from system to system. These can include system operations, water main
length, source type (surface water vs. groundwater) and if it is gravity-fed (source is at a high elevation).
The same is true with energy requirements in the production of reclaimed water; wastewater treatment
technologies vary significantly and can consume different amounts of energy for the same volume [41].
Table 2 illustrates this for a few cities within the United States as well as general averages.
Table 2. Energy consumption in water treatment and distribution
Location
Energy Consumed
Water Supply
Reclaimed Water
Colorado Springs, CO1
2788 kWh/MG
598 kWh/MG
1079 kWh/MG
New York
(varies on location)
2617 kWh/MG
United States Average2

Trickling filter
Activated Sludge
Advanced Treatment with Nitrification
670 kWh/MG
1030 kWh/MG
1560 kWh/MG
1 (courtesy Steve Doty, Colorado Springs Utilities)

2 [2]
AC condensate is produced within the building, precisely where it is to be reused. Minimal additional
infrastructure is required to get the condensate from its source to where it will be reused. Additionally,
condensate is an automatic result of the dehumidification process in air conditioning. Therefore, the
energy used in running the system is the same as that for its production with no additional energy input.
The energy requirement for getting source water to its destination is eliminated as it is used in close
proximity to its source. Any additional energy requirement, such as pumping it for storage or for its
proposed use, is considered minimal.
4.3.
Net zero waste

Net zero waste looks to recover waste steams by closing loops. Waste reduction within buildings
commonly consists of solid waste and toxins generated by building occupants or in by general building
86

operations [42]. A waste stream audit does not include opportunities for recycling a waste stream like
condensate. However, AC condensate recovery takes the air conditioning systems waste stream and
repurposes it as a useful resource: an alternative water source to offset potable water. As mentioned
earlier, with a favorable geographic location and building use, air conditioning systems can yield
significant volumes, providing a significant reduction in water use and improving resilience.
In some locations, it is common practice to route condensate discharge from the AC system into the
buildings sewer connection. If buildings are charged for quantities of water that needs treatment, they
would incur this charge for the condensate if it is sent to the sanitary sewer system. However, most
municipalities request condensate be routed to storm or other locations rather than sanitary sewer.
5.
Uses
Non-residential buildings are most ideal for condensate recovery as they have the highest production
volume rates. The end use of water for these buildings is also the most ideal for reuse, as most are nonpotable uses. Figure 4 shows the typical end uses of water in office buildings. All uses, except for
kitchen/dishwashing, are non-potable in nature. Approximately 87% of the end uses of water could be
offset by an alternative water source, such as AC condensate. Other building types also provide this
opportunity for substituting potable water with an alternative water source.
Most outdoor uses of water and a
significant portion of indoor water use are
often non-potable in nature. Yet, most nonpotable applications are satisfied using highquality, treated potable water. Recovered
concentrate could certainly substitute
potable water in non-potable applications,
but given the potential health risks and need
for treatment, what could condensate safely
be used for?
The
following
are
appropriate
applications for using condensate as an
alternative water source [27]:
Figure 4. End uses of water in office buildings [53]
Toilet flushing
Irrigation
Water cooled equipment
Decorative fountains and water features
Evaporative coolers
Rinse water for washing vehicles and
equipment
Water for laundry operations
Steam boiler makeup water
Closed loop cooling/heating systems
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Many mechanical engineers agree that the best used for AC condensate is in cooling towers as
makeup water for three reasons: (1) virtually no solids are present in the condensate, so blowdown is
reduced, yielding more cycles, (2) reduced chemical treatment because of the neutral properties of
condensate, therefore reducing the overall chemical treatment costs, and (3) there is no need for storage.
Condensate can be applied directly to the cooling tower; this keeps costs down for implementation.
There is one use for which recovered condensate is not appropriate: as drinking water. Condensate
should NEVER be used for human consumption due to the quality issues mentioned previously,
particularly those pertaining to metals [36]
6. Conclusions
Air conditioning condensate may not be fit for drinking, but it can contribute towards net zero
building strategies including water, energy and waste (Table 3). It provides significant flows for it to be
considered as a reliable source [22]. It improves reliability of non-potable water supply within buildings,
with minimal infrastructure investment, water treatment and energy input if applied as cooling tower
makeup water or other non-potable applications.
Table 3. Air conditioning condensate contribution to net zero strategies
Measure
Reduced need for infrastructure
Reduced need for pumping
Reduced need for treatment
Repurposed condensate from waste to an alternative water source
Limits consumption of treated potable water/freshwater resources
Closed loop - Eliminates waste and uses condensate as a resource
Converts waste streatms into resources
Cradle-to-Cradle Strategy
Net Zero
Energy
X
X
X
Net Zero
Water
Net Zero
Waste
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Future research
Next steps that should be if condensate recovery is to be an accepted water-energy infrastructure
strategy within buildings is to meter condensate production in buildings where this practice is
implemented. Lord Kelvin (also known as Sir William Thomson a British physicist and engineer) once
said, If you cannot measure it, you cannot improve it. Without data to back theoretical calculations, it
is difficult to take this leap of faith. Meters could be read manually (daily, monthly, annually), but ideally
these meters should be tied into the buildings energy management system (BMS or EMS) for better realtime tracking. That being said, a data connection network or router device would need to convert the
pulse reading to a numeric value. If properly trended with time of day, weather properties such as dry
bulb, wet bulb, building air conditioning load (tonnage), and correlations could certainly be developed for
more accurate production rates. Much can be learned about seasonal production rates, and relevant links
to geographical locations and building types.
As a result of further study and increased implementation of this water saving practice, AC systems
could be better designed to safely collect condensate, improving water quality and minimizing health
88

concerns in the future. The tracking of system installation, maintenance costs and system benefits will lay
the groundwork for industry acceptance in geographical locations where recovery is feasible.
7. Acknowledgements
Development of this material is based upon work supported by grants from the Alfred P. Sloan
Foundation and the National Science Foundation under Grant Number 0965743. Any opinions, findings,
and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
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91

Net Positive Water
Billy Joseph Ma
Intern Architect, University of Waterloo, 18 Harding Blvd. Unit 1209, Richmond Hill, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada, b6ma@uwaterloo.ca
Abstract
Net Positive Water (NPW) explores the capability of architecture to generate positive water to combat
the developing urban water problem. Urban intensification is contributing to the volatility of urban waters
and the breakdown of the urban water cycle. Inhabitant water misuse and overconsumption is
overwhelming aging municipal utilities, leading to the decay of urban water quality. NPW Guidelines and
Standards will utilize building and inhabitant water demand to induce an integrated cycle of sustainable
water harvesting, storage, use, renewal, and reuse.
Clean On-site Water Guidelines and Standards will establish site conditions that function as a Passive
means to harvest and store water resources. Reconstruction of the inhabited landscape will be designed to
meet the annual water requirements of project inhabitants. Dirty On-site Water Guidelines and Standards
will focus on urban building-to-streetscape conditions. Site conditions will be constructed with resilient
substrates and landscape content to passively separate urban contaminants from water resources. Clean
Building Water Guidelines and Standards prescribe Clean On-site Water Guidelines on building
conditions. Building water harvesting is separated into Active Exterior and Interior management. Water
related building mechanisms referred to as Hydronics will be designed to store and preserve Clean water
content.
Dirty Building Water Guidelines and Standards prescribe Active treatment systems to address
wastewater contribution from inhabitants and Dirty On-site conditions. NPW treatment processes must
remove 100% of inhabitant and urban waste. The outcome of the Active treatment cycle is Net Positive
Water Quality to be combat water decay in the urbanized ecosystem. A Net Positive Water Matrix will
outline the relationship between the Passive and Active capabilities of NPW building typology.
1. Introductions
1.1 The Urban Water Problem
In the award winning film documentary entitled: Blue Gold: World Water Wars 2008; director
Tony Clarke outlines the current plight of global water issues by defining the declining quantity of
available fresh water resources.
If we massively remove water out of an area, the ecosystem is disrupted, the natural habitat damaged,
biodiversity reduced, and aquifers dried.
Overconsumption and misuse are domestic practices that have removed water from regional water
bodies, disrupting the natural water cycle by mitigating the environments capability to renew regional
resources.
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Urban inhabitants are squandering fresh water resources through poor water practices and what can
best be described as a lack of awareness of the developing water problem. The decline of fresh water
has been documented by UNESCO publications on urban water, emphasizing the need to address ongoing
issues of water in cities.
The movement for equity and environmental sustainability comes as global conditions are changing
dramatically and becoming more demanding. We are the first generation to live on earth to witness a
doubling of population in our lifetime. The problem with domestic overconsumption is compounded by
increasing urban growth, creating a massive resource grab in the urbanized ecosystems. These
developments and the stresses they place on regional water resources have resulted in the Urban Water
Problem.
1.2 Net Zero Water
Sustainable water practices are strategies to reduce the growing anthropogenic impact on the urban
water problem. Water conservation to combat the negative impact of domestic overconsumption is subject
to controlling population scale; where urban intensification is limited by available fresh water resources in
an ecosystem. The World Water Council in conjunction with the United Nations Development Program
have designated a minimum of 20 Liters Per Capita per Day (LPCD) of potable water is required to
maintain adequate health of each person. A minimum of 50 LPCD of clean water is also required to fulfill
human sanitation, combat illnesses, and to prevent disease. A sustainable tolerance of comfortable water
use is assessed at 70 LPCD and this volume is recognized as Net Zero Water (NZW).
1.3 Net Positive Water Guidelines & Standards
Net Positive Water (NPW) is the generation of positive water quality to combat the urban water
problem.
NPW utilizes LEEDTM and The Living Building Challenge (LBC) to prescribe design standards for
positive water performance. Guideline Site and Water initiatives define the baseline architectural response
to mitigate the ecological impact of urban inhabitation. NPW typology controls its water resources under
four separate quality streams; Greenwater, Bluewater, Greywater, and Blackwater. These resources are
maintained by Clean and Dirty management throughout On-site and Building conditions.
NPW On-site Prerequisites are based on an Environmental Assessment to determine the amount of
water resources available in addition to the required initiatives to integrate project development with the
urban water cycle.
Clean On-site Guidelines outline sustainable site conditions such as stormwater runoff mitigation and
site permeability. Clean On-site Water Standards require urbanized site conditions to passively harvest
and store water resources. The amount of passive harvesting content will be dictated by the water
requirements placed on the project to sustain Net Zero Water.
Dirty On-site Guidelines address urban streetscape conditions. Dirty site boundaries will isolate
debris and harvest polluted on-site water content for treatment. Native and resilient plant species will
passively filter urban debris from on-site water.
NPW Building Prerequisites requires projects to harvest sufficient Greenwater resources to provide
for NZW. Building scale and inhabitant density will be determined based on the regional availability of
water for NZW use. Clean Building Guidelines prescribe Clean On-site Guidelines on all impervious
surfaces of a building. Drainage design for water harvesting is separated into Exterior and Interior
management.
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Clean Building Standards establishes permeable areas throughout the building envelope. Exterior
drainage will be designed to drain towards permeable areas. Interior drainage must preserve water quality
as harvested water from permeable areas drain into Active storage mechanisms. Active storage cannot
allow water quality to decay.
Dirty Building Guidelines establishes Exterior drainage from Dirty On-site management to convey
water into water treatment systems. Dedicated drains will be provided for NZW Greywater and
Blackwater directing the medium into water treatment. Dirty Building Water Standards requires water
treatment processes to ensure the health of NPW project inhabitants. 100% of NZW Greywater and
Blackwater must be treated so that the resource can be reused. Treated Greenwater and Bluewater water
must be inspected by qualified water inspection professionals to adhere to regional health and regulatory
standards. All water content will be subject to an integrated cycle of sustainable water management.
1.4 Net Positive Water Matrix
Net Positive Water concludes by outlining the relationship of Passive and Active water processes as
the outcome of project adherence to Guidelines & Standards. The greater the Passive capabilities of a
project to store and treat water resources, the less demand is placed on Active building processes to
remediate and maintain water in the NPW cycle. Passive performance amongst Building and On-site
conditions establishes the potential for urban projects to accommodate intensification and water use as a
net positive effect to combat the urban water problem.
2. Urban Water Problem

2.1 Domestic Consumption
Residential water demand accounts to over 50 percent of the Canadas urban water use profile1
highlighting our water dependence in domestic building typology. Design trends have influenced more
opulent bathrooms and kitchens and the diversified use of water resources has only increased the
domestic water profile. Domestic emphasis on kitchen and bathroom design has increased the number of
opportunities to access water. The ease of water use and the increasing number of fixtures are the root of
the water problem in dwellings.
Canada is one of the few nations in the world that provides potable water to satisfy all forms of
domestic use. Inhabitants use potable water for non-potable tasks such as landscape irrigation, car washes,
and waste conveyance. As the building community continues to develop architecture that encourages the
use of potable water in the domestic environment, the emphasis for resource sustainability diminishes. As
a nation, Canadians consume 253 LPCD, nearly 360% greater than NZW. Although Canadas fresh water
resources are plentiful, domestic practices are far from globally sustainable levels.
2.2 Urban Water Use impact
Urban centers have been constructed as a greater impervious area where building envelopes prevent
rainfall infiltration into the ground, disrupting the natural cycle of water. The resulting runoff of
stormwater is highly volatile causing flash flood conditions that can overwhelm the natural absorption
capabilities of the regional landscape. Precipitation runoff that is not captured by stormwater
infrastructure carries urban debris across the impervious urbanized area, dumping pollutants and urban
debris into freshwater bodies.
One example of the urban water problem is the Don River Watershed, the most urbanized waterway
in all of Canada supporting 2.7 million inhabitants in the City of Toronto. In 2007, Environment Canada
94

documented a water quality rating of 34.8 out of 100 for the Don River. It is the lowest rated health
evaluation of all the rivers in Canada. The regenerative water cycle of the Don Watershed does not have
the capacity to absorb the vast quantity and decaying quality water that is dumped into the urbanized
environment. As urban centers like Toronto continue to erode their fresh water resources the impact of the
decay will have negative repercussions for urban inhabitants and their health.
2.3 Economic impact of the Urban Water stress
The City of Toronto will demonstrate the economic impact of the urban water problem. Up to 77
percent of the Citys water infrastructure is functioning past the expiration of the systems service life. A
reported 1,500 watermain failures are recorded each year, costing the City an estimated 87 million dollars
to repair aging water utilities3. In 2004, untreated sewage discharge from the City of Toronto by-passed
wastewater treatment plants dumping upwards of 907 million litres of wastewater into Lake Ontario. The
cost to improve Toronto's water infrastructure is estimated at 30-40 billion dollars over the next 15
years4. The demand to continue potable water provisions for urban inhabitants will place the burden of
cost on its citizens.
Existing urban water policies utilize a post payment process where inhabitants are charged for their
water use but the billing process does not elaborate and how the user has accumulated their volume of
water demand. Furthermore fixed-rate water policies have undermined the value of water resources,
creating a shortfall in economic resources to improve the environmental impact of urban water use. This
dilemma is further emphasized with Torontos urban growth approaching as one of the leaders in North
America. The City of Toronto 2010 Official Plan projects an increase of 537,000 inhabitants by the year
2031, making the region one of the fastest developing urban centers behind Calgary-Alberta and DallasTexas.
Urban cities like Toronto will be placed under substantial economic strain to achieve environmental
regeneration, water renewal, and infrastructure redevelopment while accommodating urban growth.
Increasing domestic water consumption will further exacerbate the stresses placed on the urban
environment and the urban water problem.
3. Net Zero Water

Net Zero Water (NZW) will follow the prescription of 70 LPCD as the comfortable volume of
sustainable water use. NZW divides domestic water use into Potable and Non-Potable resources. Potable
water will only be utilized for human consumption, with alternative water uses serviced by Non-Potable
water. Establishing water efficiency requires household tools to mitigate water misuse, improve water
savings, and expand water awareness through architecture. These efficiencies will be calculated through
Time-of-use and Choice-of-use exposure. Water performance will be measured by specifying the
appropriate volume of water required for typical domestic task.
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Table 3.0.1 outlines the different types of water use within domestic households. Facial Cleaning, Teeth
Brushing, Food Preparation and Water consumption require Potable water quality from 2 household
locations, the Lavatories and the Kitchen. Showering, Bathing, Toilet use, Dishwashing and Clothes
washing can be satisfied with Non-Potable water resources.
3.1 Time-of-Use Exposure
NZW will prescribe water usage based on Time-of-Use (TOU) consideration from best performing
1.9 LPM(0.5 gal.) kitchen and lavatory faucets. Environment Canada establishes a potable water baseline
of 10 LPCD for food preparation1. Calculating the daily Time-of-Use exposure will utilize best available
Ultra Low-Flow Faucets at a daily duration of 5 minutes to achieve sustainable water demand.
Eight glasses of water per day is the daily recommended amount for healthy living with a faucet TOU of
2 minutes at 3.7 LPCD. Personal and household hygiene has a TOU of 2.2 minutes at 4.3 LPCD. Hygiene
TOU is split into Oral Hygiene2, Facial Hygiene3, Hand washing4, and Grooming. TOU will be
prescribed based on the assumption that each inhabitant partakes in one shower per day to maintain
personal hygiene. The average Canadian inhabitant has regular shower duration of 5-10 minutes.
NZW will prescribe TOU shower duration of 10 minutes at 19 LPCD non-potable water.
3.2 Choice-of-Use Exposure
Choice-of-Use (COU) consideration focuses upon educating inhabitants to optimize water fixture use.
NZW separates toilet use into four occurrences of wastewater disposal and one event of waste solid
removal. COU utilizing Ultra Low HET toilets results in non-potable water use at 15 LPCD (3.0LPF
Avg.). Washing Machines at high load capacity will accommodate COU of three loads per every two
weeks based on urban residential occupancy of 2.5 peoples per unit. At the specified COU, the daily nonpotable consumption rate equates to 13.3 LPCD. Efficient Dishwashers have a fixed volume of water use
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per cycle. COU will drop from the current average of 142 cycles per annum to 86 at two cycles per week
with maximum load capacity. The resulting daily nonpotable consumption rate equates to 1.4 LPCD.
1.2 LPCD of non-potable water demand is allocated for household sanitation in combination with
LEEDTM Green Seal certified products. The allotted COU equates to a full bucket (8 litres/2.1 gal.) per
week. The average Canadian bathes 46 times a year at approximately 60L(16 gal.) per bath. NZW
establishes a target COU of 13 baths per year. The prescribed 2.1 LPCD non-potable water demand
reduces the number of full baths per inhabitant to once a month. For residents that prefer to bathe, the
number of times they bathe can increase upwards to 26 baths per year by utilizing bath water capacity.
Figure 3.0.1 The water volumes displayed in Blue showcase the total amount of water needed for
individual household tasks. Each individual Cell represents 1 liter of water. These volumes are a result of
the projected adequate Time-of-Use prescription.
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Figure 3.0.2 This diagram displays the total volume of Potable and Non-Potable water consumption under
the NZW projection for adequate sustainable water use. Each unit or cell presents 1 liter of water. Blue
is the diagrammatic representation of Potable water consumption. Grey are additional elements of
domestic life that can be serviced by Non-Potable demand.
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Table 3.0.2 provides a day-by-day breakdown of household potable and non-potable water use utilizing
best performing domestic water hardware. Values specified for each task are extrapolated from exiting
urban water use practices from the City of Toronto.
4. Net Positive Water Guidelines & Standards

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Net Positive Water (NPW) prescribes the means to develop domestic architecture to generate positive
water quality. NPW utilizes NZW where 70 LPCD Potable and Non-potable demand is integral to the
NPW cycle. NPW Guidelines will also outline the Passive and Active mechanisms required to separate
contaminants from water resources. Water resources will be divided into measures of quality identified by
Greenwater, Bluewater, Greywater, and Blackwater.
Table 4.0.1 Bluewater is in surface freshwater bodies. Greenwater is derived from agricultural
terminology that prescribes precipitation and ground evaporation. Greywater is wastewater generated
from domestic activities. Blackwater is water utilized for human waste conveyance.
4.1 NPW On-site Pre-requisites
An Environmental Assessment (EA) must analyze the environmental variables of a project site. NPW
development on a non-polluted site will restore the hydrological performance of a site. The EA process
will also identify the availability of water resources for NZW use. NPW Stormwater Management is
tasked to control 100% of the water that lands on a project site during a major storm. On-site water
strategies must accommodate for 100-year precipitation levels.
NPW project sites designated as Brownfields must be subject to land remediation. In contaminated
conditions, 100% of landscape and soil content must be treated and recycled. An NPW Management Area
must be negotiated between building developers and the municipality. Management boundary definition
differs in each project due to varying urban conditions and site servicing demands. NPW must avoid
Floodplain conditions that threaten the health of inhabitants and project water resources. Projects on lands
with a High Water Table1 will be required to an Effective Impervious Area (EIA) to manage water
conditions. NPW construction developed on land that is not capable of restored hydraulic function must
fulfill the lost function of the urban water cycle in place of the site.
4.1.1 Required Calculations for On-site NPW Pre-requisites
Each NPW project will be subject to different environmental parameters whereby project site area,
available water resources, and the quality of water resources differ. The following factors must be
calculated:
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4.2 Clean Water On-site Guidelines

Clean Water On-site Guidelines address Greenwater precipitation and Bluewater resources. To
manage and preserve Clean Water, NPW On-site will be designed to separate Clean water from Dirty
urban streetscapes. NPW buildings will physically buffer streetscape conditions, isolating the Clean
Water On-site Management area from Dirty urban conditions. On-site management areas consist of four
primary conditions; Landscape Areas2, Vegetation Areas3, Water features4, and Paved pathways5. NPW
will prescribe Landscape Areas away from urban street conditions to maintain Clean water quality.
Landscape soils and substrates will be utilized as Passive water storage mechanisms. Passive soil storage
acts as a naturally occurring filter that separates debris as water travels throughout the soils. Soil selection
and soil volume will be determined to fulfill storage requirements for NZW inhabitant use.
Vegetation Areas utilize native plant species as a component of the regional ecology. Resilient plant
species will border paved areas to isolate urban debris that is not trapped by paving substrates.
Water features must induce flow to the medium as a means to avoid water quality decay from stagnation6.
Water that is stored in naturalized conditions is subject to ultraviolet exposure, a process that passively
treats the medium by killing bacteria. Paving will be permeable throughout Clean On-site Management
Areas to mitigate surface water conditions. Paving substrates will trap and isolate urban debris while
water percolates beneath the material. Site Servicing must replace On-site materials to maintain the
integrity of site permeability. In Northern climates, alternatives to salt/de-icing are available that have
been proven to cause no ill detriment to the urban environment.
4.3 Dirty Water On-Site Guidelines
Dirty Water management addresses urban streetscape conditions and buffers contaminants from
Clean Onsite areas. A Dirty Water Site Boundary will isolate and separate urban contaminants from NPW
Greenwater resources. Dirty Water conditions will consist of Vegetation Areas, and Streetscape
pathways. Vegetated Areas will be deployed as Bioswale landscape elements draining surface waters into
soil and vegetation. Resilient plant species trap contaminants while stormwater runoff is harvested for
NZW use. Paving will be subject to Clean Water On-site Management Guidelines. Roadway design
prescribed as an inverted crown establishes a collection channel to isolate road debris in the center of a
street. Infiltration Galleries made of compartmentalized chambers of sand and gravel trap Dirty debris as
stormwater is harvested throughout substrate materials.
4.4 Required Calculations for NPW Clean & Dirty On-site
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To calculate the total water harvesting capability of On-site features, the performance of each On-site
surface material and supporting material must be identified.
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4.5 NPW Building Pre-requisites

NPW Building Prerequisites manage water quality on project buildings and building water use. NPW
Buildings are subject to NPW Clean Water On-site Standards. Impervious building surfaces will drain
Greenwater precipitation into NPW permeable coverage areas consists of Landscape, Vegetation, Water
Features and Pathways. Clean Water Building Management requires building materials to maintain Clean
Water quality on building surfaces. Building materials must not release chemicals, leachate, or material
decay to the detriment NPW resources. Drainage from Passive water storage into the building is a
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continual harvesting function of the NPW cycle. Passive storage will not be sufficient to store 100% of
Greenwater resources that fall onto the project. NPW require Active water storage mechanisms to
accommodate for the remaining quantity of harvested water.
As a result of the limited but sustainable volume of annual water resources that can be harvested,
building scale and density changes with varying site conditions, areas, and available water resources.
Building scale and density is based upon the quantity of annual water resources that can be stored on
(Passive), and in (Active) the NPW building. All NPW Clean Water Building resources will be subject to
NPW treatment to ensure the health of domestic inhabitants and the health of the domestic living
environment.
4.5.1 Required Calculations for NPW Building Pre-requisites
The following calculation is required to identify the required quantity of Active water storage of the
NPW building:
4.6 NPW Clean Building Water Guidelines & Standards

Two strategies are prescribed for NPW Clean Building Water Guidelines. Exterior Management
utilizes passive storage on the building envelope as the harvested water medium is slowly released as a
component of natural time-scale flow18. Interior Management is implemented by managing water quality
classifications.
4.6.1 Exterior Clean Water Building management
Clean Building Water Guidelines prescribe Passive water storage performance on building rooftops,
podiums, amenity areas, open circulation pathways, residential terraces, and balconies. Urban
construction is subject to varying sources of contamination in the atmosphere and those particles can
accumulate on building surfaces. NPW utilizes landscape conditions on the building envelope as a means
to isolate this debris. Rooftops will operate as an independent plane to contain 100-percent of the annual
precipitation that falls onto the area defined as Roof. The design strategy for the winter season will
retain snow at the location of snowfall. Passive water storage on building rooftops takes shape in the form
of landscape sod and vegetation planters. Rooftop pathways will be permeable, allowing precipitation to
infiltrate substrate screening and granular materials. Insulation on the building envelope will be installed
to avoid premature melting of rooftop snow as a result of thermal bridging.
The domestic building envelops translates a multitude of spatial conditions to provide exterior habitat,
viewpoints, and open environmental engagement. These areas will be subject to canopy and permeable
drainage design. Passive water storage deployed on NPW building elevations will reduce stormwater
runoff. Following the drainage design of NPW rooftops, impervious hardscapes will drain surface waters
into Landscape and Vegetation areas. Planter boxes constructed in varying sizes reflect the soil heights
prescribed to achieve sufficient Passive storage volume. On impervious building conditions, canopies are
deployed to drain Greenwater precipitation away inhabitable areas. Canopy coverage will be equal to the
area of impervious surface. Canopies will follow a slope design and drain into permeable Passive water
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storage. Building podiums in urban conditions will be designed as a management plane with the same
permeable Passive water storage strategy as prescribed for NPW building rooftops.
4.6.2 Interior Clean Water Building Management
Water management within NPW building typology must control water resources under the four urban
water categories. The first tier of NPW building Clean Water management will be Drainage design to
harvest Greenwater precipitation from Passive water storage into Active water storage. The second tier
will provide dedicated Potable, and Non-potable water supply for NZW use.
Drainage into the building will be protected from surface water conditions where sloped planes can
also accumulate debris. Drainage inlets will be situated beneath permeable paving with geotextile fabrics
and substrate screening materials isolating debris. The implementation of drainage covers/grates will act
as a secondary mechanism to stop foreign materials from entering Interior Clean Water Management.
NZW Potable water supply will be sourced from NPW Active water treatment after it has been harvested
or stored in storage mechanisms. NZW Non-Potable water supply will be sourced from NPW Active
water storage with water subject to NPW treatment inspection to ensure Non-Potable water quality.
Active water storage mechanisms will be tasked to mitigate the growth of bacteria in stored water
resources as well as the buildup of harmful waterborne particulates. Storage strategies will not be allowed
additional waterborne additives in the form of solvents and chemicals as a means to rectify degrading
water quality. Active storage mechanisms in conjunction with Passive water storage will be designed to
accommodate sufficient water resources to support the annual water demands of NZW use.
4.7 Dirty Building Water Guidelines & Standards
Urban domestic development utilizes service areas for loading, moving, and refuse. All of these areas
negotiate Dirty water conditions that can contaminate On-site and Building water resources. The listed
areas will be internalized within a NPW project as a means to contain debris. Drainage in service and
utility areas will direct all water content directly into water treatment. NPW building areas allotted for
vehicle laneways, municipal services, and internal building services are subject to an EIA. Impervious
paving will function as a sloped plane draining water content into floor gutters. The gutters will trap
contaminants and debris while separating residual Dirty water. The gutters will drain directly into NPW
treatment systems for quality renewal. Captured debris is subject to On-site Site Servicing management.
NPW building area allotted for parking will also be designed with dedicated floor drains, whereby paving
design will function as a sloped plane to drain the Dirty water content that falls from vehicles.
NPW building typology will filter, treat, and renew all NZW Greywater and Blackwater content to
Greenwater and Bluewater quality. NPW Innovative Water Treatment (IWT) will deploy treatment
mechanisms and water processes to renew harvested water resources to pre-consumption conditions,
generating a building water cycle to establish multiple water reuse. Non-potable Greywater from NZW
kitchens, wash closets, and bath drainage will undergo filtration and treatment to remove residual
household chemicals, bacterias that have been accumulated from inhabitant use, and all effluents.
Blackwater from toilets drain inhabitant wastewater and waste solids directly into treatment. Solid waste
material will be removed from the water medium while wastewater content will be purified of bad
bacteria, toxic substances, and other forms of human waste. Dedicated utility areas will be provided for
NPW IWT including facilities to control water treatment processes. IWT utilities include building area for
drainage and plumbing maintenance, pump stations, sump pumps, and dedicated waste collection
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facilities for NZW solid waste management. IWT management technicians will be required to manage
NPW treatment processes.
4.8 Required Calculations for NPW Buildings
The following calculation is required to establish Active water storage and IWT in NPW projects:
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5. Net Positive Water Matrix

The Net Positive Water Matrix outlines the relationship between the Passive and Active capabilities
of NPW building typology. The matrix consists of a series of tables displaying the allocation of project
responsibilities for sustainable water storage and water treatment. The focus of the matrix is to identify
how sustainable water, generated in NPW building form is able to establish Positive water quality and
quantity.
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Table 5.0.1 Building Cases One through Nine establish simplified ratios between Passive and Active
water storage and the resultant capacity for NPW building typology to Passively filtrate/treat water.
Case One displays a 90% Passive water storage capability reflecting the maximum Passive water
filtration/treatment capability. Case Nine displays a 10% Passive water storage capability reflecting a
minimum Passive water filtration/treatment capability.
Table 5.0.2 Although Passive water storage maintains Clean water conditions, Passive water storage
resources are subject to Active water treatment processes. The design of Active water treatment must
have sufficient capacity to treat all project water resources. The process of water treatment is continuous.
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Table 5.0.3 Passive water filtration adds additional capability and capacity to the NPW pilot project to
treat water resources. Passive water filtration is a By-product of Passive water storage for annual NZW
inhabitant use. Passive water storage in NPW on-site conditions duplicates the water renewal capabilities
of a natural landscape in the urban water cycle.
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Table 5.0.4-5 Stored water resources in Passive Clean water conditions will only require disinfection and
treatment to remove harmful bacterias without the need for sediment treatment. The result is excess
Active water treatment capability without the need to increase Active water storage.
Table 5.0.6-7 The relationship between Passive and Active water treatment and filtration establishes
excess Active water treatment capacity. Excess treatment capability can be utilized to generate a
Net Positive quantity of Clean water under an open loop system in the NPW building cycle. An open loop
of Dirty water intake and Clean water outflow allows the NPW project to generate a Net
Positive quantity of Clean quality water.
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6. References:
[1] J. Marsalek, M.Karamouz. 2006. International Hydrological Programme. Urban water cycle processes
and interactions, Technical Documents in Hydrology. UNESCO, Paris. Pg.13.
[2] Clarke, Tony. 2008. Blue Gold: World Water Wars. Motion picture, Purple Turtle Films, U.S.A.
[3] Hill, K. Marquita. 1997. Understanding Environmental Pollution. Cambridge University Press. U.K.
[4] Jameson, Anna Brownell. 1985. Winter studies and summer rambles in Canada: selections. Toronto:
McClelland and Stewart.
[5] Creel, Liz. 2003. Ripple Effects: Population and Coastal Regions Population Reference Bureau.
Measure Communications
[6] Li, James. Banting, Doug. Dr. 2005. Report on the Environmental Benefits and Costs of Green roof
technology for the City of Toronto Ryerson University.
[7] Draper, Dianne. 2007. On Guard for Thee? Water (Ab)uses and Management in Canada in Eau
Canada, Ed. Karen Bakker, UBC Press: British Columbia
[8] Browne, D.R. 2007. Freshwater fish in Ontario's Boreal: status, conservation and potential impacts of
development. Wildlife Conservation Society Canada Conservation Report No. 2. Toronto, ON.
[9] Michael, David. Pandya, Amit. 2009. Troubled Waters: Climate Change, Hydropolitics and
Resources. Stimson Regional Voices.
[10] Gleick, Peter H. basic Water Requirements for Human Activities: Meeting Basic Needs. Water
International. Vol. 21, 1996: p.83-92
[11] James Brown, Kim Storey. 1996. Rainwater and the Urban Landscape: The Garrison Creek
Demonstration Project. Places pg.103.
[12] Papathechari, Dora. 2011. Examination of Best Practices for Waterfront Regeneration EDP Sciences
University of Thessaly, Department of Planning and Regional Development
[13] Schwarze, Henning. Breulmann, Marc. 2010. Better Buildings Enhanced water, energy, and waste
management in Arab urban ecosystems globally applicable Qatar. UNEP UNESCO DOHA
[14] Mclennan, J. 2006. Density and Sustainability A Radical Perspective. Living Building Institute.
[15] McLennan, F. Jason. 2004. The philosophy of sustainable design. Missouri Ecotone Publishing
Company American Planning Association. 1995. A New Physical Planning Tool for Urban Revitalization
ABI/INFORM global
[16] Hydromantis Inc. ES-5. 2006. Review of the State of Knowledge of Municipal Effluent Science and
Research: Review of Existing and Emerging Technologies Review of Wastewater treatment Best
management Practices.
[17] Toronto and Region Conservation. 2009. Surface Water Hydrology/Hydraulics and Stormwater
Management Report on Current Conditions.
[18] National Model Construction Code Documents. 2010. National Plumbing Code of Canada Canada.
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Track II (NZE/ NZE Concepts)
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Incorporating Net Zero Energy Building Concepts within the Construction

Management Curriculum at Roger Williams University
Michael Emmer, Ph.D.

School of Engineering, Computing, and Construction Management (SECCM); Roger Williams
University, Bristol, RI 02809 USA; memmer@rwu.edu
Abstract
Traditionally buildings consume approximately 40% of the total energy produced by fossil fuels and
have been hypothesized to be a major contributors to climate change. Although Net-Zero Energy
Buildings (NZEB) are still not very common they are steadily gaining interest and popularity. As the
popularity of NZEB increases along with the increased awareness towards sustainability, construction
management (CM) programs are in a unique position to incorporate NZEB concepts into construction
curricula. Topics generally associated with NZE can be incorporated into a wide variety of CM classes
that cover design, means, methods, materials, and equipment/system selection and installation. Currently
many programs such as the Roger Williams University (RWU) CM program present a number of
sustainability concepts within their curricula. These topics are frequently distributed across the
curriculum that would fit the NZEB model such as high efficiency mechanical systems, alternative energy
sources, energy and water use reduction, etc. A more integrated approach of structuring an NZE B
influence would better inform the CM students of this new building approach and better prepare them for
their careers. Additionally some schools, such as RWU may have the opportunity to collaborate with
engineering and architectural programs to create a synergistic NZEB teaching blueprint. The goal of this
study was to illustrate how a traditional CM program addresses NZEB concepts in the curriculum. To
achieve this, the author has developed a set of NZEB learning outcomes through extensive literature
review. This was followed by a survey to identify if the RWU CM program faculty cover these outcomes
in their courses. Another survey was administered to all undergraduate RWU CM students and the most
recent graduating class, to identify the student perception of CM courses covering the NZE B outcomes.
This allowed the author to create an illustration that is structured to demonstrate faculty and student
perceptions of how NZEB learning outcomes were addressed in the program. This study is significant due
to its ability to offer NZEB learning outcomes for CM programs with a goal of incorporating them.
Learning outcomes may also become a stepping-stone for accreditation agencies to include in their overall
program outcome requirements. Most importantly the information and findings presented in this study by
the way of increasing awareness can help programs graduate professionals with a better understanding of
NZEB and how it relates to overall sustainability goals of the construction industry.
Key Words: sustainability, net-zero energy, lesson learning outcomes, course learning outcomes
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1.0 Introduction
Expansion of the built environment has put buildings as one of the leading consumers of energy,
water, and resources (both renewable and non-renewable). Buildings consume 40% of the primary energy
and 71% of the electrical energy in the US. Driven by economic expansion and population growth that
require more and more facility space each year, energy use in the US commercial sector is expected to
grow by 1.6% per year [1]. This is resulting in an energy impact that is increasing faster than all of the
energy conservation measures being taken and retrofits being made to buildings [2]. Ever since
sustainability has taken hold as a common practice in the expansion of the built environment many
different and somewhat unique approaches have been developed as to how best to further the concepts of
sustainability, and get them incorporated into the way we design, build, and use our new facilities. Any
ideas or concepts that would significantly reduce energy consumption across the spectrum of the built
environment would be wise for professionals and stakeholders to consider. In general terms incorporating
sustainability into new buildings can be categorized in two primary ways; consumption of resources
necessary to create the new structure and reduction in the amount of energy it takes to operate the
structure over its service life. From the two major categories many secondary initiatives have been
developed such as material recycling, material reuse, reduction in fresh water use, green materials
utilization, renewable energy production, and lessoning of the impact a new building has on the natural
biological cycles of the local environment. Many sustainable approaches such as Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design (LEED), Green Globes, Sustainability Tracking and Rating System (STARS),
Institute for Sustainable Infrastructure (ISI), and Building Research Establishment Environmental
Assessment Methodology (BREEAM) have made great progress in moving society to more sustainable
buildings and as a result have provided much of the underlying information for the NZEB process to build
upon.
One of the most recent and unique approaches to sustainably designed and constructed buildings is
the Net-Zero energy approach. The NZEB approach can be defined as by one or more of the following:
A building where the amount of energy provided by on-site renewable energy sources is equal to
the amount of energy used by the building in a year [3]
A residential or commercial building with greatly reduced energy needs through efficiency gains
such that the balance of energy needs can be supplied with renewable technologies [4]
A building that produces as much energy from on-site renewable resources as it consumes when
measured at the site [5]
A building that produces as much energy as it uses over the course of a year [6]
Buildings that over a year are neutral, meaning that they deliver as much energy to the supply
grids as they use from the grids. Seen in these terms they do not need any fossil fuel for heating,
cooling, lighting or other energy uses, although they sometimes draw energy from the grid [7]
Fundamentally, the NZEB approach is a measure of how well a building performs in terms of energy
usage. Essentially, by any definition of this approach, the designers and builders strive to erect new
buildings where the on-site production of renewable energy will meet the needs and demands of the end
user of the facility; a balance if you will between consumption and production of energy needs of the
occupant. This can be accomplished with targeted design options such as high R-value thermal envelope,
day lighting, and weatherization and specific engineering options such as solar-photovoltaic cells, wind
turbines, geo-thermo systems, and low-impact hydroelectric to name a few.
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Arguably one of the most fitting places to make even greater advances in recognizing the importance
of sustainability and incorporating the concepts into our societal way of thinking, is to bring the initiatives
of sustainable construction, and subsequently NZEB, into higher education; specifically CM programs.
CM programs are in a unique position to accomplish this by virtue of their strong connection with
architectural and engineering programs which are many times are housed in the same academic unit or
one closely connected. For example, a review of the 71 four-year CM programs accredited by the
American Council for Construction Education (ACCE) indicates that the majority are housed in the same
academic unit with engineering and/or architecture (academic unit meaning college, school, or
department). This potential synergy provides numerous opportunities for collaboration in the transference
of NZEB concepts into the CM curriculum. Equally important, from the industry point of view, for many
construction projects the CM is in the best position to bring together the resources form a wide range of
stakeholders to achieve the underlying tenants of NZEB. Since all accredited CM programs require the
involvement and input from an industry advisory group, their input is valuable and necessary. This
industry oversight ensures the merging of what industry is doing with the academic theory presented in
the CM curriculum.
1.1 Objective, hypothesis, and limitations
The objective of this research was to illustrate how a traditional CM program can address NZEB
concepts within the curriculum. Achievement of this goal was through the development and
implementation of a finite set of NZEB learning outcomes generated from the literature review and
surveys to four select constituent groups. The hypothesis generated from the objective and preliminary
investigation was that a set of learning outcomes can be developed to better present the tenets of NZEB to
the students of the CM program at RWU as part of an integrated approach to sustainability education. The
research was limited to the RWU CM program to include current students and faculty as well as alumni of
the immediate past graduating class. Cost, schedule, and logistics of NZEB was not examined as part of
this research.
2.0 Literature review

Traditionally buildings consume 40% of the total fossil fuel energy in the US and European Union
and are significant contributors of greenhouse gasses [8]. Since the advent of sustainability and its related
concepts, a wide range of ideas and applications have been proposed and incorporated into buildings that
will reduce (or offset) the amount of energy needed to be purchased off the grid --- energy which is
generated and supplied as a result of the consumption of non-renewable resources, i.e. fossil fuels.
Systems such as solar, wind, and geo-thermal to name a few have been successfully incorporated into the
design of new buildings thereby lessening the dependency on the power grid for their electrical needs.
When used as a singular solution however they will most likely not provide enough power to meet the
demand of an individual building. The NZEB approach takes a more holistic approach in bringing together
multiple design concepts such as high-performance insulation or day lighting or systems to eventually
meet the definition(s) of net zero energy. NZEB have economic, social, and environmental benefits and
represent a new standard for high-performing buildings, offering the greatest building and market value
and, at the same time, the lowest life-cycle costs [9]. By virtue of these potential tangible benefits the
NZEB concept fits very well into the overall awareness of sustainability. Testing and validation of the
NZEB concepts is still in the early stages but a number of significant projects have produced promising
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results toward the validation of the NZEB approach and provided applicable information to help achieve
the objective of the research such as:
Net Zero Energy Installations report (WREF, 17 May 2012) for the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) focusing development of NZE building projects for the US Army; project
focus was on renewable energy systems such as photovoltaic panels, retrofitting of existing
systems to improve efficiency, and new construction design optimizations to decrease energy
demand [10]
Design of a Solar Photovoltaic Array for Net-Zero Energy Buildings at NASA Langley STI
Program, NASA/TM2012-217787 (2012); the project was an to evaluate photovoltaic (solar
electric systems) systems for a single building at NASA Langley as a representative case for
alternative sustainable power generation. Building 1250 in the Science Directorate is comprised
of office and laboratory space, and currently uses approximately 250,000 kW/month of electrical
power with a projected use of 200,000 kW/month with additional conservation measures. The
installation would be applied towards a goal for having Building 1250 classified as a net-zero
energy building as it would produce as much energy as it uses over the course of a year [6)
Energy performance of net-zero and near net-zero energy homes in New England, University of
Massachusetts at Lowell study of existing NZE homes to evaluate and measure energy
consumption [11]
2.1 Summary of literature review
The review of current literature and body of knowledge did not produce any agree upon set of
concepts which were specifically defined as part of the NZEB process. The most common theme or ideas
discussed which are currently incorporated into this type of unique design and construction approach are
onsite green energy production, better insulation systems, building weatherization, and use of natural
light. A key first step going forward to achieve the research objectives is to develop a common
understanding of how NZEB is defined. For purposes of this project the following definition will provide
the basis of further analysis and development of the learning outcomes: net zero energy buildings can be
defined as building that produces as much energy as it uses over the course of a year. This definition
provides a sound basis as to how a successful NZEB project might designed and built and also provides a
sound basis to measure and assess the effectiveness of this new approach; i.e. energy consumption and
production are easily measured with todays technology.
3.0 NZE concepts

For purposes of this research the following concepts were considered integral to the NZEB process
and were the focus of the investigation and development of the learning outcomes:
Solar thermal water heating: a combination of a solar collector array, energy transfer system, and
a thermal storage system to heat and store water for a building or residence [12]
Geo-thermal: a central heating and/or cooling system that pumps heat to or from the ground using
the earth as a heat source in the winter and a heat sink in the summer [13]
Wind: takes the motion of the wind, turns it into mechanical energy, which is then converted into
electrical energy by use of turbines, wind dams, wind sails, and vertical axis turbines [14]
Solar wall collectors: a solar thermal technology in which the energy from the sun, solar
insolation, is captured by an absorbing medium and used to heat air [15]
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Photovoltaic (solar panels): a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation
into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect[Pearce]
Biomass energy: burning of organic material to produce energy in the form of electricity, steam or
heat or the process of transforming organic material into methanol, biodiesel, methane, or
synthetic oils [16]
Grey-water systems: the use of captured rainwater for domestic, non-potable water needs such as
flushing of toilets and urinals [17]
Low-impact/small scale hydropower: small scale hydropower systems that can be installed in
small rivers or streams with little or no discernable environmental effect [18]
High R-value thermal envelope: high performance insulation systems in exterior walls, floor, and
ceilings
Passive solar heating: using the energy of sunlight to heat a space without the use of mechanical
devices or equipment or efforts from the occupants [19]
Weatherization: the practice of protecting a building and its interior from the elements,
particularly from sunlight, precipitation, and wind, and of modifying a building to reduce energy
consumption and optimize energy efficiency [20]
The preceding definitions were used as a baseline in the development of the learning outcomes and
their specific parameters as well as the mapping of the learning outcomes to CM courses.
3.1 NZE building design
Ultimately a single entity should be responsible to bring together a range of concepts for the design of
NZEB and ensure the various options are compatible with the site, environment, and location. Architects,
with the assistance of the CM, are historically the best professional group to accomplish this. The zero
energy building design concept is an extension from passive sustainable design; the object is not only to
minimize energy consumption of the building but also to design a building that balances energy
requirements with active techniques and renewable technologies in line with the explicit requirement for
the zero balance to be met at a high level of energy efficiency [21]. Depending on the project delivery
method, the construction manager will ensure the NZEB process meets the overall project goals and
objectives as established by the Owner in conjunction with the design team efforts.
3.2 Accreditation
The American Council for Construction Education (ACCE) has recently started the process of
changing its accreditation standards from prescriptive to outcomes based. This alternative way of
assessing student learning will require programs to achieve or maintain accredited status by
demonstrating their compliance with a list of approximately twenty program learning outcomes; some of
which include NZEB concepts in the form of sustainability education.
4.0 Methodology
In Phase I an extensive literature review was conducted to appraise the current knowledge level and
awareness of NZEB concepts and there subsequent implementation. In Phase II the results of the review
were used to develop a short four-question survey (see Appendices) sent out to three distinct constituent
groups; faculty, students, and alumni (the immediately previous graduating class of the CM program at
RWU in spring of 2013). The student group was further broken down into sophomores, juniors, and
117

seniors. A follow-up survey was conducted in response to some of the comments provided on the original
survey forms and asked the student respondents if they were exposed to additional NZEB concepts,
specifically high R-value thermal envelopes, passive solar heating, and building weatherization.
5.0 Results & discussion

The response rates for the surveys were relatively high and confirm the importance of the topic to the
various respondent groups. Survey response rates are as follows:
Student
o Sophomores
87% [n = 29]
o Juniors
97% [n = 27]
o Seniors
95% [n = 25]
Alumni
63% [n = 12]
Faculty
80% [n = 4]
Student follow up survey
58% [n = 34]
Note: materials reuse, recycled materials, and green material selection data was not used due to the
determination by the author that although these are important sustainability topics they are not
necessarily integral to the NZEB concept.
Question #1 was asked; do any of your professors incorporate NZE concepts into any of your
courses? Figure 1 illustrates the responses from the students by class and illustrates the inconsistency of
delivery of NZEB concepts across a four year cycle by the CM faculty.
120%
96%
100%
88%
80%
67%
67%
60%
37%
40%
20%
33%
12%
4%
0%
Sophomores
Juniors
Seniors
Yes
Alumni
No
Figure 1. Question #1 responses

Table 1 illustrates the specific NZEB topical content areas the students have been exposed to in the
CM curriculum. As the table shows there has been a steady increase in the teaching of NZE B concepts
118

over the last couple of years and fairly wide range of topics being touched on. Geo-thermal, solar, and
wind were the most frequently recognized topics which is most likely a reflection of societal exposure to
these common sustainability ideas and also appear to be the most implemented in commercial
applications.
Table 1. Question #2 responses
Solar walls/glass
Photovoltaic (solar
electric panels)
Biomass
Graywater systems
14%
7%
0%
8%
34%
15%
0%
25%
62%
19%
0%
17%
24%
7%
0%
8%
28%
4%
0%
33%
0%
0%
0%
8%
17%
11%
0%
17%
Low-impact/small scale
Hydropower
Wind
Sophomores
Juniors
Seniors
Alumni
Geo-thermal heat pump
2. If yes to question #1, check off those

areas where the following statement
applies: as a result of the course
material that was presented I gained a
basic understanding of the topic:
Solar water heating
Question #
10%
7%
0%
0%
Note: percentages indicate how many students felt a topic was covered
Table 2 illustrates the specific CM courses where the NZEB concepts were discussed to the point
where the student gained a basic understanding of the concept.
Table 2. Question #3 responses
CNST 200
CNST 201
CNST 455
CNST 260
CNST 450
CNST 475
Sophomores
Juniors
Seniors
Alumni
Faculty [n = 4]
CNST 130
3. What are the course names or

numbers where the concepts were
covered?
CNST 100
Question #
5
2
0
-
8
1
0
-
9
4
0
1
23
7
0
1
1
0
8
1
1
0
1
-
1
-
Question #4: On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree) please indicate your
response to the following statement: NZE is an important concept that should be covered across the CM
curriculum in courses where appropriate; respondents responded with the following:
Sophomores
4.24 / 5.0
Juniors
4.31 / 5.0
Seniors
3.71 / 5.0
Alumni
4.08 / 5.0
119

Faculty
4.40 / 5.0
Average
4.15 / 5.0
Table 3 illustrates the results of the follow-up survey to the current CM students. This survey was
initiated in response to additional comments provided by the respondents in terms of what might
constitute more topics that fit into the NZEB concept.
Table 3. Responses from follow up survey
Weatherization
Sophomores
Juniors
Seniors
Passive solar heating
2. As a result of the course material delivered

in the CM program I gained a basic
understanding of the topic
High R-value thermal

envelope
Question #
27%
29%
61%
17%
22%
41%
0%
7%
11%
Note: these three topical areas were covered in the original alumni and faculty surveys
Respondents (students and alumni) provided additional comments as to their thoughts of the
relevance and impact of the NZEB concept as follows:
It is good to be aware of NZE, but it is more an architectural topic/issue. There are many more
important topics to cover in a CM curriculum
This is very important since it seems like the next logical step in the evolution of sustainable
construction
Some of the topics might be better covered in engineering courses
Another good place to teach this kind of topic is in the school of architecture
This is a good area of our industry where construction managers could lead the way
I would have liked to learn more on this topic in detail
This seems more like an architectural or engineering topic
Construction managers need to know about this topic
This topic only seems to fit well into a few CM courses
This seems like something our clients would be interested in
This topic fits well into the overall emphasis of sustainable construction
It seems like this is where much of our industry is heading
CM programs are the best place to create awareness of NZE buildings
If we are going to build more sustainably we need more of this in our classes
Figure 2 illustrates amalgamation of the response data to create a subjective analysis and illustration
that is structured to validate faculty and student perceptions of how NZEB learning outcomes were
addressed in the program. The data points were created by coalescing the response rates, response data,
and comments to develop a perception score to further illustrate the overall importance of the topic. This
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perception score was developed simply to display the relationships between each of the respondent
groups.
Sophomores
2.15
Juniors
1.13
Seniors
0.14
Alumni
1.53
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
Perception Score
Figure 2. NZEB perception score

In Table 4 a weighting system was used where the data points of (1) importance of NZEB concept, (2)
% of NZEB topical coverage, (3) taught in appropriate courses, (4) survey response rates, and (5) % of
response comments were weighted and then multiplied by the data percentages presented in preceding
tables 1 thru 3 and Figure 1.
Table 4. Perception score development
WV = weighted value
Importance of NZEB concept
% of NZEB topical coverage
Taught in appropriate courses
Survey response rates
% of response comments
Total Score
0.5-1.5
Weight
1.50
1.00
0.50
1.25
0.75
---
Soph
88%
50%
65%
87%
10%
---
WV
1.32
0.50
0.33
1.09
0.08
2.15
Respondent Groups
Junior WV Senior WV
37% 0.56
4%
0.06
35% 0.35
0%
0.00
45% 0.23 15%
0.08
97% 1.21 95%
1.19
15% 0.11 16%
0.12
----1.13
0.14
Alum
67%
25%
54%
63%
25%
---
WV
1.01
0.25
0.27
0.79
0.19
1.53
6.0 NZEB learning outcomes

Learning outcomes should be written in such a way so the course instructor can accurately assess
whether or not the student has gained the intended knowledge (i.e. student learning). The outcome also
needs to be written in a way that can be measured via standard measurement tools such as exam
questions. For this research project the lower level Blooms taxonomy verbs [22] were utilized because
few of the lesson learning outcome topics will be taught to such a level of depth such as an architect or
engineering would do in the actual design of the system. The learning outcomes were structured more in a
way to create a keen sense of awareness to the CM students that they can bring forth into the industry.
121

The following learning outcomes were developed from a convergence with what was discovered from
the literature review and the survey responses and could be incorporated into the CM program curriculum
as lesson learning outcomes (LLO) within a single course, course learning outcomes (CLO), or program
learning outcomes (PLO). For purposes of this research the learning outcomes are presented as LLOs to
be incorporated across the CM curriculum in specific courses where they best fit into the overall learning
objective of each course. Table 5 presents each LLO with an action verb and an impact phrase followed
by some specific components key to the premise of the LLO:
Table 5. Lesson learning outcomes
Lesson Learning Outcome: By the end of the lesson
the student will be able to:
Explain the basic operational concepts of photovoltaic
(solar electric panel) systems to include:
Explain the basic operational concepts of geo-thermal

heat pump systems to include:
Explain the basic operational concepts of solar

thermal water heating systems to include:
Explain the operational concepts of wind energy

producing systems to include:
Describe how biomass energy producing systems
work to include:
Explain the basic operational concepts of grey-water

systems to include:
Describe the key features of solar wall systems to

include:
Explain the basic operational concepts of lowimpact/small scale hydropower systems to include:
Key Components
size of collection array
effect of regional climate
latitude and longitude
angle to the sun
fixed or rotational array
electric power generation capacity
energy savings
installation options/challenges
pipe sizing and arrangement
equipment needed
energy savings
energy conversion process
solar collection array
key components
potential energy savings
key components
energy producing potential
energy conversion options
fuel types
net carbon production
energy producing potential
collection process
storage
supply integration within the domestic water
supply
appropriate uses
potential water savings
thermal comfort conditions
ventilation exchanges
climatic impacts
absorption medium
temperature differential control and management
heat gain and loss
environmental impact
site analysis
power generating potential
power (P) classifications
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Describe the components, materials, and/or products

of high R-value thermal envelope designs to include:
Explain the process of the passive solar heating
process to include:
Explain the key features of a properly weatherized

structure to include:

water flow/turbine selection
material selection
installation procedures
perform R-value calculations
window orientation
type of glazing materials
glazing treatments
need for operable windows
buildings site wind patterns
terrain and vegetation
solar exposure
minimize infiltration of cold or warm air
weather-stripping of doors and windows
caulking and sealants
proper ventilation to unconditioned spaces
sealing of fenestrations
The next step was to map or assign each LLO to a specific course where the individual NZEB topics
best fit the course learning objective, learning outcomes, or overall topical content. Figure 1. Illustrates
the proposed allocation of the LLOs to courses within the CM program curriculum.
CNST 201
Solar walls
Weatherization
CNST 200
High R-value thermal envelope

Passive solar
Wind
CNST 455
Elements of time (schedule) and

money (cost) covered in other
courses
Biomass
CNST 260
Graywater system
CNST 321
Low-impact/small scale hydropower
CNST 450
Geo-thermal heat pump

Solar thermal water heating
Photovoltaic Systems
Figure 3. Mapping of lesson learning outcomes to CM courses
123

Key to Figure
CNST 200 Construction Methods and Materials + Lab
CNST 201 Advanced Construction Methods and Materials + Lab
CNST 260 Estimating and Scheduling
CNST 321 Advanced Building Estimating
CNST 450 Construction Planning & Scheduling
CNST 455 Mechanical & Electrical Design for CMs
7.0 Conclusions
Students and alumni from the RWU CM program consider NZEB concepts as an important and
relevant step in the evolution of sustainability design and construction. Better definition of what the
students need to learn about NZEB can come about with clear learning outcomes housed in the most
appropriate courses across the CM curriculum. Results from the surveys for the most part were congruent
with the findings of the literature review regarding the key aspects of what is and what should be the
underlying tenets of NZEB, design, and construction; student and faculty perceptions are for the most part
in alignment and agree. Clearly the sophomore class has benefitted the most as the program increases its
awareness of sustainability topics. Confirmation of the students gaining the NZEB knowledge can be done
within the end of course surveys administered by the faculty. Coordination amongst faculty from the three
target courses will ensure the majority of topical content is covered. RWU CM faculty should also
explore collaboration with the engineering program housed within the same school and the nearby school
of architecture to expand the depth and breadth of sustainability education. Incorporation of the learning
outcomes developed in this research could be further included in the ACCE program learning outcomes
as part of the CM accreditation process and re-writing of the standards, thereby increasing the awareness
across many accredited CM programs.
8.0 Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge Dr. Charles Kibert and Dr. Abdol Chini at the M.E. Rinker, Sr. School
of Building Construction for their invaluable outlook on the important issues of sustainability in
construction education today.
9.0 References
[1] ASHRAE Standard, 90.1, 2010
[2] ASHRAE Vision 2020; retrieved from ASHRAE website on 12/15/2013; https://www.ashrae.org/home/search?k=2020
[3] Carlisle, Nancy, Geet, Otto Van, and Pless, Shanti, Definition of a Net Zero Energy Community. NREL Technical Report,
NREL/TP-7A2-46065 (2009)
[4] Torcellini, Paul, Pless, Shanti, and Deru, Michael (2006). Zero Energy Buildings: A Critical Look at the Definition. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (2006)
[5] Booth, Sam., Net Zero Energy Installations. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). NREL/PR-7A40-54965 (2012)
[6] Cole, Stuart K., and DeYoung, Russel J., Preliminary Design of a Solar Photovoltaic Array for Net Zero Energy Buildings at
NSA Langley. NASA/TM-2012-217787. NASA STI Program (2012)
[7] Kapsalaki,Maria and Leal, Vitor, Recent progress on net zero energy buildings. Advantages in Building Energy Research,
Volume 5, pp. 129-162 (2011)
[8] US Dept. of Energy, June 2007, Annual Energy Review, Retrieved from DOE website on 12/17/2013; http://energy.gov/
[9] Hootman, Tom, Net Zero Energy Design: A Guide for Commercial Architecture. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
(2013)
[10] Booth, Sam., Net Zero Energy Installations. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). NREL/PR-7A40-54965
124

(2012)
[11] Thomas, Walter D. & Duffy, John J., Energy performance of net-zero and near net-zero energy homes in New England,
Energy and Buildings, Volume 67, pp. 551-558 (2013)
[12] Gordon, Jeffrey, Solar Energy: State of the Art. International Solar Energy Society (ISES) position papers. London, UK:
James and James Publishing (2001)
[13] NREL website; retrieved 12/20/2013; http://www.nrel.gov/science_technology/
[14] Biofriendly Corporation website; retrieved on 12/21/2013; http://www.biofriendly.com/about/
[15] DOE, retrieved 12/24/2013; http://www1.eere.energy.gov/wip/weatherization.html
[16] RE Energy website; retrieved 12/25/2013: http://www.re-energy.ca/
[17] A. Dixon, D. Butler, A. Fewkes, Water saving potential of domestic water reuse systems using greywater and rainwater in
combination, Water Science and Technology, Volume 39, Issue 5, Pages 25-32 (1999)
[18] Lea, Kosnik, The potential for small scale hydropower development in the US, Energy Policy, Volume 38, Issue 10, Pages
5512-5519 (2010)
[19] Mazria, Edward, Passive Solar Energy Guide, Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pennsylvania, (1979)
[20] U.S. Energy Information website: retrieved 12/21/2013;
http://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=solar_thermal_collectors
[21] Krathwohl, David R., A Revision of Blooms Taxonomy: An Overview, THEORY INTO PRACTICE, Volume 41, Number 4,
(2002)
10.0 Appendices
10.1 Student survey
RWU Net-Zero Energy Buildings
CM Student Survey
With Net-Zero Energy (NZE) defined as: (1) a building where the amount of energy provided by on-site renewable
energy sources is equal to the amount of energy used by the building in a year or (2) a residential or commercial
building with greatly reduced energy needs through efficiency gains such that the balance of energy needs can be
supplied with renewable technologies, please answer the following questions:
Please indicate the college year you are currently in:
Sophomore
1.
2.
Junior
Senior
Do any of your professors incorporate NZE concepts into any of your courses?
Yes
No
If yes, check off those areas where the following statement applies: as a result of the course material that
was presented I gained a basic understanding of the topic:
Solar water heating

Geo-thermal
Wind
Solar walls
Materials reuse
Recycled materials
Green material selection
Photovoltaic (solar panels)
Biomass energy
Graywater systems
Low-impact hydropower
3.
What are the course names or numbers where the concepts were covered?
______________________________________________________________________________________
125

On a scale of 1 to 5 please indicate your response to the following statement: NZE is an important concept
that should be covered across the CM curriculum in courses where appropriate
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor
Agree
Strongly Agree
disagree
1
2
3
4
5
4.
10.2 Faculty survey

RWU Net Zero Energy Buildings
CM Faculty Survey
1.
2.
Do you incorporate NZE concepts into any of your courses? Yes No

If yes to question #1, please check the boxes below as to the specific areas you cover:
Solar water heating

Geo-thermal
Wind
Solar walls
Materials reuse
Recycled materials
Photovoltaic
(solar panels)
Biomass energy
Graywater systems
Other, please explain _________________________________________________________
3.
4.
5.
If no to question #1, do you plan on doing do in the near future?

Yes No
If yes, to #3 which courses?
______________________________________________________________________________________
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor

disagree
3
Agree
Strongly Agree
10.3 Alumni survey

RWU Net-Zero Energy Buildings
CM Alumni Survey
(Graduated in spring of 2013)
1.
Did any of your professors incorporate NZE concepts into any of your CM courses?
Yes
No
126

2.
If yes, check off those areas where the following statement applies: as a result of the course material that
was presented I gained a basic understanding of the topic:
Solar water heating

Geo-thermal
Wind
Solar walls
Materials reuse
Recycled materials
Photovoltaic
(solar panels)
Biomass energy
Graywater systems
High R-value thermal envelope
Passive solar heat
Weatherization
3.
What are the course names or numbers where the concepts were covered?
______________________________________________________________________________________
4.
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neither agree nor

disagree
3
Agree
Strongly Agree
127

Shifting from Net-Zero to Net-Positive Energy Buildings
Raymond J. Cole
Centre for Interactive Research on Sustainability, University of British Columbia, Vancouver,
BC, Canada V6T 1Z2
E-mail: rcole@sala.ubc.ca
Abstract
Over the past decade, numerous building projects have been presented as net zero energy. Such
claims have been made using a variety of different approaches onsite and off-site renewable energy
technologies, purchasing green energy credits, etc. Efforts have subsequently been directed at formulating
clear definitions of net zero and these have provided some degree of clarity and theoretical framing. The
emerging notion of net positive energy buildings which, if considered as more than simply being an
extension of net-zero energy, raises a host of theoretical and practical issues and introduces several new
design considerations and possibilities.
This paper is directed at the consequences of viewing the role of a building in adding value to its
context and systems in which it is part. Rather than considering only the generation of more exporting
energy versus its importation to individual buildings or the grid, the emphasis shifts to the maximization
of energy performance in a system-based approach. Net Positive Energy approaches open a host of new
technical, behavioural, policy and regulatory issues and opportunities not currently evident with Net Zero
Energy buildings. These challenge the primacy of individual buildings as the most effective unit to
make significant energy gains and the current expectation that each and every building should be required
to attain net zero performance.
Keywords: Net zero energy, Net positive energy, Systems, Networks
1. Introduction
Building environmental performance is, in part, shaped by aspirations. Current performance
aspirations themselves have themselves been shaped, again in part, by the widespread use of building
environmental assessment methods. In North America, the USGBCs LEED offers platinum as its
current highest level of performance achievement. However, achieving Platinum levels of performance
represents only approximately 6 percent of all LEED certified buildings (Todd and Tufts, 2012) a level
that has remained relatively constant from the outset. Despite this general difficulty in achieving the
highest green performance levels, several North American architectural practices have a wealth of
accumulated experience in green design and, indeed, are consistently producing buildings achieving
LEED Platinum. Such leading-edge green practitioners and clients who have operated at this level are
increasingly seeking to push much further than the performance aspirations embedded in current
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assessment methods. (Cole, 2012) The notion of net positive design represents one such potent
challenge and aspiration.
As has been argued in many publications (McDonough and Braungart, 2002; Reed, 2007), green
design is primarily directed at doing less harm or, more generally, reducing the degenerative
consequences of human activity on the health and integrity of ecological systems. This is also embedded
in the language and performance criteria in the building environmental assessment methods. Recently,
however, the notion of buildings potentially offering a net positive performance is garnering greater
interest driven largely by the increasing literature calling for a fundamental reframing of design within
an ecololigical worldview. (Birkeland, 2008; du Plessis, 2012; Mang and Reed, 2012). du Plessis (2012),
for example, makes a compelling case for the necessity of a regenerative sustainability paradigm that
attempts to address the dysfunctional humannature relationship by entering into a co-creative
partnership with nature [and aims] to restore and regenerate the global social-ecological system through a
set of localized ecological design and engineering practices rooted in the context and its socialecological
narratives. (p.19) Birkeland (2012) further suggests that the necessary paradigm shift to net positive
design will not occur until the legacy of the negative institutional and intellectual infrastructure of
[Ecological Sustainable Development] is challenged. (p.165)
This paper is directed at clarifying the emerging proposition of Net Positive Energy Buildings
(nPEB). While the notion of EnergyPlus buildings has been used in Europe, it is typically seen as an
extension of Net Zero Energy buildings. By contrast, this paper is directed at the consequences of viewing
the role of a building in adding value to a system and context in which it is part. Rather than considering
only the generation of more exporting energy relative to its importation from the utitility grid, the
emphasis shifts to the maximization of energy performance in a system-based approach. The paper first
reviews the key attitibutes of Net Zero Energy buildings pointing out those aspects of potential relevance
to a Net Positive Energy approach and the balance of the paper then specifically addresses Net Positive
Energy.
2. Net Zero Energy Buildings

While the goal of net zero impact is implicit within green building performance and assessment
methods, concurrent with the aspiration of achieving high recognition within LEED or BREEAM, Net
Zero Energy Buildings (nZEB) have become an increasingly explicit performance goal. Indeed, such an
aspiration is increasingly embedded in national energy policies with many countries declaring that all new
buildings must conform to net zero-energy and/or carbon neutral emission standards by a certain date
(Dyrbl et al., 2010; Rovas et al., 2011). Critically, such demands have been assumed to be achieved for
every new building, beit an office building, school, warehouse or hospital, despite them having
considerably different energy demand profiles and potentials for accommodating renewable energy
technologies. (Torcellini and Crawley, 2006)
2.1 Defining Net Zero Energy Buildings

Torcellini et al. (2006) argue that [t]he way the zero energy goal is defined affects the choices
designers make to achieve this goal and whether they can claim success and proceed to offer a clear
definition of Net Zero Energy. A central notion within Net Zero Energy, they suggest, is that a building
can meet all of its energy requirements from low-cost, locally available, nonpolluting, renewable
sources or, more specifically a buildings that generates enough renewable energy on site to equal or
exceed its annual energy use. A key part of their definition relate to:
129

Distinguishing between renewable energy sources located on the building, on the site or off-site;
Distinguishing between primary (or source) energy and site (or delivered) energy;
Distinguishing between electrical and natural gas energy sources and accounting for this distinction
through their respective Resource Utilization Factors.1
More recently, Sartori et al., (2012) have provided further clarifications:
The inherent interaction between buildings and energy grids means that every country or region faces
different challenges with respect to the energy infrastructure in addition to other regional considerations
such climate and building traditions;
Two-way grids must be available at the physical boundary to define a Net ZEB. A two-way grid - the
power grid or local thermal networks, such as district heating/cooling networks - can deliver energy to
and also receive energy back from the building(s);
The physical boundary for defining net zero energy may be a single building or a cluster of buildings
with the latter implying that an overall net zero condition may be attained through the synergy between
several buildings which individually may not necessarily be Net ZEB.
This last point assumes considerable significance in a Net Positive approach.
In a review of European and US definitions of Net Zero Energy buildings, Kibert and Fard (2012)
challenge the necessity to distinguish between on- and off-site locations for renewable/low-carbon energy
sources arguing that the debate over on- versus off-site locations for renewable energy systems is highly
problematical and likely unimportant. (p.635) Moreover, whereas Europeans use primary energy basis
for evaluating net zero energy performance, they advovate the use metered energy at the building site for
energy balance accounting by arguing that (a) requiring building owners to generate additional renewable
energy would be a disincentive for private sector buy-in, (p.635) (b) the accounting systems for primary
versus generated energy are likely to be inordinately complex due to the variety of on- and off-site energy
sources available to building owners and, (c) since all the energy requirements of the building are met by
renewable energy, the need to account for primary energy by net-zero buildings is questionable. (p.635)
2.2 European Activity in Net Zero Energy Buildings

Northern European countries have a longer history of commitment and experience in designing
buildings with more demanding energy performance requirements and, indeed, the European Unions
Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (Directive 2002/91/EC) was one of the first main legislative
instruments requiring net-zero energy performance. A recast of the Directive was adopted by the
European Parliament and the Council of the European Union on 19 May 2010 in order to strengthen the
energy performance requirements and to clarify and streamline some of the 2002 provisions. The
Directive now requires that Member States ensure that all new buildings are nearly zero-energy buildings
by 31 December 2020; and after 31 December 2018, new buildings occupied and owned by public
1
Multiplier applied to the quantity of fuel or energy delivered to a building site, which provides a quantitative
estimate of the energy resources consumed in providing that fuel or energy. Variant multipliers account for the
burden of processing, transporting, converting, and delivering fuel or energy from the point of extraction to the
building site.
130

authorities are nearly zero-energy buildings. Here nearly zero-energy building means a building that has
a very high energy performance and the nearly zero or very low amount of energy required should be
covered to a very significant extent by energy from renewable sources, including energy from renewable
sources produced on-site or nearby. Further, the renewable energy that can be included in the energy
balance as produced onsite or nearby as far as no public grid is used between their production and use.
While the notion of net zero was originally set as an absolute and consistent requirements in 2002, the
Member States detailed interpretation of nearly zero-energy buildings enables accounting for their
national, regional or local conditions. Notwithstanding these policy advances, a current concern is that
too little progress has been made by the Member States in their preparations towards NZEBs by 2020.
(EU, 2013)
Voss, Sartori and Lollini (2012) raise a number of key issues related to refining the definition and
interpretation of the nearly Net Zero Energy requirements within the Energy Performance of Buildings
Directive:
1. Defining clear boundaries in the analysis of Net Zero Energy Buildings to show the energy flows at the
connection point to supply grids (power, heating, cooling, gas, fuel delivery chain) and distinguish
between on-site and off-site generation systems.
2. Defining the weighting system to convert the units of different energy forms into a common metric to
facilitate the balancing process, e.g., whether energy delivered by the grid and fed into the grid is given
the same value or weighted asymmetrically to stimulate on-site generation approaches.
3. Declaring what is included and excluded from the energy balance, e.g., plug loads and central services,
electric vehicles, etc.
4. Determining the share of on-site generation that is immediately consumed in the building associated
with the building type, user behaviour, climate, and type of generating technology.
5. Understanding the temporal relationships between the different abilities of buildings using on-site
generating systems to match the load and benefit from the availability of energy sources and the
demands of the local grid infrastructure.
Whereas 1. and 2. are solely technical considerations, 3-5 involve a combination of technical and
behavioural issues.
2.3 Energy Exchange

Conventional building energy performance derives from the efficiency with which the supply of
energy from utilities meet a buildings various requirements for comfort provisioning, equipment and
various operational processes. It is a one-way flow of energy from the utility to the building that, after
fulfilling the various services, finally ends in dissipated heat. By contrast, net zero energy buildings
engage in two way energy exchange either with the utility grid wherein onsite electrical energy is sent to
the grid when in excess of needs or drawn from the grid when the onsite electricity generation is
insufficient, or, depending on a buildings need, thermal energy is drawn from or deposited in a common
thermal energy distribution loop.
The importing of energy to a Net Positive Energy building comes from the electricity and natural gas
supply distribution networks. However, the exporting of excess energy to adjacent buildings or those
within neighbourhood is in form of electricity (generated from the buildings renewable energy sources)
and waste heat from processes in an adjacent building through dedicated local infrastructure.
Dirks (2010) examines the significantly different demand profile that a net zero-energy project has
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compared to that of a conventional building. He argues that the wide-spread implementation of net zeroenergy facilities would significantly change the load profiles that the grid must serve such that:
While the absolute energy demand levels would decrease compared to continued development of
conventional facilities, the shape of the demand profile (i.e., the extent and timing of peak demand)
could change significantly.
Existing peaks may be flattened and new peaks may be created as a result of the onsite renewable
energy generation.
The current number of net Zero Energy buildings is small and the number claiming to be net postive
energy is negligible compared to conventional or even low energy buildings. Dirks (2012) raises
questions regarding the relationship between the buildings and the utility grids should the number of Net
Zero Energy buildings significantly increase. He offers several conclusions of relevance to this paper:
Without consideration of their impact beyond the building, the widespread adoption of ZEBs will
almost certainly lead to suboptimal outcomes when viewed within a broader energy context.
The value of the energy being produced is as important as the amount in formulating appropriate design
strategies for ZEB buildings.
Disruptions to the grid associated with a significant level of PV generated electricity from increased
ZEBs can be minimized by matching energy loads to the time of peak PV generation.
Preventing generation peaks of PV systems in ZEBs from flowing back to the grid by directing to some
onsite a combination of thermal storage, thermal mass and possibly pre-cooling, phase change
materials, chilled water or ice storage and some form of electrical energy storage, would allow for
nearly unlimited penetration of ZEHs.
The closer to the generation source the storage is provided, the lower the impact of high PV/ZEH
penetration rates on the grid.
The potential direct energy exchanges between adjacent buildings in addition to the grid connections,
create a host of new possibilities to minimize peak flows to the grid.
2.4 Expanding the Range of Energy Services

Studies examining the potential for buildings to achieve net zero energy (Griffith et al., 2007;
Torcellini and Crawley, 2006) suggest that the percentage of commercial floor area able to reach this goal
decreases with the increase in number of floors. This derives from the combination of a decrease in
daylighting and solar energy potential and an increase plug loads relative to heating and cooling.
Goldstein et al., (2010) raise a host of concerns regarding a possible interpretation here that low-rise
development less three story buildings is necessary to meet net zero energy goals and argue that:
It is directly counter to the goal of reducing transportation energy through high-density development.
If the definition of Net Zero Energy requires on-site energy generation, this could result in density
limits that would create higher transportation and infrastructure emissions than is reduced as a result of
improved building performance and onsite energy generation.
The on-site requirement inherent in the zero energy definition could also eliminate the use of rooftop
area for personal open space, urban food production, or water collection.
A significant conclusion from Goldstein et al.s paper is that the exclusion of transportation energy
from the discussion and framing of Net Zero Energy projects can ultimately lead to sub-optimization in
the use of energy at the larger scale. Interestingly, the California Public Utilities Commission (2007)
offered a significant shift in the definition of net zero buildings: Zero Net Energy is herein defined as the
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implementation of a combination of building energy efficiency design features and on-site clean
distributed generation that result in no net purchases from the electricity or gas grid, at the level of a
single project seeking development entitlements and building code permits. A definition of zero net
energy at this scale enables a wider range of technologies to be considered and deployed, including
district heating and cooling systems and/or small-scale renewable energy projects that serve more than
one home or business. (California Public Utilities Commission, 2007, p.38). Rohloff et al., (2010)
suggest that since a project within this definition can range from a single building to an entire
development, effectively sets the stage for ZNE communities and further deepens the nexus between
building and transportation energy use. Furthermore, the California Energy Commissions Big Bold
Energy Efficiency Strategy (BBEES) introduced in 2010 and revised in 2011 now requires all new
residential construction in California to be zero net energy or equivalent to zero net energy by 2020; and
all new commercial construction in California to be zero net energy or equivalent to zero net energy by
2030. The term or equivalent was introduced to allow off-site renewable energy generation. (Kibert and
Fard, 2012)
It is anticipated that the number of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) in California and other
locations will increase over the next few decades and that their owners will recharge them at home.
Rohloff et al., (2010) suggest that while PHEVs electric charging loads are expected to remain relatively
constant over the next 20 years in California, home energy loads will likely to be reduced as energy prices
and building energy codes become more stringent. They show that, by 2030, PHEV charging in
California will account for 20% of a typical homes total energy use and will surpass its electricity use.
The added charging electricity required PHEVs will need to be met by an increase in the area of onsite
photovoltaics and, as such, invariably affect the ability of a home to achieve a net zero energy
performance. Interestingly, the batteries in Electric Vehicles can be considered as increasing the on-site
storage capacity. (Voss, Sartori and Lollini, 2012)
Kibbert and Fard (2012) argue that while the inclusion of the embodied energy and transportation
energy have merit, the difficult of amortizing energy over assumed lifetimes and tracking the
transportation energy of the building users make both approaches very difficult to carry out in practice.
(p.627) Notwithstanding such difficulties, if the shift toward Net Positive is seen as simply generating
more energy than used in a building, it will necessitate a much more comprehensive and inclusive
approach.
3. Net Positive
Mang and Reed (2012) and du Plessis (2012) present the key attributes of regenerative design and
development that promote a co-evolutionary, partnered relationship between humans and natural systems
rather than a managerial one and, in doing so, builds, rather than diminishes, social and natural capitals. It
is not the building that is regenerated in the same sense as the self-healing and self-organizing attributes
of a living system, but by the ways that the act of building can be a catalyst for positive change within the
unique place in which it is situated. Within regenerative development, built projects, stakeholder
processes and inhabitation are collectively focused on enhancing life in all its manifestations human,
other species, ecological systems through an enduring responsibility of stewardship. (Cole, 2012) Of
relevance to this paper is that the notion of regenerative design raises the promise that buildings can add
value and be designed and operated to generate more than they need to fulfill their own needs. A key
issue in net positive design is, therefore, not simply one of generating more energy but identifying the
purpose and designing how the excess resources will be deployed.
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Consistent with the fundamental tenets of regenerative design and development, Birkeland (2008)
presents the idea of net Positive-Development as physical development that achieves net positive
impacts during its life-cycle over pre-development conditions by increasing economic, social and
ecological capital. Positive Development, she argues, would not only generate clean energy, air and
water.but would leave the ecology better than before development. (Birkeland, 2008, p.xv)
Embedded within this position is that the renewable energy generated by a building not only offsets that
associated with the construction of the building its embodied energy but also that of the native
landscape prior to development. A similar argument has been presented by Olgyay and Herdt (2004) and
Bendewald and Olgyay (2010).
3.1 Net Positive Energy Buildings

The notion of Net Positive Energy buildings, while following many of the same principles as Net Zero
building, introduces several new requirements and possibilities. This paper is primarily interested in the
consequences of viewing the role of a building in adding value to a system in which it is part to make it
more resilient to future stresses.
The majority of the emerging literature on the notion of Net Positive Energy buildings typically place it
alongside Net Zero Energy and consider it to be guided by the same key concepts/principles. (Kolokotsa
et al., 2011, Wang et al., 2009) In this way, a simple definition of a Net Positive Energy building could be
one that produces more energy than is needed, and exporting this to other buildings or systems, i.e.,
energy storage management or feeding the extra energy produced to the grid (Koutroulis, 2006).
As with net zero energy:
Net positive energy is a systems approach linking the performance of a building with that of others
through energy infrastructure that involves a series of negotiations, partnerships and agreements with
the associated stakeholders. Certainly a net zero energy building involves an energy and economic
exchange with the power utilities, but net positive opens up a host of different exchanges, negotiations
and partnerships.
Different building types offer different potentials for being Net Positive Energy. Griffith et al., (2007)
identify that achieving the ZEB goal on a given building project depends on four characteristics: (1)
number of stories; (2) plug and process loads; (3) principal building activity; and (4) location. The issue
is one of the extent to which energy demand can be reduced and the ability of the building to
accommodate renewable energy systems such as Photovoltaics. Their US-based study indicated that
offices need 67% energy savings, warehouses 6%, educational facilities 43%, and retail 44% before PV
systems could provide sufficient energy to achieve Net Zero. By extension, greater reductions in energy
demand would be required to achieve Net Positive Energy as well as greater potential to accommodate
onsite renewable energy systems.
The current emphasis of building energy efficiency or Net Zero Energy relates to the performance and
energy/economic benefits accrued by an individual building. Such is the case for the simple definition of
Net Positive Energy defined above. However, if a broader framing of net positive is considered, then the
benefit gained by the larger system within in which the building sits assumes importance. Since the notion
of Net Positive Energy sets buildings as part of a system/neighborhood and explicitly linking them with
infrastructure, a number of broader potential benefits emerge, e.g., by exploiting onsite renewable energy
sources and exporting surplus energy to the utility grid increases the share of renewable energy within the
grid (Sartori et al., 2012).
3.2 Net Expectation Benefit

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Net Positive Energy approaches require a clear link between buildings and infrastructure and
associated partnership agreements between agencies/stakeholders engaged in the energy exchange. The
most typical agreement relates to the selling and purchasing cost of the energy involved in the exchange.
The notion of Net Expectation Benefit (NEB) has been proposed as a key factor in the discussion
and definition of Net Positive Energy assessments (Boji et al., 2011; Kolokotsa et al., 2011). NEB is
understood as the generationconsumption difference between the exporting and importing buildings
weighted appropriately by the price that energy is sold or purchased, and thereby represents the
anticipated monetary gain from the exchange. Here, Kolokotsa et al., (2011) emphasise that the
maximization of the Net Energy Benefit is not equivalent to the maximization of the Net Energy
Produced. The former represents the target set by the building operator to minimize operational costs
or, equivalently, maximize return on the energy efficiency measures investment, while the maximization
of the Net Energy Produced is considered the most environmentally-friendly approach since it
maximizes the energy produced from the building. (Kolokotsa et al., 2011, p.3077)
The notion of a Net Positive Energy building is premised on the generation of more energy by a
building than is needed to meet its own requirements. The excess energy can be placed into the electrical
grid or exported to adjacent buildings to offset their energy requirements. In technical terms, the potential
exchange between buildings depends on their relative energy use how much, what quality and when it is
required and their ability to generate energy again, how much, what quality and when it is produced.
The former of these is, to a large extent, related to the expectation for energy services required by
buildings which, in the majority of cases, is dominated by comfort provisioning. (Kolokotsa et al., 2005;
Doukas et al., 2007; Dalamagkidis et al., 2007). Again, the possibility of Net Positive Energy
performance resides in the resolution of both technical and behavioural issues.
3.3 Time Frames

In Net Zero Energy buildings, the time-frame is defined as the period of time over which the building
calculation is performed to establish when a balance is met between energy demand and renewable
energy supply. This is typically one year but, given year-to-year variations in climate and energy use, a
balance may not always be achieved over this time period. Although one year could be selected to
designate if a building generates more energy than it uses to be designated as net positive, this would
significantly limit the potentials of a Net Positive Energy approach.
Current discussions and definitions of net-zero energy relate only to the operational energy that is,
the onsite generation of energy required to offset a building annual operating energy (heating, cooling,
etc). Hernandez and Kenny (2010) acknowledge that a buildings full life cycle would be a more
appropriate period for the energy balance, and by implication a discussion of Net Positive Energy. By
using the life-cycle, it is possible to include not only the operating energy use, but also the energy
embodied in the building materials, construction and demolition and/or technical installations. Within the
notion of life cycle zero energy buildings the excess energy production is therefore considered to offset
all the energy associated with the construction and operation of a building. The expectation, therefore,
would be the highest quality of net energy positive system that results from the highest energy
performance of the system operation combined with the lowest embodied energy in materials used for
system infrastructures associated with the on-site or off-site energy production and transmission services.
Voss, Sartori and Lollini (2012) indicate that the embodied energy of a building increases only slightly as
a result of strategies needed to achieve nearly and net ZEBs due to the domination by the embodied
energy of structural building elements compared to those associated with energy-saving measures or
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generation systems.
3.4 A Systems Approach
A primary emphasis in building-related energy performance relates to that of individual buildings and this
is the scale that building codes focus and which energy services are metered. However several
developments have shifted this historical perspective (Fedoruk, 2013):
Net Zero Energy buildings have highlighted the relationship and interdependency with the electricity
grid.
The emergence distributed or on-site energy systems that the production and distribution of energy
within the boundaries of, or located nearby and directly connected to, a building, community or
development (Wolfe, 2008, p.4509) and which offer new approaches for energy producers, networks,
delivery mechanisms, user interfaces, and policy frameworks (Fedoruk, 2013, p.28).
The increased interest in the potentialities of smart grids that intelligently integrate both energy
generators and end users and distributed energy generation to improve system efficiency and
renewable integration. (Agrell et al., 2013).
Smart micro grids are envisioned in which energy users that formerly only had the ability to draw from
the grid will be able to actively switch between acting as an energy user or a local energy distributer,
contributing to the energy supply. These future grids will have to address a need for more observable,
accessible, and controllable network infrastructures and include distributed volatile renewable energy
sources, domestic energy storage, and uncertain load demands due to the diversity of appliances.
(Alagoz et al., 2012, p.167).
The Urban Harvest Approach (UHA) maps urban resource potentials and captures previously
disregarded low-quality resources for appropriate uses and thereby viewing cities producers and
reservoirs of secondary resources and creating closed-loop urban cycles (Agudelo-Vera et al., 2012).
Such approaches emphasise local context as the basis for determining appropriate resource solutions.
(Fedoruk, 2013, p.38)
Collectively, distributed energy systems and smart grids can accommodate an increased share of
renewables, a decreased need for additional grid capacity, a decreased transportation, reduced peak
demand, lowered costs, reduced emissions, and providing new options for consumers in how they interact
with the energy utility (Coll-Mayor et al., 2004; Wolfe, 2008).
Given the above, it is not surprising that the primacy of the individual building as the focus of energy
strategies is being seriously challenged. Fedoruk (2013) references an emerging tendency within the
buildings industry to view buildings as potential resource nodes within a networked infrastructure, such as
a district energy system or smart grid network (p.16) and [a]s buildings are integrated with distributed
energy and information communication systems, they can be seen not as stand-alone entities but as nodes
within these networked systems. (p.21) The emerging capabilities of smart grids offers the possibility
of connected buildings serving as both energy sources and energy sinks at different times. Using this
network understanding Fororuk suggests that such nodes can be analyzed in terms of what type of
energy service is requested and how they are affecting the overall system. (p.46)
4. Conclusion
A considerable amount is known about Net Zero Energy buildings and, indeed, their definition has
been subject to considerable scrutiny and clarification. As evidenced in the operationalising of the EU
Energy Performance of Buildings Directive Directive, more has yet to be done to build the capability
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required to deliver on such requirements. While Net Zero and Net Positive Energy buildings share several
of same characteristics, there are distinctions between them:
1. Rather than a two-way energy exchange between an individual building and the grid and where the
benefits are primarily financial and accrued by the building owner, a net positive approach can involve
a more complex set of energy exchanges and partnerships.
2. Rather than only considering operating energy, the broader spatial framing of net positive potentially
captures building and transportation energy relationships.
3. Rather than defining the balance period between demand and energy generation over one year, the
notion of net positive potentially extends this timeframe to the full-lifecycle and thereby captures
operating energy and embodied energy relationships.
Other potential issues/outcomes from the paper are:
Rather than considering only the generation of more exporting energy versus its importation rate to
individual buildings or the grid, net positive energy design seeks the maximization of energy
performance in a system-based approach. As such, buildings, landscape, infrastructure and services
must be considered as elements of a system/neighborhood collectively as being directed at providing
the highest import-export and generation-consumption performance. (Cole and Kashkooli, 2012)
Rather than considering only technical systems and aspects, inhabitant behaviour and engagement and
the ways and extent that social processes interface with the technical systems are equally critical to
achieving successful performance (Fedoruk, 2013);
Rather than focusing solely on the quantity of energy use and exchange, a net positive approach is
equally concerned with energy quality, i.e., striving for the lowest waste of energy during the processes
of export-import and the lowest transformation of a part of energy to its lower quality forms. To
achieve this goal, it will be necessary to improve how, when and where energy is exchanged within the
system. (Cole and Kashkooli, 2012)
In summary, Net Positive Energy approaches open a host of new technical, behavioural, policy and
regulatory issues and opportunities not currently evident with Net Zero Energy buildings. These
challenge the primacy of individual buildings as the most effective unit to make significant energy
gains and the current expectation that each and every building should be required to attain net zero
performance.
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Energy Services Framework towards

Net Zero Energy House implementation in Portugal
Hang Dao 1, *, Carlos Silva 2
1
SELECT+, Erasmus Mundus Joint Doctorate Program,

IN+, Instituto Superior Tcnico, University of Lisbon
Email: dao.hang@ist.utl.pt
2
WS Energia Chair/IN+, Instituto Superior Tcnico, University of Lisbon
Av. Professor Cavaco Silva, 2744-016 Porto Salvo, Portugal
Email: carlos.santos.silva@ist.utl.pt
*Corresponding author
Abstract
Net Zero Energy in building sector has gained particular attention among researchers, policy makers
and the business sector since the release of EU Directive 2010/31 on the energy performance of buildings.
The lack of concise definitions and agreed numbers between countries, not only for Portugal, has slowed
down the implementation of NZEH to reach the goal of reduce energy consumption in building sector. To
this context, the paper provides an overview of the current status on the effort of reaching a benchmark of
NZEH for Portugal in comparison with other countries standard. In particular, the paper addresses the
questions: What could be the reachable definition of NZEH for Portugal to adopt? How far Portugal can
go on the implementation under the current building context?
With a focus on residential energy needs - including space heating and cooling, water heating,
lighting, cooking - the paper brings up the perspective of the residential energy services demand, and
discusses a framework and the indicators to be used in the design of NZEH in Portugal. The comparison
between countries regulations and standards is also analyzed. The paper then proposes a generic model
of energy services for net-zero-energy at household level, and recommends logical indicators for net-zeroenergy-services house. Considering total energy services demand for new and existing house, the value of
total primary energy and final intensity demand are proposed. These defined baselines are the basis of
discussion of how far Portuguese residential sector is from reaching NZEH goal in order to move further
steps forward to the implementation.
Keywords
Net zero energy house, residential energy services, low-energy building, net zero energy framework,
household energy performance
1. Introduction
A Net Zero-Energy House or Near Zero-Energy House (NZEH) is a sub-group of Net Zero-Energy
Buildings (NZEB) that can be defined as a high energy efficient building for residential purposes where
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nearly all the energy demand is covered by renewable sources produced on-site or nearby. This topic has
gained particular attention among researchers, policy makers and business sector with the release of EU
Directive 2010/31 (European Union, 2010), known as EPDB recast 2010, which requires that member
states ensure that by December 31st 2020 all new buildings are nearly zero-energy buildings. However,
well-founded research communities have been dealing with low consumption buildings since the 70s, in
North America and in Europe Union, especially in Germany and in the UK. In Asia-Pacific, except for
some leading countries such as Australia, Japan, or Singapore the concept of NZEH is generally not yet
well-known.
To foster the development of NZEH, recent studies have revealed that a number of different topics
still need to be addressed. Some studies have addressed the principles of NZEH related methodologies
and definitions have been proposed (Riedy et al., 2011; Sartori et al., 2012; Marszal et al. 2011). Other
studies have analyzed the significant role of technology related to modeling and simulation tools in the
designing and setting process (Attia et al., 2012). Comparative studies have also raised the discussion on
the effectiveness of deploying renewables in comparison of on-site and off-site supply (Marszal et al.,
2012).
Among a number of identified challenges, the controversy over the lack of a consistent and
comprehensive framework, terminology and the different evaluation methodologies for the energy
balance are indicated as the hindrance for the NZEH implementation (Boermans et al., 2011; Sartori et al.,
2012). Mlecnik (2011) pointed out that one of the major obstacles that delays the implementation of the
NZEH seems to be the linguistic, cross-regional and legislative confusion caused by the numbers and
variety of definitions and their historical meaning. Some of the many considered terms are: nearly zero
energy, zero energy, net zero energy, zero site energy, zero source energy, zero energy cost or passive
house, energy plus, zero carbon, zero emission, carbon neutral, climate neutral (Riedy et al. 2011; Sartori
et al. 2012; Marszal et al. 2011).
Since the definition of NZEH is mostly generic and not truly practical to all locations within Europe,
it is left to each country to set up their own adaptive definition which is suitable for each countrys
political target and particular local conditions. Some authors even strongly argue that having all buildings
to be NZEH is not likely to be the lowest cost or most sustainable approach in reducing energy use, and it
is even impossible for certain locations (Global Energy Assessment, 2012).
Following the EPBD 2010 recast, most European countries have already taken national actions
towards implementing the regulation for low-energy buildings. However, to date, only few European
member states have concrete plans and targets for new net zero energy buildings including Portugal.
Nevertheless, the interest in the topic has indicated that there is a good business opportunity despite the
slow uptake of NZEH, and undoubtedly this industry will lead to a more or less significant transformation
in the global energy and building industry over the next decades.
By doing collective and comparative analysis of current existing adopted definitions in Europe, this
paper addresses the questions of what could be the reachable definition of NZEH for Portugal to adopt
and how far Portugal can go on the implementation under the current building context.
To answer these questions, this paper proposes a new modeling framework of the energy services in
the residential sector. From that definition, values from current NZEH alike projects and regulations in
different countries are analyzed. Comparative study for Portugal using the regulation indicators shall be
performed. Finally, the discussion and recommendations will be provided for the implementation of
NZEH in Portugal.
141

2. NZEH Modeling framework based on energy services

Energy Services is an expression that has been used over the last decade under different
circumstances, referring to different meanings, though in general related with energy end use and energy
efficiency contexts. In particular, two ideas are nowadays associated with this expression:
Energy services as a description of energy end-uses (International Energy Agency, 2007)
Energy services as a business activity related to the management of energy end-uses (Bertoldi &
Rezessy, 2005)
Though the definitions are different and somewhat disjoint, they both refer to understanding energy uses
beyond the accounting of the energy used at a certain equipment or appliance and suggest that this
knowledge enables to design and implement new ways to use energy more efficiently.
In the context of this paper, the definition of energy services as a description of end-uses will be used.
2.1 Energy services characterization in the residential sector
According to the International Energy Agency - IEA (IEA, 2007), energy use in the residential sector
can be categorized in the following items: space heating and space cooling which is still not welldocumented in European countries, water heating, cooking, lighting and electric appliances use
(refrigerators, freezers, dish and clothes washing, TV and other multimedia equipment).
2.2 Drivers for energy services consumption
The main drivers for energy consumption identified by the IEA in households are floor area which is
mostly related to the needs of space heating; number of occupants that impact on water heating, cooking
and appliances, the climate measured in Heating Degree Days - HDD; income, and energy costs (IEA,
2007). Overall, considering the normalization by the number of HDD due to climate variations from year
to year and country to country, the following conclusions can be drawn: floor area, occupancy, cost, and
location.
2.3 Energy services modelling framework
In the literature, the analysis of NZEH has in general being done using two principles: firstly,
determine final energy demand, fostering the most efficient solutions; and secondly design a supply
system, considering the use of renewable resources and primary energy sources to complement the energy
supply which is not provided by renewable resources. The approach is followed for example the
discussion by Boermans et al. (2011), where different types of buildings in different climate zones are
simulated using a set of final use technologies, or by Milan et al. (2012) where the best set of supply
technologies is chosen using an optimization approach. Authors of these works consider the final energy
uses only, but extend their analysis by considering the potential end-uses such as space-heating or hot
water demand. In fact, the appliances efficiency from final to end-use energy must be taken into
consideration to achieve the first design principle of designing the most efficient energy demand.
In this paper, the authors propose that it is necessary for NZEH to go beyond the final energy use, and
consider explicitly the concept of energy service or energy end-use in the design and implementation of
NZEH. This requires that the design approaches for NZEH - whether using simulation approaches or
optimization approaches - consider the supply technologies using renewables but also the appliances
efficiency and the household characteristics that influence energy end-uses, as for example the thermal
transmittance U-value from walls or windows. This concept is depicted in Figure 13.
142
Biomass
Geothermal
Hydropower
PRIMARY
ENERGY
ENERGY
SERVICES
Wind
APPLIANCES
Solar
CONVERSION
TECHNOLOGIES
SOURCES

Solar PV
Heater
Heating
Electricity
Cooler/
Fridge
Cooling
Gas
Kitchen
appliances
Cooking
Lamps
Lighting
Electronic
appliances
Media
Solar collector
Microwind
Heat pump
Storage
Cold
Fireplace
Heat
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
FINAL ENERGY
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
USEFUL
ENERGY
Networks
Figure 13 - Model of residential end-use energy services
The use of energy service allows further to include the consumer behaviour dimension that is not
well-addressed by the literature. In fact, even for the same house in the same climate, the energy use
differs depending on the occupants behaviour. In this way, the proposed hypothesis is that energy
services in a household have two drivers: the household characteristics and the consumer characteristics.
This concept is described in Figure 14. The household characteristics refer to the floor area, number
of occupants, type of house, walls insulation or windows thermal transmittance, which have an impact on
energy services like space heating and cooling or hot water. The impact of these characteristics is well
understood, as it follows physical principles and has been documented in detail by Biesiot & Noorman
(1999). The household characteristic refers also to its location, taking into consideration not only the
climate that influences significantly the energy demand, but also the socio-economic context of the
region.
The consumer characteristics refers to the use that depends on the behavioural aspects of energy
consumption, like the user socio-economic level, their response to information, the willingness to save
energy, the concern regarding environmental impacts or knowledge about energy efficiency. The
assumption is that even for the same household characteristics, different occupants use energy differently
and behave differently according to the context of use. The impact of these characteristics is recognized,
mentioned and studied in different studies, for example in (Guarre et al., 2009). The problem is even more
complex, since some factors can impact both on the house and the consumer characteristics or cannot be
clearly separated in one of the categories. The fact has actually brought up through literatures in regards
to the household energy consumption (Van Raaij & Verhallen, 1983; Dias et al., 2004)
143

Individual household characteristics

Number of people/house
Age gender
Education, energy-related knowledge
Energy-saving awareness
Individual interest/preferences
Income, llifestyle
CONSUMPTION
CHARACTERISTICS
Environment and social characteristics
Local climate, weather
Local community practices
Social norm
HOUSING
CHARACTERISTICS
Figure 14 - Characteristics of household energy consumption
3. Current standards and examples for NZEH

This section shall analyze different standards related to the design of buildings with low energy
consumption requirements for different countries, especially in Europe. The objective is to summarize the
use of specific indicators for energy consumption within the energy services framework and compare with
current consumption values to identify the gap between current practices and NZEH requirements.
3.1 Current standards world wide
Table 14 summarizes the definitions used in different countries for low energy consumption
households. The most well established standard in Europe is the Passive House, which determines a
maximum threshold for primary energy consumption (120kWh/m2.year), a maximum heating load of
15kWh/m2.year and an equivalent cooling load if necessary (Mller & Berker, 2013).
In most European countries, following the national certification schemes stemming from the
implementation of the Directive 2010/31(Bogdan Atanansiu, 2012), it could be considered that a low
energy house consumes less primary energy than the standard house and this varies according to national
regulations. In general, is less stringent than the Passive House definition. Austria presents an exception
by setting the goals in terms of final energy.
UK has chosen a different approach and has determined the threshold not by energy use (final or
primary), but rather on CO2 emissions the zero carbon home. This approach is similar to the one
followed in Australia the zero emissions building. Albeit zero-carbon-home standard has been officially
appeared in UK policy, some technical aspects still have to be defined (Williams, 2012).
In United States, as in Europe, the NZEH standards vary from states and remain voluntarily. There is
also driven guideline definition form U.S. Department of Energy. In Japan, the concept of NZEH is
considered as a very high energy efficiency house basically focusing on the particularly high efficiency of
the appliances and equipment installed in the house.
144

Table 14 - Comparison of low-energy regulation and standard worldwide

Definition
Passive House
Organization
Passive
house
Institute
(Independent
research institute)
Target
Total primary energy
demand
<
and
120kWh/m2.year,
heat
load
<
15kWh/m2.year
Observations
Also used for large
residential building,
commercial
and
public building
Countries
Europe
especially
German,
Sweden, Austria
Low
House
Energy
Buildings
Performance Institute
Europe
Consume less energy

than the maximum
level required by the
countrys
building
code
The
energy
performance must be
lower
than
the
energy
standard
based on the national
building code and
regulation
(see
Table2)
Europe
Zero
carbon
home or Carbon
neutral home
Department
of
Energy and Climate
Change
Emit no CO2 from all

energy usage during
only the operation, no
need to import grid
electricity
Officially appeared
in
UK policy
UK
Zero
emission
building
Australian
Sustainable
Built
Environment Council
(Independent
research institute)
No net annual scope 1

and scope 2 emissions
from operation phase
and
incorporated
services
Compliance based on
modeling
of
greenhouse
gas
emissions
Australia
High
energy
efficiency
building
Ministry
of
Municipal Affaires
and Housing
Compliance
of
maximum allowable
consumption based
on
Design
and
Construction
Guidelines
Very
focus
on
labelling standards of
very high efficiency
equipment installed
in house
Japan
Net zero energy

house
U.S. Department of
Energy
National Renewable
Energy Laboratory
Consumes net zero

energy during the
operation, produces
no net emissions of
greenhouse
gases,
meet the residual
energy needs from
sources
The definitions vary

among states
USA state level
3.2 Low energy houses requirements in Europe

Table 2 shows more specifically what are the current requirements for the low energy house in the
different countries in Europe and what are the targets up to 2020.
145

Table 15 - Current energy consumption and low- energy performance requirement for single household in Europe - kWh/m2.year
Country
Final electricity
Consumption
Final Energy
Consumption
(Entranze, 2013)
Primary
energy
requirements
(2011)
Goals
(2020)
231
66.5 (final)
288
119-136
Passive house
standard
-
190
52.5-60
294
65 (heating)
205
232
80-130 (fossil)
130-250
(electricity)
70
194
130-250
(World Energy
Council, 2011)
Austria
52
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany
Netherlands
40
100
62
45
40
Norway
150 (heating)
Check
Republic
Sweden
60
UK
Portugal
117
64
33
240
110-150
256
100 (from
CO2)
90
390 745
17,5-20
without fossil
fuel
Passive house
for public
buildings
Energy
positive: E+
Energy neutral
buildings
Zero-energy
buildings
Zero buildings
Zero carbon
39-46 (10-14 kg
CO2)
Near-zero
energy buildings
clearly shows that the current average consumption of final energy (and consequently of
primary energy) is well above the required thresholds for primary energy. Another notice is that the
electricity consumption represents a large share of the final consumption, even in countries where the
electricity is not used for space heating and hot water. There are two reasons that explain the differences.
Firstly, the regulations refer to the requirements for new houses or large refurbishments while the average
consumption refers to all households. Secondly, the requirements do not include all the end uses including
Table 15
146

the lighting, cooking, electric appliances. From the above analysis on the requirements and current
consumption levels it is clear that there is still a large mismatch between the low energy houses
requirements and NZEH from two different perspectives: on one hand, the current consumption values
are well met to the performances requirement. On the other hand the current requirements do not include
the general electric appliances consumption represents a large share of the residential energy
consumption.
3.3 NZEH examples
Despite the obstacles on finding a common framework for NZEH throughout Europe, several
initiatives and implementation appear to be successful cases. Dall et al. (2013) selected new residential
built after 2007 in Italy with a heating energy demand range from 6.43 29 kWh/m2.year that meet the
energy class A and A+. A noticeable case study in England was done for houses from 105-164 m2 with a
net consumption of 100kWh/year. This means even in the cold weather of England, the NZEH meet or
exceed their initial designed performance (Thomas & Duffy, 2013).
On the social acceptance level more than half of the European recognize and concern about energy
efficiency in household (Eva & Kaisa, 2012). The major concern is to push up to policy level and to
create innovative market solutions.
4. Residential energy consumption in Portugal
Portugal is one of the countries that does not have yet an official policy regarding the implementation
of NZEH, although the topic is being closely followed by the national research community (Kapsalaki &
Leal, 2011; Wiesman et al., 2011). The following section shall look into the Portuguese regulation and to
the consumption data from the residential sector from two different sources - a national survey and a pilot
project on smart energy metering - in order to get more insights to the applicability of the concept to the
Portuguese case.
4.1 Energy efficient house regulation in Portugal
The Portuguese regulation that sets the methodology to evaluate the energy performance of the
residential buildings has been originally introduced in 2006 and revised in 2013 (Dirio da Repblica,
2013). Though not explicitly, the regulation provides a definition of the energy services taking into
account the household characteristics as defined in Section 0. for space heating, space cooling and
domestic hot water and evaluates the primary energy consumption taking into account the end-used
technologies efficiency, the climate with temperature and radiation gains, the shape factor, area, materials,
number of persons in the household etc. Table presents the maximum requirements for a typical
household in Portugal located in the Lisbon area, with an area 108m2 and 2.7 inhabitants.
4.2 Residential energy consumption survey
In 2010, the National Statistics Agency together with the National Directorate for Energy carried out
a national survey on the residential energy consumption for Portugal (Estatisticas oficiais, 2010) in which
included detailed statistics of final end-uses are included. Table 3 presents the results for residential
energy consumption in Portugal and in Lisbon for a reference household (area of 108m2 and average 2.7
inhabitants).
GALP ENERGIA - a Portuguese utilities also started a smart energy metering project in 2011
including electricity and gas called SMARTGALP in Lisbon area with 100 households project (GALP
Energia, 2013). The objective is to test the increase of energy efficiency in the residential sector by
providing detailed feedback of energy consumption and energy efficiency tips to residential consumers of
147

electricity and gas. The final consumption of electricity and gas for the households located in Lisbon is
also shown in Table 3.
5. Discussion and Recommendations for Portugal case
According to Boermans et al. (2011), most of the European Member States have specific maximum
energy intensity in primary energy related to local condition but not all the countries have an officially
adopted definition for low and zero energy buildings. This is the case of Portugal, where the latest
revision of the regulation says that the new buildings should be near-zero energy buildings if they are
economically viable (Dirio da Repblica, 2013). However, no concrete goal is suggested, the following
will provide recommendations on this behalf.
Table 3 - Residential energy consumption in Portugal
kWh/m2.year
Regulation
(2006)
Regulation
(2013)
National survey
(2010)
Hot water
Heating
Cooling
Cooking
Lighting
Media appliances
Total final energy
30
32 - 87
16 - 32
13
60-230
80-100
26
5.4
156 - 298
Total
primary energy
390 745
Monitoring
Lisbon
(SMARTGALP)
153-343
14
5.3
12.8
80
52.5
382 - 857
200
131
5.1 Data and standards discussion

The pilot results in Table , based on real measurements, clear demonstrate that the final energy
consumption in significantly lower than the maximum admissible consumption described in the
regulation. This is supported by the national survey and by other literature references such as Balaras et
al. (2007b) that indicated final energy consumption of 84.3 kWh/m2.year, and primary energy
consumption of 210.6 kWh/m2.year for residential sector in Portugal.
When looking into detail of the disaggregation by energy service, it is seen that the difference is
mostly due to the maximum admissible space heating needs, which are much higher than what people
really use. From the survey, the energy consumed in space heating is comparable to the one used in
lighting and lower than the one used for cooking or media electric appliances (TV, computer).
Since there is no tradition of district heating in Portugal and the winter climate is also less severe, this
suggests that people got used to have colder houses and wear more clothes inside than in other European
countries. In fact, people from northern countries spending winters in Portugal usually complain about the
lower internal temperature in houses.
Furthermore, the regulation may overestimate the duration using heating system in the real weather
condition of Portugal. The regulation estimated the space heating needed in 16 weeks for 4-month winter
from November to the end of February. Meanwhile, Lisbon is considered as a mild winters and hot and
dry summers (Oliveira et al., 2011). November is 17oC for average high temperature, and 14oC in
January. In reality, people tend to use the heater only when the temperature is lower. The energy used for
148

cooling demand might also be estimated higher than the average needs. March 2012 had the largest
fraction of warm with 65% days of temperature higher than average high temperatures (Weatherspark,
2013). The low energy demand for cooling is confirmed in the national survey in 2010.
Finally, in the national survey, the largest end-use in Portuguese households is domestic hot-water,
followed by cooking (including fridge) and electric appliances for media. This is to show that at least for
Portugal, a significant part of the energy is spent in other services not considered in the regulation, which
for the NZEH design is very important.
5.2 Define a NZEH energy demand threshold level
Following the methodological approach to design NZEH in which the first step is to determine an
efficient consumption. To get A+ certificate according to current low-energy target set by regulation, the
energy needs is equal or less than 25% of the total maximum primary energy needs of the house. Since
the regulations only set the standards for heating, cooling and water heating, the total energy services
needed in Table 4 is calculated based on national survey. It could however be considered that the low
energy standard or the passive house can be assumed as the reference value consumption for a NZEH for
the services covered by the regulation.
Maximum space heating service
Table 4 proposes the values of the final useful energy and primary energy use of the total energy demand
needed for the low-energy building in Portugal. It appears that there is a gap between maximum regulated
heating value and the actual value from the monitoring and this is at least partially explained by the
heating needs required using as a base temperature the 20oC. This base temperature of 20oC is also used
by some other authors when calculating the heating demand for Portugal based on HDD (Silva et al.,
2009; Wiesmann et al., 2011). However, in accordance with other countries, the heating demand is rerecalculated with the base temperature of 15oC in comparison with the previous one of 20oC in RCCTTE.
The total primary energy need is converted by the assumption of 40% conversion efficiency of electricity.
The first important aspect is that the real consumption in average household in the Lisbon area, either
based on the national survey or the real data from a pilot (131 khw/m2.year), is already very close to the
passive house standard (120khw/m2.year). Furthermore, in regards to certification, the highest rating (A+)
is for houses that consume 25% or less than the maximum, it shows that these houses are also in the range
of the passive house standard (100 - 182 kWh/m2.year). The passive house definition, however, is aimed
at applying for the location at least from 40o-60o North latitude. Portugal is located in 37oN- 42oN which
may suggest that in Portugal could go beyond the passive house standard, if the reference needs for
heating services is changed to 15C. This needs will still be higher than the energy used but low enough to
be a demanding target.
However, based on the actual comfort level of Portugal, the base temperature should be decreased
which is logical, for example Durmayaz et al. (2000) used the base temperature at 15oC for Germany
which is a colder climate zone, and 18oC for Europe and North America (Mourshed, 2012). Recalculating the heating degree day with the base temperature of 10-15oC, the degree day decrease to 52 589 instead of 940 2860 as listed in the regulation, the actual heating needs is 7 28 instead of 32 - 87
kWh/m2.year.
Remaining services
The second important aspect is the fact in a NZEH, the local supply of energy must fulfil all the
energy services. In this way, a reference value has to include not only the hot water, and space heating
and cooling, but also the services for lighting, cooking, appliances, etc.
149

For the rest of all services, the average values obtained in the survey can be used as the reference
values for the NZEH standard. In fact, considering an increase efficiency of the technologies for the
services of lighting and cooking, it is expectable that the future needs in 2020 will be lower or eventually
equal.
Primary vs. final energy target
The third important aspect is the definition of the value in terms of primary and final energy. It is true
that from a global system perspective, to account for the environmental and economic impacts, the
reference value should be given in terms of primary energy. Compared to the 2000W society target which
aims at reaching globally 2000W per person which means primary energy needs for all consumption of
17500 kWh/person.year (Marechal et al., 2005). Apply 2000W target to a single average household in
Portugal, with a house of 108m2 and 2.7 people (Entranze, 2013; Estatisticas oficiais, 2010; PORDATA
Portugal, 2013), the primary energy demand would be 43.8 kWh/m2.person.year or 118 kWh/m2.year.
However, taking into account the framework proposed for NZEH in Figure 13, defining a primary
energy target may limit significantly the options to implement a NZEH as the efficiencies from the
different technologies vary significantly and the available resources also.
Consider for example that the heating space service is totally provided in a NZEH using biomass with
an efficiency of 25%. The total primary energy required for heating will be close to the passive house
limit and but it still be missing the demand for the remaining services. Portugal is eventually possible to
use space heating systems based on solar thermal systems, which could lower the primary energy needs at
the expenses of a higher cost. Therefore, it is suggested that the thresholds for NZEH, should be defined
in final energy to allow for a larger optimization space of technologies and renewable resources that are
feasible.
Table 4: Current residential energy-services and targets
kWh/m2.year
Hot water
Heating
Cooling
Cooking
Lighting
Media appliances
Total final useful energy
Low-energy target in
final energy (A+)
Total primary energy
Low-energy target in
primary energy (A+)
Base temperature
20oC
30
32 - 87
16 - 32
Base temperature
15oC
30
28
16-32
2000W
target
Passive
house
78
78
156 - 298
152- 180
40
71
72
390 745
97.5 186
380 - 450
95 112.5
118
120
Local supply
The design of NZEH requires that renewable energy is locally used to provide the energy services. On
regards to the available renewable energy supply resources for NZEH, it is no doubt that Portugal has one
of the highest potential such as solar energy alone could provide half of the energy demand for the
proposed NZEH for such a normal reference house provided by a set up of minimum at 3kWh PV and
150

4m2 for solar collector. For example, a typical Photovoltaic system set up in Portugal is able to generate
annually between 1100 1330 kWh/kWp (ri et al., 2007) and the potential for solar thermal of 4
kWh/m2-day (Celik et al., 2009).
6. Conclusion and recommendations
In order to set forth the initiatives in Portugal, it is critical to clearly define the numeric indicators
such as primary and final energy needs for related residential energy services. The reasoning for a clearly
defined boundary is to assure the correct understanding and to pave the path for easier implementation. It
should also be based on the existing low energy standard and practice as well as sufficiently flexible and
adaptable to local climate condition, also to foster a faster adoption. In addition, the most updated version
of the regulation has mentioned the incentives for the NZEH action plans.
The authors propose the boundary of Net Zero energy services house in which all the energy services
of the house are included for energy need: space heating and cooling, water heating, lighting, cooking,
and entertaining and media services. The extra energy services of such as fire protection or maintenance
are not included. The standards should also base on the bottom-up model which considering both housing
characteristics and consumption characteristics.
The indicator of energy intensity (kWh/m2.year) is used for the block department and private house in
extended urban areas of Lisbon. There is no embodied energy included in the life cycle of the house. And
the house should also be allowed to connect to the grid. The total maximum energy services require for
residential in Lisbon area might be proposed as 100 kWh/m2.year in primary energy. However, for NZEH
implementation it is more critical and reasonable to set the target for final energy services demand which
mentioned from the previous sections. The value would be suggested of 40 kWh/m2.year in final energy
or 1600 kWh/person.year. The concrete definition of nearly NZEH at the minimum of 50% renewable
energy supply need also be defined according to principle of NZEH (Boermans et al., 2011) which ranges
from 50 90%.
It could be said that, Portugal has the high potential of implementing the NZEH. The implementation
of NZEH on national scale could from reducing the single household primary energy of 200 to100
kWh/m2.year, the energy demand for residential could be reduced 50% which is equal to 14% of total
national primary energy.
Acknowledgements
This paper is part of the research has been done in collaboration with Instituto Superior Tcnico,
University of Lisbon and Aalto University funded through Erasmus Mundus Joint Doctoral Program
SELECT+, the support of which is gratefully acknowledged.
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153

This Is Every Building: Achieving Market Rate Net-Zero-Ready
Rod Kruse, FAIA and Carey, Nagle AIA

BNIM Architects, Des Moines, Iowa, 50309 USA
rkruse@bnim.com and cnagle@bnim.com
Abstract
As home to the regulator of utilities, the Market Rate Net-Zero-Ready Iowa Utilities Board / Office of
Consumer Advocate (IUB/OCA) office building embodies a mission to lead by example for other
building owners while educating the public about energy efficiency. At the outset of the project, the
IUB/OCA Owner team presented a fundamental goal: achieve energy use intensity (EUI) of 28.0
kBTU/SF per year[9], equivalent to a 60% energy savings beyond the code baseline (ASHRAE 90.12004) [1]. This energy goal became the primary driver for every decision BNIMs team made throughout
the design process.
The LEED Platinum[4] IUB/OCA facility, currently operating at 16.7 kBTU/SF per year [3](81%
below the national average)[2], is a model case study demonstrating a successful high-performance
integrated design process. This building emerged through a process that is replicable and has attained
results achievable by any project. It embodies a process of replication and innovation in which past
successful strategies serve as the foundation for the innovation of new processes, products and strategies
to be implemented. The demonstration component of this project, in turn, allows for these innovations to
become part of the public knowledge base for future replication.
Though renewable energy solutions are often considered primary to the challenge of energy savings,
passive strategies and hyper-efficiency allow the capture of free energy first energy gained through
strategic siting, orientation and climatic response. The rigorous use of passive strategies is the single
greatest opportunity for market-rate net-zero projects to become a realistic norm.
Through the presentation of the IUB/OCA case study, a simple Net-Zero Ready approach will be
demonstrated as a model for typical projects to adopt, allowing for the integration of minimized onsite
renewable energy in the future and providing a pathway for broad scale net-zero implementation.
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Figure 1. Building Metrics
1. Introduction
Exemplary results require vision and exemplary leadership. Exemplary athletes visualize success and
have exemplary coaches. Exemplary symphonies visualize performance and have exemplary conductors.
Exemplary businesses have a strong vision for their future and have exemplary CEOs.
Market Rate Net-Zero-Ready Buildings require vision and exemplary leaders. Vision is essential;
leadership is essential. The Iowa Utilities Board / Office of Consumer Advocate Building (IUB/OCA) is an
example of leaders providing a path to achieving a Market Rate Net-Zero-Ready Building.
1.1. Vision
The State of Iowa established a vision for a high-performance facility to house the organizations that
regulate utility companies in the State of Iowa and represent the interests of the consumer. The vision and
goals were simple and forward thinking. The facility should consume no more than 28.0 kBTU per
square[9] foot per yeara 60% energy savings beyond the code baseline (ASHRAE 90.1-2004)[1]
and a 68% reduction from the national average energy consumption for office buildings (90.0 kBTU per
square foot per year)[2]. The building should be constructed within the financial parameters of a state
budget and incorporate methodologies that could be utilized by other public bodies and private sector
building owners. The vision was simple, direct, challenging, and achievable.
1.2. Leadership
Under the leadership of the Iowa Utilities Board former Chair John Norris, Judi Cooper, Joan Conrad,
David Lynch and current Chair Elizabeth Jacobs, and former Consumer Advocate John Perkins, Ron Polle,
and current Consumer Advocate, Mark Schuling, the vision held fast. Every decision made during the
programming, design, development, documentation, and construction of the project was reviewed for
compliance with the vision and goals for the project.
Each decision focused on achieving or exceeding the performance goals, meeting the financial
requirements of the project, and demonstrating practical and affordable methods of achieving a high155

performance facility. State representatives remained loyal to their vision when decisions were easy and,
most importantly, when decisions were difficult. The IUB/OCA project would not have achieved the
documented high-performance results without their leadership.
1.3. Results
This project demonstrates the results of visionary and committed leaders. The construction cost of the
approximately 45,000-gross-square-foot building was $10,150,000 including photovoltaic panels and the
development of a six-acre site. Following two years of occupancy, the building is currently consuming 16.7
kBTU per square foot per year[3], equivalent to an 81% reduction compared to the national average energy
use for office buildings[2]. The result is an annual savings of approximately $40,000 in utility costs.
These metrics are the result of replicable methodologies including building orientation, maximizing
daylight, a well-insulated building envelop constructed of precast concrete, a geothermal system, natural
ventilation, appropriately proportioned and configured workstations, occupancy sensors at every
workstation and office, and leadership that remains committed to the vision.
2. Summary
An infill development on the State of Iowa Capitol Complex in Downtown Des Moines, the new office
building for the IUB/OCA was developed on a challenging, awkwardly proportioned landfill site that now
establishes a gateway to the Capitol Complex.
The building emerged through a process that is replicable by any team, and it has attained results that are
achievable by any project. Its presence and performance serve as a testament to the sustainable stewardship
of the State of Iowa and is a model Market Rate Net-Zero-Ready office building demonstrating proven,
cost-effective energy efficiency measures for new construction.
The building is organized in two wings: the north wing comprises the IUB, while the south wing
accommodates the OCA on level two and common space on level one. The common space includes a hearing
room, conference center, and lounge areas. A two-story lobby links the two wings and houses vertical
circulation and service functions. An entrance courtyard and a plaza south of the building provide connections
to the outdoors.
The building integrates replicable sustainable strategiesserving as a demonstration project for other
government facilities at the state, local and national level, and also for the general public and private enterprise.
While many of the employed strategies are off the shelf or have been used elsewhere, their application on
the IUB/OCA project is significant due to the multitude of strategies integrated to achieve a building of
exemplary energy performance.
3. Designing Toward a Clear Vision

As home to the regulator of utilities, the new IUB/OCA office building embodies a mission to lead by
example for other building owners while educating the public about energy efficiency. At the outset,
IUB/OCA leaders presented a clear and fundamental goal to the project team: achieve or exceed an
energy use intensity of 28.0 kBTU/SF per year[9], equivalent to 60% energy savings beyond the energy
code baseline (ASHRAE 90.1-2004)[1] and a 68% reduction from the national average energy
consumption for office buildings (90.0 kBTU per square foot per year)[2]. Secondly, they established the
goal of LEED Platinum rating[4], giving elevated importance to a range of sustainable strategies such as
storm water management, water conservation, and responsible material use. The clients specified energy
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performance and LEED goals became the primary drivers for decisions made throughout the design
process.
Through a high-performance integrated design (HPID) processwhich brings all team members and
disciplines together in the earliest stages of designthe design and client team members worked
collaboratively to identify the strategies vital to performance: building placement and orientation, daylighting,
high-performance envelope, open-office/enclosed-office relationships, material selection and configuration,
geothermal and energy recovery, and most importantly, the complete integration of these strategies and
systems.
The energy performance goal allowed the team to quickly establish core strategies and develop levels
of refinement by integrating the strategies into a design that embodied design excellence while respecting
the owners financial expectations. IUB/OCAs strong directive allowed the conceptual goals to become
deeply ingrained in the process. The demand for performance commanded a process to reach the goal
efficiently through every aspect of design and construction.
4. A Process for a Market Rate Net-Zero-Ready Building

The IUB/OCA project is a model case study demonstrating a successful high-performance integrated
design (HPID) process to achieve a Market Rate Net-Zero-Ready Building. To achieve the clients
performance goals, BNIM convened critical disciplines (landscape architects, and civil, mechanical,
electrical and structural engineers) at the beginning of the conceptual design phase. This early
engagement allowed the building and site design to evolve in ways that integrated all systems and
strategies. As the design developed, the team could discuss and analyze the impact of each decision on
the various building systems related to building performance. The HPID process helped streamline the
design process, mitigated costly modifications in later project phases, and yielded a building that is
integrated in the ways it facilitates performance and function.
4.1. Collaboration: BNIM + Integrated Team + Iowa Energy Center
Early in the design process, BNIM worked closely with the Iowa Energy Center (IEC), a research and
advising entity administered by Iowa State University and funded through the Utilities Board. The
BNIM-led project team, IEC, and client team worked collaboratively through each project phase to
discover and ensure the desired level of high-performance design strategies for the new building. This
transparent and open feedback loop allowed strategies to be evaluated quickly and collaboratively for the
best decisions and results for the project. The IEC has continued assisting the client with documenting
the performance of the building.
4.2. Prioritizing Goals
Through the teams early process of prioritizing the owners vision with critical design strategies
(orientation, building envelope, and organization of the plan to ensure efficiency and daylight
penetration), the design process focused on decision-making that emphasized passive strategies for
capturing free energy by using the conditions of the site and climatic data. Energy and daylighting
modeling confirmed these decisions and allowed the team to layer additional strategies to reduce the
energy consumption with confidence, while eliminating other strategies when the investment would not
be offset through increased performance. Figure 2, below, indicates how the goals were listed and
prioritized.
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Figure 2. Prioritized Goals

4.3. Post Occupancy: Measurement and Verification Plan
The IUB/OCA and the State of Iowa understand the value of monitoring the performance of their
facility. The building design incorporates a comprehensive energy measurement and verification plan to
measure energy use of all building systems including HVAC, plumbing, general lighting, task lighting,
office equipment, photovoltaic panels, and computer systems. All outlets are designated in one of three
categories: critical power, noncritical power, or task lighting. Open office and enclosed offices outlets
are tied to occupancy sensors for all noncritical loads when not in use. Task lighting circuits are
individually monitored as part of a larger daylighting study to help the owner understand the extent of
savings and total energy use assigned to artificial lighting. This allows the owner to compare calculated
and actual energy use and make adjustments to maximize the efficiency of the building systems. The
project case study is now a viable demonstration model for other projects seeking similar outcomes and
performance.
5. Visionary Goals
5.1. Minimize Energy Consumption
The mandate was for a maximum energy use of 28.0 kBTU/SF/Year[9], a 60% reduction from code
baseline (ASHRAE 90.12004)[1]. Through a variety of means, including the MidAmerican Energy
Commercial New Construction program, the project team analyzed optimal orientation, glazing, and
massing options for the building to reduce the energy use before systems were designed. Based on
findings, a high-efficiency mechanical system using water-to-air heat pumps coupled to a geothermal well
field with total energy recovery of ventilation was selected. A number of efficient, integrated lighting
strategiesincluding automatic daylighting controls, occupancy sensors, and a task ambient lighting
systemcontribute to the owners overall 60% energy reduction goal for the building. The project team
paid significant attention to the plug loads. The team worked with the owner to choose Energy Star
equipment and to control the equipment with occupancy sensors to reduce energy use not only during the
day, but also during the night to eliminate phantom loads. Once the loads had been reduced as much as
possible, the team incorporated a photovoltaic system to further reduce the energy footprint. In its first
year of use, the building out-performed expectations.
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Figure 3. Realized Metrics
5.2. Demonstration Project

The application of multiple passive and active strategies on this project is a model for other
Governmental Agencies and Public and Private Sector Building Owners. The building has become a living
laboratory, demonstrating a visionary level of elegant and efficient workspace design. The result is a
headquarters building that demonstrates how a high-performance workspace that inspires high-performing
people can be achieved within state budgets. IUB/OCA is a testament to integrated design, close
collaboration, and the power of a focused and bold client partner.
The owner has shared that the space has changed the culture of the IUB/OCA workplace.
Workstation configurations have promoted increased collaboration between teams. Larger shared and
common spaces such as the Hearing Room and two large conference rooms offer flexible space that has
performed well for many purposes, including training, small and large group meetings, and the intended
use of public hearings.
The organizational efficiencies not only impact the two state agencies in this building, but they serve
all of the state agencies in the Capitol Complex that are able to utilize the shared resources of the project.
The measurement/verification plan, employed to measure energy use, allows the owner to make
adjustments and facilitates ongoing research in partnership with the Iowa Energy Center. This
partnership further magnifies the project demonstration goals and ensures that others will learn from this
examplean appropriate investment for any public entity.
5.3. High Performance on a Modest Budget
This project has proven that exemplary performance can be achieved within a state construction budget,
in this case with a cost of $213 per square foot (based on 2010 market rate). Utilizing past experience and
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industry cost data, representatives of the State of Iowa established the area and financial budget for the
IUB/OCA project prior to selecting BNIM as the architect.
During design and development, the team studied numerous strategies to meet the programmatic,
performance and financial requirements of the project. Construction cost projections were continuously
monitored throughout the design and documentation process, making adjustments as needed at each stage
to ensure that the project did not exceed financial parameters.
Controlling costs while designing for high performance required numerous challenging decisions.
The owners team never faltered in its pursuit of a high-performance building. The performance goals
were regarded as sacred and were required to be achieved within the pre-established construction budget.
Each aspect of the design considered as potential cost savings was also considered with respect to energy
performance. As an example, the team replaced clerestory daylighting provided through roof shapes with
highly efficient and effective light tubes to assist with the daylighting of interior spaces.
The ongoing commitment of the State to protect the high-performance requirements of the project
was essential to the projects success. State of Iowa leadership held fast to their expectations, never
faltering.
Figure 4. Building Metrics
5.4. Return on Investment

The IUB/OCA building has exceeded the energy use intensity goal and operates at 81% below the
national office building average with a building and site construction cost of $226 per square foot (based
on 2010 market rate), including photovoltaic panels (PV) that generate 21.2% of the buildings energy[3].
Through design and performance, the building contributes to a secure energy futurea tangible
benefit for governments operating with leaner budgets. The incremental construction cost for added
efficiency measures and PV was $280,821 ($143,321 without inclusion of owner PV costs) with inclusion of
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utility-based incentives. After two years of operation, actual annual energy savings were $40,172 (relative to
the code baseline), resulting in a payback period of 7.0 years. (This calculation is based on an average state
government rate of 4.8 cents/kWh[8] which is based on demand. These savings would be considerably larger
for the average private sector utility customer in the state at an average of 10.5 cents/kWh.)
5.5. Monitor Building Performance Metrics
To assist in maintaining performance, building monitoring is used to control the ventilation and
electrical systems for maximum efficiency. Real-time data is monitored and analyzed to improve building
performance. This work is being done in partnership with the State of Iowa Department of
Administrative Services and the Iowa Energy Center. The Energy Center will further use results to
support various research projects.
To conduct this monitoring, all outlets are designated as critical power, non-critical power, or task
lighting. Open office and enclosed offices outlets are tied to occupancy sensors that shut down all noncritical loads when not in use. Task lighting circuits are individually monitored as part of a larger
daylighting study to understand the extent of savings and total energy use assigned to artificial lighting.
Figure 5. Building Monitoring
6. Context and Site

The selected building site, adjacent to the existing Iowa State Capitol Complex, created a new southeast
gateway to the complex. One of the most important opportunities embodied in the clients vision for this
project was the assumption that the new IUB/OCA building would deviate from the more traditional
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buildings within the Capitol Complex. It would be more contemporary and explicitly different from the
existing historic character of the complex while respectful in terms of scale, proportion, and value. It would
represent a new generation of civic architectureone that symbolizes proactive stewardship of both
environmental and financial resources. The clients strong sustainability goals would be an outward
representation of commitment to model positive development by the State and its agencies.
The Capitol is a significant hub for metro area transit options, as all city routes are available on site or
within one transfer. Preferred parking is available on site for vanpools and alternative fuel and hybrid
vehicles; showers are provided to encourage cycling and walking; and parking was reduced to the minimum
allowed by local code.
7. Building
The new IUB/OCA building marked a significant cultural shift for the two state agencies. Relocating
from an office environment with tall workstation partitions and limited natural daylight, employees now
enjoy a light-filled work environment that fosters collaboration and transparency.
The 44,640-square-foot building is organized in two wings joined by a central lobby. The north wing
accommodates the IUB on two levels while the south wing houses the OCA on the second level and
common spaces on the ground level.
Through their organizational structure, the two wings of the buildingjoined by the separately
articulated connecting lobbyexpress the function of the distinct state agencies while also providing a
space for occupants to mix and collaborate.
The notion of modularity as a means to support efficiency and long-term growth is articulated in a
repeating bay rhythm of 21-foot-wide occupied zones separated by 4-foot-wide cross aisles. This motif
appears in both wings and defines the spatial organization for the program and the architecture.
The relationship of solid, void, and translucency underpins the architectural articulation while also
supporting the passive strategies to ensure the clients ambitious energy goals. The articulation of the
west and east ends anchors each bar and mitigates harsh exposure. Glazing at these ends subtracts from
the mass to reveal key views at circulation terminations. The north and south elevations reveal the plan
organization and the buildings response to the needs of each exposure and occupancy. On the south, the
texture of the daylight-harvesting sunscreen provides depth and animation to the faade while also serving
to diffuse daylight within the open office spaces. On the north, the envelope of enclosed office masses
extend from the interior of the building bar, supporting daylight needs while also providing borrowed
light to the building core. On both elevations, the bay rhythm is strongly expressed, revealing the
organization of the interior and providing clear views through the depth of the space at the contiguous
cross aisles.
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Figure 6. First Floor Plan
163

Figure 7. Second Floor Plan
8. Design Strategies
The IUB/OCA building project represents a paradigm shift from the traditional process of innovating
for the sake of innovation alone. It pioneers by examining the building as a series of layers, and within
each layer an integrated network of high-performance systems. It embodies a process of replication and
innovationtaking an existing concept, evolving its form and performance, and sharing it so that the
innovation may be adopted and further developed by others for future applications. This cycle of
continual improvement goes from simple innovation to identifying patterns for replication in other
projects.
By replicating past successful strategies, the industry can continually innovate new solutions and
constantly broaden the base of replicable strategies to build upon in the future. In the case of IUB/OCA and its
demonstrable goals, those strategies become a public knowledge base for replication.
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The search for and development of new processes, products, strategies, and methodologies within the
IUB/OCA project has given rise to a case study for implementation that can be shared with others
government entities, design professionals, educators, real estate developersin pursuit of hyper
efficiency.
While many buildings replicable strategies are off the shelf, what makes their application
significant in this project is the multitude of strategies that are integrated to achieve exemplary energy
performance. The synergistic opportunities of these multiple strategies have a multiplier effect on the
buildings performance.
8.1. Passive Strategies
Though renewable energy solutions are often assumed to be the primary solution to the challenge of
energy savings, the design team analyzed and employed hyper-efficiency and passive strategies first.
These strategies capture the free energyenergy gained through strategic siting, orientation, and
climate. Only after load reductions through passive means were effectively implemented did the team
turn to renewable options. The rigorous use of passive strategies is the greatest opportunity for marketrate net-zero projects to become a realistic norm.
8.2. Daylighting Strategies
More than 98% of regularly occupied spaces in the IUB/OCA building have daylight and views. The
team innovated the design of a daylight harvesting sunscreen that was modeled to exceed the performance
of traditional louvers by capturing daylight as low as eye level rather than the seven or eight-foot height
offered by traditional light shelf systems.
The design team determined the articulation at each faade based on sun exposure. The highperforming louvered sunscreens, with horizontal blades and vertical fabric panels at the south elevation of
each wing, reflect daylight during all seasons, block unwanted summertime heat gain, and allow passive
winter heating. The parabolic profile reflects high elevation summer sun off of the curved portion and low
winter sun angles off of the flat portion of the louvers. The sunscreens, combined with an optimal building
footprint depth, allow daylight to penetrate deeply into the building during all seasons. Zinc-clad office
enclosures on the north elevations take advantage of diffused northern light. Solid west and east elevations
define the mass of each wing with glazing strategically located to frame views.
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Figure 8. Daylight Strategies

8.3. Natural Ventilation
The project team employed an overarching theme of interconnection between the building interior
and the exterior context and landscape that allows users to perceive exterior conditions and understand
when to utilize natural ventilation. All employees have access to operable windows.
The buildings automated system and on-site weather sensor monitor exterior conditions, and the
system sends emails to occupants instructing them to open or close windows based on weather conditions.
The automation system shuts down associated zone heat pumps when windows stay open, ensuring
energy is not wasted.
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Figure 9. Natural Ventilation Strategies

8.4. Building Envelope
The envelope was meticulously detailed to avoid thermal bridging, which is typically responsible for
significant envelope losses in traditional construction. In the Des Moines climate of hot-cold extremes,
white Thermomass precast concrete (with continuous insulation and non-thermally conductive ties)
provides a simple yet high-performance envelope, eliminating traditional thermal bridging at roof
interfaces, foundation walls, and wall openings. The team innovated details that allow insulation to wrap
uninterrupted from the roof into the thermal wythe of the wall panel and down and around the foundation
system and across the underside of the slab on grade. These detail innovations are now being delivered as
standard options in the manufacturers offerings.
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Figure 10. Continuous Insulation

8.5. Energy Systems
Optimal orientation and massing, along with an efficient building envelope, support the building
designs contribution to a secure energy future. The owner has implemented a comprehensive energy
measurement and verification plan to measure energy use of all building systems including HVAC,
plumbing, general lighting, task lighting, office equipment, photovoltaics, and computer equipment. This
plan will allow the owner to compare calculated energy use and actual energy use and make adjustments to
maximize the efficiency of the building systems.
168

Figure 11. Energy Systems
Figure 12. Energy Savings

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8.6. Materials
Materials, fenestration, and detailing throughout the building share a common thread of material
duality, enabling singular material systems to serve multiple purposes. Exposed structure, carefully
organized into a rhythmic bay arrangement, expresses conservation of both materials and fiscal resources. A
simple precast panel skin features elegant, minimal detailing while serving as a continuous thermal envelope.
Details define articulation, like the outer wythe of precast skin falling away to create an exterior recessed base
condition, allowing the mass to land softly on the landscape.
The project team carefully selected finishes based on a number of criteria: cumulative reduction in
material use, inherent qualities, integration with the overall design, contribution to a healthy environment,
and embodiment of the states efficient use of limited resources. The team also exploited structural
elements as finished materials, choosing to tightly detail structural elements to create an elegant aesthetic.
The interior finish of the precast panels, for instance, remains exposed as a lightly sandblasted hardtroweled concrete finish, which saved materials and cost and greatly reduced drywall dust, which led to a
healthier construction site. Similarly, more than 50% of the ceiling is exposed acoustical composite deck;
the lobby and restrooms make use of a finished concrete deck.
The reduction in materials also freed finances that the project team redirected toward achieving
energy goals. This approach offset some of the costs of other items in the big picture.
Materials contribute significantly to the stewardship of the building. A few strategies include:
Agrifiber, a rapidly renewable and regionally sourced material, was used for the door cores.
Furniture achieves Cradle-to-Cradle certification or equivalent standard.
Low V.O.C. material is used throughout.
All furniture within the project is Greenguard certified at a minimum.
Figure 13. Material Stewardship [5,6]

8.7. Water Strategies
The IUB/OCA project represented a leadership opportunity in the wake of recent catastrophic
flooding and water quality issues that affected the state. By managing storm water from both the
immediate and adjacent sites, the project is a good neighbor and good example. The storm water
treatment train consists of a storm water interceptor, infiltration basin, rain gardens, bioswales, and
pervious pavement. Storm water enters the landscape through a limestone boulder sediment trap that
slows water and controls erosion. It moves across the native prairie restoration into infiltration basins
planted with native grasses, where root structures host organisms that feed on suspended pollutants. The
basins feature valves that regulate the system when plants are being established or for longer detention
during storm events.
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Native species encourage additional infiltration with a lower runoff coefficient. Simple farm terraces
inspired the process of water movement across the landscape, while moderating steep site slopes. The
native prairie restoration on the Capitol Complex grounds, while serving as a symbol of the predevelopment condition of the landscape, also serves to draw attention as a demonstration component that
can be effectively replicated for other projects throughout the state.
Inside, a simple and replicable strategyultra-low-flow plumbing fixtures with sensors and faucet
aerators and automatic sensors to reduce water flowcontributes to a water-use reduction of 46%
compared to a typical office building.
Figure 14. Water Management [6]

8.8. Long Life, Loose Fit
First and foremost, the buildings parti, with two wings emanating from a central lobby, supports
long-term flexibility. Each wing utilizes an open-plan configuration, and the modularity of the workplace
design allows the space to adapt to evolving functional needs or relocation of staff. The wings, or bars,
were chosen to support a seamless future addition to the south, should the need arise.
Within the building, a flexible approach extends to support spaces, where conference areas were sized
and designed to serve the entire Capitol Complex. Large conference rooms employ an operable partition,
allowing them to be adjusted for various needs. The hearing room is right sized for typical crowds and
includes A/V connections that support overflow viewing in the adjacent large conference rooms.
Furthermore, durable materials such as zinc cladding and precast concrete wall panels allow for a 100year useable life, no matter the tenant.
9. Building as a Legacy
At a micro level, this project has transformed the IUB and OCA organizationsin their culture, in their
message, in their processes, and in the level of fiscal and environmental stewardship they now demonstrate. The
individuals who work in the facility are also strongly impacted. Their knowledge and awareness of building
performance is heightened, and their behavior will likely be forever changed by interacting with this facility.
At a macro level, this building is transforming the design and construction industry. It is both a
culmination of past influences and a resource for future innovators. Its design was shaped by the lessons
learned from buildings that preceded it. In turn, the lessons learned from this building will influence those
that are designed and built in the future.
The process for designing the IUB/OCA facility began with explicit benchmarks and goals, and it evolved
through a scientific process of discovery and innovation. Every member of the client, design, and construction
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team for this project discovered something new in the process of completing the building. Every decision made
for this project will impact the future work of the respective firms, contractors, and suppliers involved.
Every new idea developed for this building has been adopted into the industry lexicon. Every strategy
used can be modified to serve other projects.
10. References
[1] C.B.Ramspeck, Manager of Standards, ASHRAE Standard Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise
Residential Buildings, ASHREA Inc, Atlanta (2004)
[2] Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey, National Median Source Energy Use and Performance
Comparisons by Building Type (2003)
[3] The Weidt Group, DRAFT Ongoing Measurement and Verification Report, August 14 (2013)
[4] USGBC, LEED NC vs 2.2 Scorecard
[5] USGBC, LEED NC vs. 2.2 Scorecard Materials & Resources Credit 4.2 Recycled Content
[6] USGBC, LEED NC vs. 2.2 Scorecard Materials & Resources Credit 7 Certified Wood
[7] USGBC, LEED NC vs. 2.2 Scorecard Water Efficiency Credit 3.2 Water Use Reduction
[8] J. Moehlmann (ROI for 2012, February 20, 2014)
[9] C. Nagle 2008, August 12, Meeting Minutes SD Pricing Revisions
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Mapping Design Decisions for Early Phases of Net-Zero Energy Building

Railesha Tiwari1 and James Jones1
1
College of Architecture and Urban Studies, School of Architecture, Virginia Polytechnic and
State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061 USA
1
railesha@vt.edu and jajone10@vt.edu
Abstract
Designing a Net-Zero Energy Building (NZEB) is a complex and collaborative team process
involving the knowledge sharing of experts leading to the common goal of meeting the project
objectives. The decisions made in the early stages of design drastically affect the final outcome of
design and energy goals. It is essential to identify the iterative loop of design decisions between the
integrated team of experts for the design processes conducted in these early stages to facilitate the
decision--making of NZEB design.
The objective of this paper is to evaluate the significant phases of decision-making and the critical
decision nodes in the key processes and sub-processes to capture the drivers of decision--making that
helped achieving the Net--Zero Energy (NZE) goal for the project. This objective was achieved by
conducting first and second rounds of open--ended interviews with the decision-- makers, and decision
facilitators to develop overall understanding of the project, role of the interviewee, overall team
organization and goal setting considerations. This step was followed by more specific questions to get a
deeper understanding of the design strategies and analysis approaches, design iterations and tools used.
As a further follow--up subject matter experts were interviewed to capture the design activities and
information flow.
This study is part of a PhD dissertation that seeks to develop a decision support process map for
NZEB design. This paper is part of a staged analysis of the four NZEB case studies conducted to
evaluate the factors that influenced the decision--making in terms of design decisions and knowledge
exchange.
Keywords: Net-zero energy, renewable energy, decision-making, knowledge exchange, design
iteration, integrated, interdisciplinary
1. Introduction
The building databases such as high performance buildings, zero energy buildings (U.S. Department
of Energys Building Technology Program) as well as case studies and high performance buildings
database (National Institute of Building Sciences Whole Building Design Guide) show the number of
Net-Zero Energy Buildings are sparse suggesting not many buildings that were designed for Net-Zero
Energy goal have been successful in achieving the goal after construction. The New Building Institute has
recently verified 32 buildings as Zero Net Energy in a recent report (New Buildings Institute, 2014).
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Korkmaz et al. (2007) suggest that current green building assessment systems lack in elaborating on the
decision-making aspect of design processes. The initiative of creating a separate assessment system for
Net-Zero Energy building rating by the International Living Future Institute such as the Living Building
Challenge (International Living Future Institute, May 2012) suggests the need to capture and evaluate the
argumentation of the design decision process (Buchanan and OConnell, 2006) to improve the
achievement of the NZE objective. The lack of a structured approach to help the AEC industry in making
informed decisions for the Net-Zero Energy Building decision-making context establishes the need to
map NZEB project delivery methods in current practice.
The detailed analysis of the complex and iterative early design process along with the clear
identification of the roles of the integrated interdisciplinary team and their knowledge exchange can help
in developing a structured approach for NZE design decisions. Lessons learnt from current practice can
lay the basis for guiding the critical decision nodes and the knowledge domains associated with each
decision in relationship to the project objectives and project context (Yin, 2003). Identification of the
roles played and the type of knowledge used to make the decisions by the key team members can create
value (Riley and Horman, 2005; GSA 2004) by empowering the users with a structured approach for
informed decision support (Lapinski et al. 2006; Korkmaz et al. 2010; Horman et al. 2006). This approach
will be an attempt in further dissolving the boundaries of various stakeholders involved in the NZEB
design process and supporting an environment for collaboration (Magent et al. 2009) with the guidance of
a support tool for NZEB assessment.
2. Role of Design Decisions in Early Design Phases in the NZEB context

Black et al. (2010) recommend the design phase of buildings as the key stage when improvement in
the approach can be most effective. The project conceptualization and early design phase demands high
level of integration and collaboration between all the interdisciplinary teams (AIA, 2007) involving
decisions to be made around architectural design decisions, energy systems selection, envelope design,
building materials selection and assessment tools selection (Magent et al. 2009; Riley et al. 2004). The
AIA Integrated Project delivery guidelines (AIA, 2007) refer to the MacLeamy Curve to emphasize the
importance of early design decisions. Therefore, the focus of this research is on the early design phases.
Sanvido (1990) states that the design process is more like a black box (Sanvido 1990) where the known
elements are the high-level project objective and the outcome of the design but what is key is the logic of
progress (Sanvido 1990) of the decisions to understand the rationale for context specific (Yin, 2003)
decision-making. This holds true for the design process of sustainable buildings, high-performance
buildings or NZEB context. The design goals for each key player in the design processes are different and
it is the result of how these smaller goals add up towards achieving the final project objectives that
measures the success of a project. Torcellini et al. (2006) found through the analysis of six highperformance commercial buildings that setting specific energy or sustainability goals was the driver for
minimizing energy use and achievement of the high-performance goal for these buildings.
Research on green project delivery, high-performance building and sustainable project deliveries
suggest the need for new ways to deliver a project (Riley and Horman, 2005; Lapinski et al. 2006;
Korkmaz et al. 2010). Sanvido et al. (1990) adapted the IDEF0 functional model to create the Integrated
Building Process Model (IBPM) to capture the top-level and lower level processes as a series of functions
tied together with inputs, outputs and constraints. Toyotas sustainable building delivery process was
captured to evaluate Toyotas project delivery method (Lapinski, 2005). Current green project delivery
methodologies and IDEF0 integrated building process mapping techniques are not widely successful in
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their adoption for implementation in the building industry (Klotz et al. 2007). The cumbersome and not
very user-friendly graphical representation technique of current models has been identified as a barrier to
entry for adoption. The intention of this research is to identify the key design goals and phases of
assessment for the entire project team and the roles performed by the key team members to improve team
integration (Riley and Horman, 2005; Lapinski et al. 2006; Korkmaz et al. 2007) leading to achieving the
project objectives. Identifying the decision nodes in the early design phases can help in understanding the
important patterns of decision-making (Buchanan and OConnell, 2006) thereby suggesting ways to
explain rationale for the decisions made (Snowden and Boone, 2007; Bennet and Bennet, 2008).
3. Case Study Background

Case study methodology was appropriate for this research due to the exploratory and qualitative
nature of the study and because the focus of the research is on current practice (Yin, 2003; Somer and
Somer, 1991) of NZEB design. This research adapted the methodology suggested by Magent et al.
(2009); Sanvido (1990) and Klotz et al. (2007) to come up with the team and process breakdown for the
NZEB project studied. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) studied six buildings to
understand the issues associated with the project life cycle to help the Department of Energy reach its
Zero Energy Building goal by informing lessons learnt from best practices (Torcellini et al. 2006). A
similar approach was adapted for this research by studying four Net-Zero Energy projects as part of a
bigger study to map the design approaches used in current practice (Yin, 2003) in the early stages of
design. This paper presents one of the case studies to explain the documentation and analysis procedure
used for decision mapping purpose. The case study selected was a new distributed and renewable energy
center in Hawaii. The project was conceptualized as an interpretive center with office and conference
space to promote energy research, public outreach and demonstration of innovative technology.
Construction of the energy center was completed in 2005 with a project cost of $3,400,000 (AIA Top
Ten Green Projects, 2007). The project set the precedence for Net-Zero Energy by becoming net energy
producer. In 2005, it was rated LEED Platinum status adding it to the list of the only seven other projects
with Platinum rating worldwide at the time; putting Hawaii on the map for highly efficient, low energy
consuming passive building design. The energy center represents engineered passive architectural design
as the prime example for minimizing energy consumption as well as maximizing the potential use of
renewable energy resources available on site by the use of standard building materials differently. The
client was motivated and driven to build a renewable energy demo facility that would become the
gateway of their research campus to not only orient people to the campus, but be a living example of
innovative and adaptive architecture while being respectful of the Hawaiian culture.
The Architect of Record for the project took a leading role in driving the team to achieve the project
objectives through all the project phases along with leading the architectural design decisions. The Project
Manager on the clients team actively represented the owners project team by putting together the project
proposal document justifying the need and location for the energy center, compiling the request for
proposal document, sending out request for interest, closely reviewing the design concept development
during various phases of design and facilitating decision-making by the client. The team of mechanical
and electrical engineers were equally a part of formulating the initial design strategies, analysis and
validation of the design concepts resulting in the engineering of the architectural form. The project
involved participation of an integrated team of members from the architectural group, mechanical and
electrical engineering, environmental/ energy consultant, civil engineering, landscape architecture,
building commissioning and manufacturing disciplines. Integration of various members from these
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disciplines is integral to the successful delivery of a complex design process of Net-Zero Energy
Buildings. Therefore, it is essential to identify the iterative design loops and the knowledge exchange
between the integrated team that happens in the early design stages to facilitate the deeper understanding
of the rationale (Buchanan and OConnell, 2006) for NZEB decision-making process.
4. Research Methodology
Theories from literature review influenced the development of initial research questions, interview
protocols, and initial data analysis procedures. A series of semi-structured interviews were conducted
with the key decision-makers and decision-facilitators on the project team from multiple disciples
involved. A priori theory was used to frame the initial interview questions (Creswell, 1998) and to
develop the initial coding schemes (Schensul et al. 1999). Partial structuring of the interviews helped the
questions to be consistent across all interviews and the open-ended nature of the questions provided room
for adapting the questions as per the interviewees role for discovery. Grounded theory approach helped
in discovering emerging themes (Schensul et al. 1999) and coding them while working through the
interview transcripts. Additionally, collecting and analyzing supporting documents and links provided by
the interviewee to understand details of the project supplemented data collection and analysis. This
research implemented a method of combining the design knowledge of the industry experts and the
guidelines from the low energy building design process (Pless and Torcellini, 2011), green project
delivery modeling protocol (Klotz et al. 2007) to create a framework for a transferable design process as
suggested by Cross and Roozenburg (1992) by incorporating the prescriptive and descriptive
approaches (Roozenburg and Cross, 1991; Cross and Roozenburg, 1992).
Structure of the interview phases adapted from methodology suggested by Klotz et al. (2007):
(a) Interview phase one Rounds of interviews was conducted with the Project Manager, Architect
of Record, and the Director of mechanical-electrical team.
(b) Interview phase two Multiple interviews were conducted with the Lead Mechanical Engineer.
(c) Interview phase three Interviews were conducted with the Operations Manager, and the Heat
Exchanger Manufacturer.
5. Data Analysis
Qualitative analysis was performed through content analysis. Content analysis was performed through
MAXQDA qualitative analysis software to group and analyze the interview contents build theories,
discover emerging themes and thereby establish the decision nodes and their relationships.
Three decision-mapping components were identified in each of the design phases:
(a) Stakeholders In order to understand the essential roles played and the tasks performed on the
project by a team member, it is imperative to identify the stakeholders role in decision-making,
decision facilitation, technical expertise, or regulatory role for decision mapping.
(b) Phases of assessment Within each design phase the design approach is centered on various
phases of assessments.
(c) Processes Identifying the key design processes, sub-processes and design activities that led to
the effective project performance and achieving of the project objectives was an essential part of
the decision mapping to establish the decision phases.
6. NZEB Assessment Phases and Design Decisions

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The semi-structured interview questions were structured around identifying the key processes and
sub-processes around the AIA defined design phases of conceptualization (extended programming),
criteria design (extended schematic design) and design development (AIA, 2007) due to the widely used
AIA project delivery method and contract format used at the time of conception of this project. Through
the interview process, it was discovered that though the stakeholders used the AIA project delivery and
contract, it was hard for them to distinctly identify the processes and sub-processes pertaining to the
individual phases of design. Hence the interviewee were asked open-ended questions to describe the
design process in the order that it was performed without necessarily categorizing or compartmentalizing
them into AIA defined design phases.
The research discovery process and further analysis of the transcripts indicated the emergence of
seven assessment phases around which the key design decisions made can be interpreted and structured:
(a) Define project objectives
(b) Establish criteria for design
(c) Develop initial design strategies
(d) Select assessment tools
(e) Refine design elements
(f) Perform assessments
(g) Validate performance
6.1 Define project objectives
The Request for Proposal (RFP) and Request for Interest (RFI) put together by the client committee
members and the project manager representing the client outlined the need for using cold deep-sea water
and air into the building design strategies and stressed the importance of the building to consume the least
amount of additional non-renewable energy as possible. Additionally, providing opportunities for public
outreach, public education and demonstration of renewable and distributed energy was put in as a
requirement in the RFP. The critical objective for the project manager and the client was for the building
to be adaptable, iconic and innovative with no traditional mechanical systems while being respectful of
the Hawaiian culture. The design had to adhere to LEED concepts and objectives at the time, but
obtaining a LEED rating status was not specifically included in the RFP.
The project objectives represented a mix of priorities such as the client body representing a renewable
energy lab whose sole purpose was to research Ocean-Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) and they
were primarily concerned with advocating the use of cold deep-sea water for cooling as a major
component of design and operation of the building. This objective pertained to both energy and water use.
The presence of high solar energy and the high-temperature gradient due to the active volcano in Hawaii
was emphasized to improve the energy performance of the building suggesting relevance to energy use.
The clients board committee valued the need to demonstrate, educate and facilitate the use of renewable
energy systems. The priority of the cultural advisory board put together by the client and the project
manager was to check the design elements for cultural respectfulness. The guidelines laid out in the
clients guidebooks for the research campus and the guidebook for local counties regulations defined the
criteria for additional considerations in the early schematic design phase.
The values, priorities, vision and mission defined through multiple client meetings in the RFP and
RFI defined the project goals and criteria for decision-making for the design approach and the design
concepts. It was evident through the analysis that the project and site context were the drivers for the
project objectives identified which in turn became the criteria around which design strategies were
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developed. At this point, the architectural group that mainly comprised of the Principle Architect and the
Architect of Record suggested including applying for the highest LEED rating to the project objectives.
Figure 1. Level 1 (top-level) process map for the conceptualization phase

6.2 Establish criteria for design
The objective of using cold deep-sea water became the driver for exploring ways to using deep-sea
water as a design strategy. Similarly, the objective of using high solar insolation and the heat differential
as a resource initiated the idea of ways to use the sun as a natural resource to naturally ventilate the
building by moving air. Ways to mitigate the excess heat were also looked at. The goal of creating a
building that would become the gateway of the clients research campus with the intention of drawing
people in, the goal of public outreach and the requirement to create an innovative building were the
drivers for choosing the design elements and final concepts as the design progressed to resolve the
building form. The question of how the building could work with no additional non-renewable energy
input drove the idea for resolving the building form with the use of passive architectural strategies. The
data gathered in the form of initial research and through informal face to face meetings, phone and email
conversations was centered around vetting the initial ideas that were set around the project objectives.
Discussions, hand sketches to develop and depict a concept, further research were done by the integrated
team of Architect of Record, Principle Architect, Director of Sustainability of mechanical engineering
team and the Lead Mechanical Engineer that helped in exploring more options or ways to implement the
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ideas and study the feasibility of the ideas through other projects and literature. This phase of establishing
the criteria for design was critical in clearly defining the project objectives to be considered that would
affect the outcome of the design process establishing the basis of design around those objectives. The
Architect of Record played a leading role in this phase and was supported with active participation by the
Principle Architect, Director of Sustainability and the Lead Mechanical Engineer with initial idea
formulation. The research identified that this phase involved key decision-making and defined the
direction of the future design approach. Hence, the inclusion or omission of strategies to meet the
objectives needs to be vetted out during this phase to minimize the chance of re-work or re-strategizing in
terms of exploring new strategies. It was also evident from the analysis that this phase set the premise for
further developing the strategies into design concepts.
By the end of phase two, the team of Architect of Record, Lead mechanical Engineer and the
Principle Architect had established the major design attributes of the building. These design attributes
were reviewed and verified by the Project Manager and led to the design concepts developed in the
following phase. Most of the attributes relied on the architect and engineers tacit knowledge gained
through know-how and past experience of working on sustainable projects. The architect knew that
North-South orientation of longer faces of the building and a narrow building form would work for
daylighting. The architect and the engineers knew that a tall building form along with apertures at the
bottom and top of the building would make the building function as a thermal chimney. The choices of
arrangement of spaces next to the conference room and administration offices were initially made based
on past experience and discussion with the client. The role played by the client committee members in
decision-making was towards the end of this phase when they were presented with the presentation
drawings, imagery, narratives, and tentative cost estimates to make their decision. The committee gave
their feedback and agreed upon the design approach taken. The research identified that the project
manager representing the clients team took a more active role in reviewing the design process closely
and also played an important role in facilitating the decision-making process by the client committee
members. The Operations Manager also played an active role in providing feedback, reviewing the
submittal and specifications to ensure the smooth functioning of the operation side of things. Since the
rest of the clients project team did not have the expertise to understand the technical drawings and
documentation, a simpler approach of presentation drawings supplemented by hand-made sketches and
narratives was presented for the decision-making at this stage. The analysis supports the role of a member
or a group of members to represent the clients project team depending on the scale of the project, that has
the expertise to understand the design concepts and validation process closely to evaluate their measure
against the achievement of the project objectives. A project manager, sustainability director, executive
director or someone with a similar expertise as described above can assume this role.
6.3 Develop initial design strategies
The concept of natural ventilation emerged from the idea of using sun (high insolation) as the driver
of airflow in the building and using sunlight as a driver for daylighting the spaces. The need to use cold
deep-sea water introduced the concept of free cooling for the building. Shading strategies and building
orientation mitigated excess heat gain. The strategy of using standard building materials for envelope
design to do something different complemented the idea of creating temperature difference in the building
to drive air through material use and building form. It is apparent that the design concepts that were
established during this phase were the result of the answers to the question why in the previous phase.
The analysis showed that there is a strong inter-relationship between the design processes and activities of
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the criteria establishment phase and the developing of initial design concepts phase. The arrangement of
spaces had the most inter-relationship to optimizing the building form to function as a thermal chimney.
Further analysis of the design concepts led to the discovery of three themes around which the
strategies were developed:
(a) Resolution of building form with passive strategies
(b) Minimize energy consumption
(c) Maximize available renewable resource potential
Figure 2. Key phases of decision-making and inter-relationship

6.4 Select assessment tools
Resolution of building form, the concept of thermal chimney for natural ventilation, free cooling
using deep-sea water for thermal comfort were all strategies that depended on the assessment of these
concepts to demonstrate their performance. The mechanical-electrical engineering team had access to a
specialty mechanical consulting team who performed the initial thermal and airflow performance
assessment. For this project, the thermal and airflow modeling was performed using Thermal Analysis
Software (TAS). At the time, the driver for selection of the assessment tool was based on its ability to
perform the performance modeling in individual smaller sections or areas of the building. This was
especially helpful in airflow modeling to assess the different areas and corners to detect a difference in
airflow. The downfall of the modeling tool was the lack of a graphic interface at the time. It was a DOS
based tool with mainly data inputs. The other downfall of the tool was the length of time it took for any
change in the model to occur. The run time was really long for any change in the model thereby limiting
the number of iterations that could be worked out.
Daylight modeling was done using the modeling software Radiance, energy modeling was performed
using eQuest and shading studies were conducted with Ecotect. For this project, the assessment of thermal
comfort and natural ventilation played a critical role for the success of the design concept. The
mechanical engineers team in Australia generated the initial building performance model in order to
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inform the architectural team with the essential design parameters to work with. Sizing of the openings,
and location of the openings for the building to perform informed the Architect of Record with the
parameters to work with while developing the architectural building form. Any time a major change
occurred in the building form, the team of lead mechanical engineer using the performance models
validated it. The research revealed that an important consideration in the selection of the assessment tools
is the role of the person performing the assessments in understanding the purpose of the tool along with
the knowledge of how to use the tool to best suit the specific needs of the design and energy goals.
Another consideration was the familiarity with the tool or past experience of working with some tools to
avoid wasting much time in the learning curve needed for new assessment tools to be able to get the
required results.
6.5 Refine design elements and perform assessments to validate performance
The concept development started by answering questions that were asked at the end of design phase
three. The phase of criteria design was a series of parallel activities unlike this phase where refinement of
the design elements to develop the concepts happened in sub-processes that were partly parallel and partly
sequential in order. With the design parameters established in the previous phases, the first design concept
was the optimization of the building form to function as a thermal chimney. The strategy was to
architecturally create difference in temperature in order to move air passively. The parameters for the
thermal chimney performance were the volume of air, velocity of air, aperture inlet and outlet area. The
architect designed the building form and height of the chimney for the air to move with the design. This
was a unique opportunity for the mechanical engineering team to perform the analysis based on the
parameters to validate if the design would function as a thermal chimney. The driver for the resolution of
building form was to create an airflow that will result in the required air-changes cycle.
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Figure 3. Level 1 (top-level) process map for the criteria design phase
Figure 4. Level 2 and 3 sub-processes and design activities map for concept 1
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Once the thermal chimney was functional, the next questions were how to get the air into the building
and how to use deep-sea water to pre-cool the air. The two questions resulted in two simultaneous subprocesses. The first approach to draw air into the building was the exploration of using a concrete
labyrinth below the building. The supplementing strategy investigated was to place the cooling coils in
the concrete labyrinth and pass air over the coils filled with chilled deep-sea water. By creating a maze of
thermal mass, the objective of the strategy was to provide enough contact for the air with the surface area
of the thermal mass to cool down the building. The assessment performed by the engineers showed that
there was too much static loss through the coils. As a result, they tried iterations by changing the
parameters of the inlet size versus the outlet size, but the physical limitations and cost constraints made
the thermal labyrinth a non-feasible option.
With the failing of the concrete labyrinth strategy, another way was needed to get the air into the
building. Thats when the concept of providing a big rectangular concrete form like a volcano with an air
inlet and coils inside it was introduced. Multiple iterations of where to create the inlet for outside air and
how to get the air beneath the building were analyzed. This meant changes in the architectural form that
were informed by the mechanical engineers inputs to design an engineered form. Simultaneously, the
question of how to develop the cooling coils was investigated. The engineers researched suitable
materials for the coils. The biggest constraint was the corrosive nature of sea-water and finding coils that
would allow enough air through without resisting the flow. The pre-cooling of the air relied on the
performance of the chilled water filled coils to be able to transfer the heat to the air passing over them.
The manufacturers helped with the calculations to validate the performance of the coils for the strategy to
work and provided recommendations on the specifications of the coils. Designing a structure to hold the
coils in the volcano and reuse of collected condensate from the coils were peripheral design activities.
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Since the labyrinth idea failed, a decision to create a big underground concrete plenum for the thermal
mass was made. In order to make a decision between providing the concrete plenum versus a
conventional air-conditioning system, cost analysis was performed to compare the costs between the two
options. The driver of the decision was comparative cost for both options and the owners desire not to
provide a conventional air-conditioning system. The roof element was designed to compliment the
working of the thermal chimney effect. The parameter for the roof material was the ability to create heat
differential. This was an engineering decision that needed analysis of the heating properties of copper and
the driver for the roof to work effectively in creating the temperature differential was the roof area
provided in comparison to the floor area. The architectural decision to curve the roof on the outside
towards the chimneys and from the inside was to improve the effective air movement through the
building. The curvature of the roof forced the air to come out on one side of the building where the
thermal chimneys were placed. Therefore the roof element was a product of making the standard building
materials work differently through both architectural and engineering decisions. A peripheral activity as a
result of this process was to look into blocking the hot air from getting back inside the building. Use of
dense highly insulated panels reduced the impact of roof heat getting into the interior space. Space
modeling done to identify best locations to distribute the air for cross flow was another peripheral activity
of this process.
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6. Summary and Conclusions

In understanding the decision process and roles played by the key team members in this project, the
research showed the early design phase decisions to be centered around the themes of resolution of
building form with passive architectural strategies, minimizing energy consumption and maximizing
renewable energy resources available. The mapping of the processes and sub-processes showed the
iterative nature of the NZEB early design decisions and captured the integrated team interaction, rationale
for decisions and the critical phases of decision-making. The paper established the importance of
developing an integrated process map specific to the context of NZEB design that is focused on the early
design phases. The paper also emphasized the value in understanding the roles of the key team members
in decision-making to provide a structured approach in understanding the critical decision nodes for
NZEB design.
A key finding from the research was that architects, energy consultants, engineers and sustainability
consultants use their tacit knowledge from previous experience of working on other sustainable projects
and know-how of what works to formulate their initial strategies and design approach. The part two of
this research paper will focus on mapping the knowledge type and knowledge flow between the key team
members in the early design phases through cognitive mapping techniques.
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187

Cost Control Best Practices for Net Zero Energy Building Projects
Matt Leach1, Shanti Pless2, and Paul Torcellini3
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, CO 80401 USA
1
matt.leach@nrel.gov, 2shanti.pless@nrel.gov, 3paul.torcellini@nrel.gov
Abstract
For net zero energy (NZE) buildings to become the norm in commercial construction, it will be
necessary to design and construct these buildings cost effectively. While industry leaders have developed
workflows (for procurement, design, and construction) to achieve cost-effective NZE buildings for certain
cases, the expertise embodied in those workflows has limited penetration within the commercial building
sector. Documenting cost control best practices of industry leaders in NZE and packaging those strategies
for adoption by the commercial building sector will help make the business case for NZE. Furthermore, it
will promote market uptake of the innovative technologies and design approaches needed to achieve
NZE.
This paper summarizes successful cost control strategies for NZE procurement, design, and
construction that key industry users (such as building owners, architects, and designers) can incorporate
into their everyday workflows. It will also evaluate the current state of NZE economics and propose a
path forward for greater market penetration of NZE buildings. By demonstrating how to combine NZE
technologies and design approaches into an overall efficiency package that can be implemented at
minimal (zero, in certain cases) incremental capital cost, the domain of NZE design and construction can
be expanded from a niche market to the commercial construction mainstream.
Keywords: cost control, energy efficiency, high performance, net zero energy, renewable energy
1. Introduction
As the momentum behind net zero energy (NZE) builds and more commercial projects are demonstrating
that NZE is an achievable goal, there is a growing need to identify approaches that will enable broad
replication. Design teams and building owners commonly cite the incremental first costs of energyefficiency strategies as a significant barrier to realizing high performance in commercial construction
projects [1]. The prevailing perception is that NZE is cost prohibitive and suitable only for showcase
projects with atypical, large budgets; however, there is mounting evidence that NZE can, in many cases,
be achieved with typical budgets. While it is true that high-efficiency components typically cost more
than standard-efficiency equivalents, innovative design and construction teams have developed a variety
of strategies to offset the cost of implementing the best-in-class efficiency required to achieve NZE.
This paper explores the current economic reality of NZE as a performance goal and summarizes a set
of successful strategies for NZE procurement, design, and construction that key industry users (such as
building owners, architects, and designers) can incorporate into their everyday workflows to make NZE
achievable with a typical construction budget. It also promotes the value of documenting the successes of
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industry innovators, and proposes a path forward for developing NZE cost control best practice guidance
for the mainstream commercial buildings sector.
2. The current state of NZE economics

In the past few years, innovators in the commercial construction sector have progressed in leaps and
bounds in improving the economic viability of high-performance buildings. While improvements in
energy efficiency and renewable generation technologies have contributed to this progress, a significant
shift in how high performance is approached has also played a critical role. Historically, project teams
have relied on simple payback analysis to justify energy-efficiency strategies somewhat independently of
other design decisions. Recently, project teams have begun to employ more comprehensive and
integrated approaches to cost justification and capital cost control that leverage innovative strategies in
procurement, integrated design, streamlined construction, and operational accountability. The impact of
these improvements is evident in the growing number of construction projects that have been able to
achieve NZE within the constraints of typical project budgets.
In 2006, NREL compiled a case study report on six high-performance commercial buildings and
found that integrated design and early prioritization of energy performance goals could be used to cost
effectively achieve significant energy savings (25% to 70% better than required by ASHRAE 90.1-2001)
[2][3]. In the same year, Griffith et al. built upon these findings, using a large-scale simulation analysis to
estimate that, given realistic assumptions about the area available for photovoltaic (PV) generation (50%
of the total building roof area), the commercial sector could achieve NZE if average building energy
consumption were reduced by 59% compared to the minimum requirements of ASHRAE 90.1-2004
[4][5]. Additionally, the vast majority of commercial buildings could achieve NZE at energy savings of
70% or less (including warehouses, office buildings, education facilities, retail stores, and outpatient
healthcare facilities). For buildings with high energy use intensity (e.g., large hospitals) or little area
available for PV (e.g., urban, high-rise office buildings), alternative paths to achieving NZE that leverage
offsite renewable generation are available [6][7].
More recent data indicate that cost-effective NZE design and construction is currently a reality for
certain combinations of building type and climate zone. NRELs Research Support Facility (RSF)
illustrates that it is now possible to achieve LEED Platinum certification and NZE in a cold-arid climate
(Golden, Colorado) with a large office building that is first cost competitive [1]. The first phase of the
RSF, a 20,400 m2 headquarters and administrative office building with a corporate-scale data center, was
able to achieve its ambitious performance goals at a move-in ready cost of $2,790/m2, which falls
comfortably within the range of market-acceptable capital costs. This project was then expanded to a
total of 33,400 m2; aggregate costs for the second phase of construction were reduced by $150/m2, while
energy performance was improved by 11%.
In a 2012 study, the New Buildings Institute (NBI) found that NZE design and construction had been
achieved at incremental costs of 0%-10% in comparison to standard practices [8]. NBI found that NZE
buildings had been constructed in most U.S. climate zones. Most buildings in the study had floor spaces
under 1,900 m2, with the exception of an elementary school and the RSF. NBI also found that most NZE
buildings had been constructed using technologies that were readily available, though there was a
significant need for practical guidance to help designers, developers, and owners understand the value of
NZE and the resources available to help them get there. In a 2014 update to this study, NBI found that
NZE has expanded from the domain of a few small demonstration projects by universities or nonprofits to
an increasingly mainstream presence that spans a variety of building types and sizes [9]. NBI
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documented that the number of buildings that have achieved or are targeting NZE have more than
doubled in the past two years and that high-performance buildings, including NZE buildings, are
approaching costs comparable to industry average. Evaluation of recent NZE construction projects (both
new construction and comprehensive retrofits) points towards clear trends in design, construction, and
operation approaches that include: (1) passive energy-efficiency strategies that leverage the capabilities of
the building envelope; (2) innovative HVAC strategies that decouple ventilation from space conditioning
and reduce fan energy; (3) increased and ongoing attention to tuning controls in response to performance
monitoring and building feedback; and (4) realization that occupant interaction with the building is
critical to achieving NZE in operation. These findings are consistent with the earlier analysis of Griffith
et al [4].
In September of 2013, the National Association of State Energy Officials (NASEO) and NBI
sponsored the Getting to Zero National Forum as part of NASEOs 2013 Annual Meeting [10], where
the cost of NZE building design and construction was a key topic of discussion. A focal point of the cost
control discussion was the value of integrated design in allowing for crucial design tradeoffs that can keep
the cost of NZE buildings within typical project budgets. This meeting indicated that: (1) there is a
growing consensus throughout the commercial construction sector that certain types of NZE buildings can
be scalable and cost effective; and (2) successful practices are emerging with respect to the design and
construction that are making this possible.
In The Worlds Greenest Buildings, author Jerry Yudelson asserts that pursuing green
certification has become business as usual, due in part to the fact that building developers, managers, and
owners, both public and private, have embraced intangible benefits of high-performance buildings,
including: enhanced marketability; higher tenant, manager, and owner productivity and morale; and
improved public relations through demonstration of commitment to sustainability and environmental
stewardship [11]. He stresses that making a business case for high-performance buildings is essential for
obtaining buy-in from project decision makers, and that highlighting the long-term economic benefits of
sustained utility cost savings, higher rent and increased occupancy, and greater availability of equity
funding, can go a long way to making the case. Yudelson also notes that the additional cost of renewable
generation required to make the leap from high-performance to NZE can be justified by considering the
capital cost reduction that can be achieved through an integrated design strategy that leverages best-inclass efficiency to reduce overall system and envelope costs.
Depending on the project, sufficient capital may or may not be available to purchase the renewable
generation required to move building performance from cost-effective, best-in-class energy efficiency to
NZE. The cost of integrating renewable generation systems into the building design is usually not the
issue (particularly for PV); it is the cost of the systems themselves that is likely to exceed financial
thresholds. For cases in which sufficient capital is not available for investment in renewables, third-party
financing may be leveraged to secure the renewable generation needed to achieve NZE. And, while
securing capital to purchase renewables may require an increase in capital budget, a growing number of
projects have been able to justify that incremental investment because of the organizational image boost
that NZE provides.
For the first phase of RSF construction, the design-build team leveraged a third-party power purchase
agreement to secure the PV generation required to achieve NZE without exceeding the project budget
(and without increasing the utility rate at which NREL purchases green power). Applying lessons
learned from the first phase, the design team was able to significantly reduce the overall cost of the
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second phase. Those savings, in part, enabled NREL to purchase, rather than finance, the PV required for
the second phase.
3. Successful strategies for NZE cost control

Through its campus improvement efforts, NREL has identified key strategies for controlling capital
costs in high-performance office buildings. By applying those strategies, NREL has demonstrated that
NZE can be achieved in large commercial office buildings at market-competitive first costs. To promote
large-scale replication of its campus construction successes, NREL has disseminated its lessons learned in
NZE cost control in the form of successful practices that procurement, design, and construction teams can
implement to achieve energy goals on competitive budgets [1][12]. These practices, while informed
primarily by the procurement, design, and construction of the RSF, can be applied to a wide range of
building types. To that end, the 50% Advanced Energy Design Guides (AEDGs) for K-12 schools, large
hospitals, and medium to big box retail buildings have incorporated subsets of these practices
[13][14][15].
The following subsections provide a high-level summary of the successful strategies that NREL has
compiled through its campus improvement efforts and ongoing discussions with industry cost control
experts.
3.1. Acquisition and delivery strategies
Thoughtful execution of the acquisition and delivery process for a design and construction project is
critical to ensuring that desired building performance is achieved. For the RSF, NREL implemented a
performance-based design-build procurement process to most effectively balance performance, value, and
cost savings. Traditionally, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) construction projects (NRELs
buildings are owned by DOE) follow a design-bid-build approach to acquisition that results in the
selection of separate design and construction contractors. A design-bid-build approach can weaken
integration between the project team members. Architects may be reluctant to push the limits of
efficiency without certainty that the project contractor will implement solutions according to a
preliminary budget estimate based on quality historical cost data. When presented with innovative
designs, contractors may bid more conservatively due to lack of confidence in efficiency strategies that
may not fully account for construction considerations.
Competitive procurement of an integrated project team (design team, contractor, and trade partners)
equipped to achieve fixed, measureable energy performance targets is the key to cost-effective acquisition
and delivery. Incorporating measureable performance goals into the project request for proposals (RFP)
clearly establishes energy efficiency expectations and provides the owner or developer with a fixed metric
for evaluating energy performance success. For the RSF, energy performance was substantiated at
construction completion using an energy model. When combined with an aggressive, measureable
performance target, a market-competitive, fixed, firm price compels potential project teams to identify
innovative, cost-effective design and construction solutions.
As improved building design reduces energy consumption, plug and process loads are becoming
dominant end uses in many building types. For the RSF, plug and process loads make up half of the
buildings energy consumption. NREL has found that developing equipment procurement specifications
that require best-in-class equipment efficiencies and incorporating those specifications into the project
RFP is a highly effective approach to plug and process load control. Note that this approach applies both
to plug and process loads considered integral to the building (potentially including elevators, security
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systems, kitchen equipment, and workstation task lights) and to those assigned to occupants (such as
personal computers and multifunction printing equipment). In a design-build scenario, building-integral
plug and process loads are normally the responsibility of the design-build team, whereas occupant plug
and process loads are specified by the building owner. To ensure that plug load mitigation is sufficient to
enable whole-building energy performance targets to be met, the owner must work together with the
design-build team to ensure that all plug and process loads are fully considered. While the design-build
contractor is responsible for meeting the overall energy performance goal, the owner or occupant is
responsible for meeting established occupant-provided plug load profiles. These plug load profiles serve
as the communication bridge between the owners needs and the project teams design.
3.2. Design strategies
In most cases, high-efficiency building components are more expensive than standard-efficiency
equivalents. However, not all efficiency strategies require additional capital investment. In particular,
innovative design teams can integrate simple, passive energy-efficiency strategies into the building
architecture and envelope at no additional cost. Building orientation, massing, and layout can be designed
to reduce building thermal loads without increasing material or construction costs. Other passive
strategies, including daylight redirection, thermal massing, natural ventilation, and solar shading, can be
integrated with the building structure to create architectural designs that also save energy. The RSFs
south-facing daylight redirection strategy demonstrates the value of leveraging building architecture to
implement cost-effective, passive efficiency strategies. Rather than employing adjustable blinds or
automatic roller shades to control solar glare, the RSF design uses passive, fixed light-redirecting devices
that maximize daylight penetration and completely eliminate solar glare without requiring occupant
interaction or adjustment. Well-integrated solutions can often eliminate the need for additional controls
and mechanical components that increase first cost and require long-term maintenance. In the case of the
RSF, application of simple, passive, well-integrated efficiency solutions such as the daylight redirection
strategy enabled mechanical systems to be substantially downsized.
It is common for design teams to justify the cost of efficiency strategies using energy cost-saving
predictions. However, energy savings alone may not be sufficient to justify the cost of many effective
efficiency strategies. For projects in which performance-based procurement establishes clear energy
performance and capital budget requirements from the outset, the cost of efficiency drives the need for
innovation in design. In such cases, project teams can leverage the principles of integrated design to
ensure that energy performance goals are met without using too much of the project budget. Effective
project teams use analysis to identify holistic solutions that balance energy efficiency, cost, and
architectural detail. The owner sets the tone of the project with the RFP; the contractor and design team
develop integrated solutions that address the requirements of the RFP as a total building package, rather
than as individual components.
This integrated approach to cost justification that considers cost tradeoffs across building systems can
be effective in securing the necessary first cost budget for efficiency strategies. Energy modeling plays a
key role in this approach, enabling design teams to accurately predict the relationship between building
loads and the appropriate capacity of HVAC components. In the recently constructed, LEED Platinum,
NZE headquarters building for the Packard Foundation in Los Altos, California, the design team was able
to avoid the cost of a $150,000 perimeter heating system and more than $300,000 in additional PV by
investing $75,000 in triple-pane glazing to reduce perimeter thermal gains and losses [16].
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Innovative design can generate uncertainty among decision makers. Regardless of how cost effective
and energy efficient a design, the project team may have difficulty convincing decision makers to approve
strategies outside of their comfort zone. To increase daylight penetration and enhance natural ventilation,
the RSF design team proposed an open office layout that diverged significantly from NREL standard
practice in space planning and office allocation. Before approving the layout, NREL wanted to fully
understand its impacts, not only on budget and energy performance, but also on the productivity and
satisfaction of building occupants. Soft benefits (such as favorable life cycle cost projection or
contribution to the building mission) can be valuable in securing decision maker buy-in. By convincing
NREL decision makers that the open office layout would improve productivity by promoting
collaboration and increase occupant satisfaction through enhanced connection to the outdoors, the design
team was able to obtain approval for their cost-effective, innovative, but also relatively unproven design
approach.
Glazing constructions are expensive and poorly insulating compared to other exterior envelope
constructions. On the other hand, glazing provides connection to the exterior environment, facilitates
daylighting and natural ventilation, and contributes significantly to the overall quality of the interior
environment. An ideal approach is to first specify dedicated daylighting glass as required to meet
daylighting goals (totaling only 11% window-to-wall ratio for the RSF), and then to identify key
opportunities for view glazing that improve interior environmental quality while minimizing thermal
gains. East- and west-facing glazing should also be limited to the extent possible.
Modular and repeatable design strategies can be used to reduce overall design and construction costs.
Design elements that can be replicated reduce costs through economies of scale. The best example of this
strategy in the RSF is the south- and north-facing window system design. More than 200 south-facing
windows in the RSF are the same size, have the same operable component, are shaded with the same
overhang, and are fitted with the same daylight-redirection device. Likewise, more than 200 north-facing
windows are the same size and have the same operable components. This standardization significantly
reduced the overall cost of building glazing systems, enabling significant glazing-efficiency
improvements (overhangs for solar shading, triple-pane glazing, and thermally broken window frames) to
be incorporated into the budget.
3.3. Construction strategies
Construction strategies, while often overlooked, also play a key role in overall project cost control. It
is important to integrate contractors and trade partners into the overall decision-making process from an
early stage to ensure that construction considerations are properly weighed during design. Ensuring that
designers and contractors are on the same page and fully understand the energy and cost implications of
their decisions will pay dividends down the road by streamlining the construction process.
Integrating key trade partners into the design process at an early stage can help control the construction
costs for uncommon or untested efficiency strategies (such as natural ventilation, radiant heating, and
daylighting). When faced with implementing strategies via a nonintegrated approach, trade partners are
forced to account for uncertainty in their bids. When trade partners are brought into the design process
early on, it ensures that they fully understand the design intent and can collaborate to devise and
implement construction cost control approaches that will maximize building system performance while
minimizing installed cost. By leveraging subcontractor familiarity with building components and
applying lessons learned from the first phase of RSF construction, total project construction costs of the
second phase were reduced by $150/m2 while energy performance was improved by 11%.
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In a typical construction process, value engineering is employed during construction to counteract

budget creep by eliminating design features (including efficiency strategies) considered to be
nonessential. This often prevents performance goals from being achieved and reduces the overall value of
the project. Using an integrated approach that makes cost estimators key members of the project team
from the outset promotes accountability for the budgetary impact of each design decision. Through this
continuous value engineering process, budgetary constraints are considered holistically, and each
design and construction decision is made with clear understanding of the economic and energy
implications. All decisions made through this process are considered essential, and any future decisions
are carefully evaluated to ensure compatibility with essential functionality. If the energy goal is part of
the construction contract, critical energy-saving features are less likely to be eliminated due to budget
creep.
In the same way that modular design elements can be utilized to reduce design costs, offsite, modular
construction and building component assembly techniques can be utilized to reduce construction costs.
Offsite construction allows components to be manufactured or assembled in a controlled environment,
improving construction safety as well as quality control. Additionally, offsite construction simplifies the
onsite construction process and can significantly reduce the length of the construction schedule. This
strategy was used extensively during RSF construction. Precast insulated exterior wall panels were fully
assembled offsite. Once exterior wall panels reached the RSF construction site, exterior concrete surfaces
had been finished. This resulted in a significantly simplified onsite construction process for the first
phase of the project: (1) panels were hung on the steel structure; (2) panel joints were sealed; (3) windows
were installed and sealed; and finally, (4) interior concrete surfaces were painted. The result was better
quality control with respect to exterior wall air leakage and a shorter construction schedule. During the
second phase of the project, the onsite construction process was further simplified by installing and
sealing the windows during offsite assembly. This refinement contributed to the cost savings that enabled
the PV for the second phase to be purchased outright, rather than financed by a third party.
4. Conclusion: increasing the market penetration of NZE

For NZE buildings to become the norm in commercial construction, it will be necessary to
demonstrate to the mainstream commercial buildings sector that they can be designed and constructed
cost effectively. The successful practices that NREL has compiled and disseminated through its campus
improvement efforts provide a necessary foundation. In order to develop NZE cost control best practices
that can be applied at scale across the commercial buildings sector, this foundational work needs to be
expanded to reflect the approaches of other innovators in NZE procurement, design, and construction who
have implemented cost control strategies to address a wide range of programmatic and budgetary
constraints.
To market this guidance to potential adopters, it is essential to document the successes of industry
innovators. While the RSF and similar projects demonstrate that NZE can be achieved within typical
programmatic and budgetary constraints in certain cases, documenting a wider range of cost control
strategy implementation is needed to inspire confidence in its broad feasibility. While each project has a
unique set of cost drivers, clear documentation and measurement of individual project successes is
critical. A common criticism of case studies is that they lack the transparency required to inspire
replication. Likewise, creative accounting can make strategies look more effective than they are and lack
of quantifiable detail makes it difficult to assess the effect of project-specific parameters.
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It will be critical to engage key industry practitioners (primarily designers and contractors) who have
demonstrated cost-effective NZE building design and construction to validate and build upon NRELs
foundational work by documenting the successful implementation of NZE cost control strategies
throughout the commercial buildings sector. This approach will shed light on the procurement, design,
and construction strategies that allow many NZE buildings to achieve aggressive performance goals at
first costs comparable to the industry average. These strategies will help audiences better understand
what separates the NZE buildings with higher incremental costs from those with zero incremental cost.
Clear documentation of successful implementation of these strategies will inspire confidence in potential
adopters.
To ensure that the resulting best practice guidance is appropriately market facing, it is important to
collect feedback from deployment partners about the types of information resources and dissemination
methods most helpful to increasing deployment of NZE buildings. Recruited deployment partners may
include one or more of the following types of organizations: (1) building owner organizations actively
planning high-performance construction projects constrained by typical construction budgets; (2) outreach
organizations that engage owners at the project-specific level and are able to give feedback regarding
what NZE cost control best practice content or format would change industry practices; and (3)
educational organization or professional societies engaged in existing industry-wide outreach or
educational efforts that could be informed by NZE cost control best practices.
5. Acknowledgements
This paper was prepared by the Commercial Buildings Group of the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory Center for Buildings and Thermal Systems. The authors would like to thank the U.S.
Department of Energy Building Technologies Office for its leadership and financial support. We also
acknowledge the review efforts of Gail Werren, Eric Bonnema, and Robert Hendron.
6. References
[1] S. Pless and P. Torcellini. Controlling Capital Costs in High Performance Office Buildings: A Review of Best
Practices for Overcoming Cost Barriers. NREL/CP-5500-55264 (2012).
[2] P. Torcellini, S. Pless, M. Deru, B. Griffith, N. Long, and R. Judkoff. Lessons Learned from Case Studies of Six
High-Performance Buildings. NREL TP-550-37542 (2006).
[3] ASHRAE. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2001: Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise
Residential Buildings, ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA (2001).
[4] B. Griffith, P. Torcellini, N. Long, D. Crawley, and J. Ryan. Assessment of the Technical Potential for
Achieving Zero-Energy Commercial Buildings. NREL CP-550-42144 (2006).
[5] ASHRAE. ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-2004: Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise
Residential Buildings, ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA (2004).
[6] P. Torcellini, S. Pless, M. Deru, and D. Crawley. Zero Energy Buildings: A Critical Look at the Definition;
Preprint. NREL CP-550-39833 (2006).
[7] S. Pless and P. Torcellini. Net-Zero Energy Buildings: A Classification System Based on Renewable Energy
Supply Options. NREL TP-550-44586 (2010).
[8] NBI. Getting to Zero 2012 Status Update: First Look at the Costs and Features of Zero Energy Commercial
Buildings. (2012).
[9] NBI. 2014 Getting to Zero Status Update: A Look at the Projects, Policies, and Programs Driving Zero Net
Energy Performance in Commercial Buildings. (2014).
195

[10] NASEO. Getting to Zero Forum. Last accessed (2014) February 6, from http://annualmeeting.naseo.org/zneforum.
[11] J. Yudelson, The Worlds Greenest Buildings, Routledge Publishers, New York, NY (2013), pp.17-20.
[12] S. Pless and P. Torcellini. Controlling Capital Costs in High Performance Office Buildings. Webinar presented
(2011) October 31. Available at http://www4.eere.energy.gov/alliance/events/past-webinars.
[13] ASHRAE, AIA, IESNA, USGBC and DOE. Advanced Energy design Guide for K-12 School Buildings:
Achieving 50% Energy Savings Toward a Net Zero Energy Building, W. Stephen Comstock (2011).
[14] ASHRAE, AIA, IESNA, USGBC and DOE. Advanced Energy design Guide for Medium to Big Box Retail
Buildings: Achieving 50% Energy Savings Toward a Net Zero Energy Building, W. Stephen Comstock (2011).
[15] ASHRAE, AIA, IESNA, USGBC and DOE. Advanced Energy design Guide for Large Hospitals: Achieving
50% Energy Savings Toward a Net Zero Energy Building, W. Stephen Comstock (2012).
[16] L. Matthiessen, L. Lesniewski and P. Morris. The Power of Zero: Understanding the Costs and Benefits of Net
Zero Design. Proceedings of the Getting to Zero National Forum at the 2013 NASEO Annual Meeting, (2013)
September 15-18; Denver, Colorado.
196

Technical and Business Solutions for Zero Net-Energy Ready and Zero NetEnergy Homes in the Hot Humid Climate
Eric Martin, David Beal, and Janet McIlvaine

Florida Solar Energy Center, University of Central Florida, Cocoa, Florida, 32922, USA
martin@fsec.ucf.edu, david@fsec.ucf.edu, and janet@fsec.ucf.edu
Abstract
The Department of Energys Challenge Home program provides a standardized platform for
application and marketing of Building America innovations in new residential construction and is
intended to facilitate delivery of zero net-energy ready and zero net-energy homes that also meet goals for
durability, quality, affordability, and comfort. The Building America Partnership for Improved
Residential Construction, one of the Building America research team leads, has partnered with several
builders in the hot-humid climate, as they work through the process of adopting Challenge Home. This
paper serves to identify viable technical pathways to meeting the Challenge Home criteria in this region
and illustrate market response to high performance housing. A further objective of the research in general
is to identify gaps and barriers in the marketplace related to product availability, labor force capability,
code issues, cost effectiveness, and recognizing value in the transaction process all necessary to ensure
adoption on a production scale.
Keywords: Net-zero energy ready homes, net-zero energy homes, labeling program, interior ducts,
affordable housing, production builder sales data
1. Introduction
Under the U.S. Department of Energys (DOE) Building America program, DOE national
laboratories and building science research teams conduct cost-shared research together with stakeholders
in the home building industry. Researchers work closely with industry partners to optimize residential
building energy performance, durability, quality, affordability, and comfort, and bring home building
innovations to market. After preliminary research in laboratory scale and prototype houses, whole house
solutions are refined and, through research at community-scale, research teams validate the reliability,
cost-effectiveness, and marketability of whole-house improvement packages and strategies for new
construction and existing homes [1], [2].
The DOE Challenge Home program2 provides a standardized platform for application and marketing
of Building America innovations in new residential construction and is intended to facilitate delivery of
zero net-energy ready (ZNER) homes. Challenge Home ties together key components of high
performance housing including building science, best practices, efficient equipment, high performance
enclosure components, and indoor air quality control (Figure1). Challenge Homes are designed, built,
2
http://www.energy.gov/eere/buildings/doe-challenge-home
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and commissioned to be renewable ready, and a small, grid-tied photovoltaic system (PV) can be easily
added at the time of construction, or in the future, to offset most or all of the homes energy use on an
annual basis, thereby facilitating true zero net-energy (ZNE) homes. Building America research teams
are working with stakeholder partners to document technical pathways to achieve Challenge Home in all
climate zones, and the successful business metrics that result from marketing cost effective, high
performance homes in general.
Figure 15. Challenge Home required and recommended elements consolidate key concepts for high
performance homes.3
The Building America Partnership for Improved Residential Construction (BAPIRC), one of the BA
research team leads, has partnered with several builders in the Building America hot-humid climate4, and
specifically International Energy Conservation Code Climate Zone 25, as they work through the process
of adopting Challenge Home. This paper serves to identify viable technical pathways to meeting the
Challenge Home criteria in this region. A further objective of the research in general is to identify gaps
and barriers in the marketplace related to product availability, labor force capability, code issues, cost
effectiveness, and recognizing value in the transaction process - necessary to ensure adoption on a
production scale.
The builder partners participating in this cost-shared research include Southeast Volusia County
Habitat for Humanity (SEVHFH) near Daytona Beach, Florida and Manatee County Habitat for
Humanity (MCHFH) near Tampa, Florida. Both are affiliates of Habitat for Humanity International
(HFHI), a non-profit affordable housing organization. Also participating in this research are two small
production builder partners, Tommy Williams Homes (TWH), based in Gainesville, Florida, and Lifestyle
Homes (LSH) based in Melbourne, FL.
2. Challenge Home specifications and key solutions

Challenge Homes must meet or exceed the projected performance level of the Target Home
specifications, which vary by climate, and are more rigorous than the ENERGY STAR 3.0 requirements.
This evaluation can be pursued on a prescriptive path or a performance path. The performance path, used
by the projects described in this report, requires that a certified home energy rater use approved software
Source: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/residential/pdfs/ch_zero-net-energy_training_06062013.pdf
https://basc.pnnl.gov/images/building-america-climate-zone-map
5
https://basc.pnnl.gov/images/iecc-climate-zone-map
4
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to model the house with the Target Home specifications to generate a Target Home Energy Rating System
(HERS) Index6 score, a gauge of whole house efficiency that the project must ultimately achieve as a
minimum requirement. This approach allows builders to customize some specifications as long as the end
result achieves a HERS Index equivalent or better than the Target. Although house size and
characteristics influence the target HERS Index, researchers have found that the Target HERS Index
generally falls in the mid to low-50s working for a variety home sizes and types. A typical code
compliant home in Florida scores in the low 90s to upper 80s on the HERS Index. The gap of 30-40 in
the HERS Index is diminished by many of the mandatory CH requirements (e.g. ENERGY STAR
windows) so that after meeting those only a few additional improvements may be needed.
Challenge Home builders must also meet requirements in seven different categories (Table 1).
Table 16. Challenge Home mandatory requirements7.
Area of Improvement
1. ENERGY STAR
for Homes
Baseline
2. Envelope
3.
4.
5.
Duct System
Water
Efficiency
Lighting &
Appliances
Mandatory Requirements
Certified under ENERGY STAR Qualified Homes Version 3.
Fenestration shall meet or exceed latest ENERGY STAR requirements.

Ceiling, wall, floor, and slab insulation shall meet or exceed 2012 IECC Levels.
Ducts located within the homes thermal and air barrier boundary.
Hot water delivery systems shall meet efficient design requirements.
All installed refrigerators, dishwashers, and clothes washers are ENERGY STAR
qualified.
80% of lighting fixtures are ENERGY STAR qualified or ENERGY STAR lamps (bulbs)
in minimum of 80% of sockets.
All installed bathroom ventilation and ceiling fans are ENERGY STAR qualified.
EPA Indoor airPLUS Verification Checklist and Construction Specifications.
EPA Renewable Energy Ready Home Solar Electric Checklist and Specifications.
EPA Renewable Energy Ready Home Solar Thermal Checklist and Specifications.
6.
7.
Indoor Air
Quality
Renewable
Ready
All seven categories of requirements, except number 3 (ducts located within the homes thermal and
air barrier), are related to codes and standards external to the Challenge Home program. These include:
Requirement 1 - ENERGY STAR for New Homes
Requirement 2 ENERGY STAR labeling standard for fenestration
- 2012 International Energy Conservation Code
Requirement 4 Invokes Section 3.3 of the EPA WaterSense Single Family New Home
Specifications
Requirement 5 ENERGY STAR labeling standards for appliances, lighting, and ceiling, bathroom,
and kitchen vent fans
Requirement 6 - Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Indoor airPLUS
RESNET Mortgage Industry National Home Energy Rating Standards govern the calculation method for the Home Energy
Rating System Index. On the HERS Index, lower scores indicate lower net energy consumption.
7
Adapted from: http://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/11/f5/doe_challenge_home_requirementsv3.pdf
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Requirement 7 EPA Renewable Energy Ready Home standards for solar electric and solar thermal
technologies.
There is no standard or single methodology to meet the interior duct requirement. It has long been a
recommendation by Building America and many in the home performance industry. Many factors
influence the complexity of meeting this requirement in any given home including building geometry and
the builders typical construction processes. Constructing a duct system fully inside the conditioned space
may involve altering standard construction processes, which is often more challenging than altering
specifications. BAPIRC has achieved success with a variety of approaches [3], and an additional
approach is described herein.
2.1 Manatee County Habitat for Humanity (MCHFH)
For over 15 years, MCHFH built wood-framed homes using the most economical products available
with the objective of producing very affordably priced housing. According to Bruce Winter, Construction
Supervisor for MCHFH, the start of a new development, Hope Landing, provided MCHFH with an
opportunity to re-think how they were building homes with an additional objective of producing homes
that are more affordable to live in on a monthly basis. Working with their architectural firm and a
certified home energy rater they chose to move away from their conventional wood-framed, low-cost
construction model to a highly energy efficient, sustainable and safer home. These decisions aligned with
the organizations mission to build homes that are not only affordable to purchase but also affordable to
live in.
MCHFH reviewed programs including ENERGY STAR for Homes and the DOE Builders Challenge
which subsequently became the Challenge Home program. They also reviewed new building methods and
materials that could be handled by their volunteer labor force without sacrificing the cost effectiveness
necessary to meet their financial goals. In the end, MCHFH developed a new design - a duplex floor plan
(Figure 2), and changed almost all of their construction methods and products. A bold decision requiring
extensive planning and preparation.
Figure 2. Example of MCHFH new duplex design.

About a year before construction began, MCHFH construction staff held meetings with volunteer
crew leaders to discuss the new construction methods. A Build Book was developed with selected crew
leaders detailing over 45 building steps in the new construction process. Quality check sheets were
developed to verify that work met specifications before being turned over to the next crews to ensure
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repeatability and uniformity in construction regardless of crew and volunteer turn over. Ongoing training
sessions and on-the-job training bring new volunteers up to competency levels in the construction
techniques.
As construction at Hope Landing began, a 3rd party Energy Rater conducted inspection visits, which
provided an important quality control mechanism. Any time a change or correction was required, it was
reported to the architect and to the volunteer author of the Build Book section for update. In the end,
MCHFH prepared a new homeowners and maintenance manual called The What and Why of How We
Build and How to Care for Your Home to help buyers understand the features and operation of their new
home.
Although this transformation originated before MCHFH decided to build its first Challenge Home, it
provides an excellent example of how to navigate the transition from building code-compliant homes to
building high performance homes. The Build Book in particular informs the whole construction team. It
provides construction objectives, detailed process guidance, and quality assurance check points. A
document like the Build Book along with construction drawings of unfamiliar details and subcontractor
scopes of work can support problem solving at the job site.
2.1.1 MCHFH Meeting Challenge Home Mandatory Requirements: Prior to considering
Challenge Home, MCHFH had already evolved their construction to achieve ENERGY STAR for Homes
v3.1, thereby meeting Challenge Home Requirement 1. Their new construction method included R-23
insulated concrete form (ICF) walls (Figure 3) and R-21 open cell spray foam applied to the underside of
the roof deck to create an unvented attic. The duct system installed in the unvented attic meets Challenge
Home Requirement 3, Interior Ducts. While the R-21 roof does not meet the prescriptive IECC 2012
requirement, the combined effect of the wall and roof deck insulation effectively produces a total
enclosure meeting Challenge Home Requirement 2 (Envelope) through the programs allowable total
UA method.
Figure 3. MCHFH ICF exterior wall under construction.

The other Challenge Home Mandatory envelope requirement is ENERGY STAR labeled fenestration.
MCHFHs standard window had a solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) of 0.28, very narrowly missing the
ENERGY STAR criteria for the hot-humid climate which is 0.27. The Department of Energy granted
MCHFH an exemption for this requirement on one of their completed houses. For future homes, MCHFH
has changed specifications to regionally qualified ENERGY STAR windows.
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To meet Challenge Home Mandatory Requirement 4, Water Efficiency, MCHFH changed the
plumbing design by locating insulated pipes under the slab foundation (Figure 4) rather than in the
interior walls and the attic. This allowed shorter, more direct runs, minimizing water wasted while waiting
for hot water. The criterion specifies less than 0.5 gallons of water in the piping/manifold between the
water heater and any fixture.
Figure 4. Insulated pipes under the slab foundation.

The EPA Indoor airPLUS program referred to in Challenge Home Requirement 6 has criteria dealing
with attached garages that in this case do not apply since there is no garage. It also calls for, among other
things, humidity control capability in Climate zones 1, 2, and parts of 3. MCHFH achieves this
requirement using a thermostat with built in humidistat associated with their ducted mini-split
mechanical system.
Utilizing solar rebate incentives from Florida Power and light, MCHFH equipped this particular
home with a 40 ft2 direct circulation, drain-back solar water heater and a 2.5 kW PV array with microinverters (Figure 5). Use of solar components automatically fulfills Challenge Home Requirement 7,
Renewable Ready. While not all the homes in Hope Landing are equipped with solar components this
builder meets the Renewable Readiness standards for solar thermal and PV in all the other homes by
prepping for future installation.
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Figure 5. Solar thermal and solar PV panels.

The builder does not include a dishwasher in standard construction. The refrigerator, clothes washer,
lighting, exhaust fans, and ceiling fans are all ENERGY STAR labeled products satisfying Mandatory
Requirement 5. Table 2 summarizes the energy related specifications MCHFH incorporated into their
first Challenge Home.
Table 2. Summary of MCHFH Challenge Home energy related specifications.
COMPONENT/PARAMETER
DESCRIPTION
Challenge Home HERS Index score
53 without PV
(Challenge Home Target = 60)
23 with PV
Design
1148 ft2, 3 Bedroom, 2 Bath duplex
Envelope
Whole House air tightness
Tightly sealed house, ACH50 = 1.02
Foundation
Slab-on-grade R-0
Wall type and insulation
R-23 Insulated concrete form walls
R-11 partition wall between duplex dwellings
Windows
Double-pane, low-e, vinyl windows. U = 0.32,
SHGC = 0.28*
Roof Finish, Attic configuration, and
Galvalum metal roof with R-21 open cell, sprayinsulation
foam insulation at underside of roof deck to create
an unvented attic
Equipment, Appliances, and Lighting
Mechanical equipment
SEER 16 HSPF 10 Mini-split Heat Pump with
compact duct system; central fan integrated supply
ventilation
Air distribution system materials
R-6 flex ducts sealed with water based mastic and
fiberglass mesh.
Air distribution system air tightness
CFM25,total = 90 cfm (Qn, total=0.08)
CFM25,out = 13.5 cfm (Qn, out=0.01)
Air distribution system location
Ducts and mini-split air handler in unvented attic
Lighting and Appliances
100% ENERGY STAR CFLs, ceiling fans,
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refrigerator, and clothes washer. Dishwasher not

provided.
Renewable Energy
Water Heating
Flat plate, drain-back, 40 ft2 solar water heater with

80 gallons of storage
Photovoltaics
2.5 kW PV system
*Challenge Home Exemption granted for this home
2.2 South East Volusia HFH (SEVHFH)
Southeast Volusia County Habitat for Humanity (SEVHFH) has a long-standing relationship with
Building America. SEVHFH originally partnered with Building America as part of the Building America
Industrialized Housing Partnership (BAIHP - the predecessor to BAPIRC) in 2009. Since then SEVHFH
has consistently built houses that meet or exceed ENERGY STAR criteria, including the latest ENERGY
STAR standard in Florida, Version 3.1. SEVHFH was also an early adopter of the Builders Challenge.
With this history it was a natural step for SEVHFH to build a Challenge Home.
In contrast to the MCHFH methods, SEVHFHs standard practice embraces typical central Florida
building techniques, with an emphasis on volunteer friendliness and readily available products and labor.
Their slab-on-grade, single-family homes (Figure 6) have wood-frame walls and a vented attic with
blown-in insulation. SEVHFHs Challenge Home did not replace any of these conventional building
materials. Their simple yet efficient homes are a sterling example of affordable housing built affordably,
while being affordable to live in.
Figure 6. SEVHFH Challenge Home

This Challenge Home provides an excellent model for any central Florida builder because the
Challenge Home Target HERS Index is achieved by combining a package of envelope and equipment
specifications that are moderately better than typical regional practices with the addition of a solar water
heater that takes advantage of utility incentives. A similar path could be used by many central Florida
builders to achieve the target Challenge Home HERS Index without major changes in structural systems,
components, or equipment.
2.2.1 SEVHFH Meeting Challenge Home Mandatory Requirements: As with MCHFH, SEVHFH
had already evolved their construction to achieve ENERGY STAR for Homes v3.1, thereby meeting
Challenge Home Requirement 1. The conventional 2x4 walls have R-13 RESNET Grade 1 batt insulation
with an added layer of R-3 rigid insulation over the exterior sheathing. The attic insulation of R-38 is
204

becoming a regional standard. These insulation levels comply with IECC 2012, and by utilizing windows
that achieve the ENERGY STAR standard, met Challenge Home Requirement 2. Utilizing ENERGY
STAR appliances, lighting, and fans throughout the house enabled the affiliate to meet Challenge Home
Requirement 5.
Two of the main things that distinguish the SEVHFH house from typical market rate production
homes are the small footprint and lack of garage. Because of the small, compact floor plan, no changes
were needed to pass the hot water distribution test which limits stand-by hot loses at the fixture farthest
from the water heater to 0.5 gallons, and therefore enabled SEVHFH to achieve Challenge Home
Requirement 4. Also, like MCHFH the home does not have a garage and related provisions of the
ENERGY STAR Indoor airPLUS, and Challenge Home Requirement 6 do not apply. SEVHFH utilized a
thermidistat to achieve the humidity control requirement.
SEVHFH also participates in Florida Power and Lights Residential Solar Water Heating Program for
Low Income New Construction, which enabled them to install a solar thermal system at no cost.
Inclusion of solar water heating satisfies Challenge Home Requirement 7 (solar thermal). When this
incentive is not available, a heat pump water heater is often installed by the affiliate. Occasionally the
affiliate builds in neighborhoods with natural gas and installs an instantaneous gas water heater. Both of
these improved hot water systems are gaining momentum in the market. When used, they would allow
SEVHFHs homes to meet the Target HERS Index more easily. Additionally, Challenge Home exempts
builders from several aspects of Requirement 7 related to providing infrastructure for future solar water
heating systems per the EPA Renewable Ready Solar Thermal checklist as long as their water heaters
meet the stringent efficiency requirement of the ENERGY STAR labeling program. To comply with the
solar electric aspects of Challenge Home Requirement 7 SEVHFH installed a conduit running from the
power distribution panel to a junction box mounted on the exterior south wall to facilitate wiring exterior
inverters that may be installed in the future (Figure 7). The panel has several blank spaces to
accommodate a future circuit breaker for the PV input as required by the program.
Figure 7. SEVHFH ran conduit from the electrical panel to a junction box (Seen high on the wall) to
facilitate future installation of a solar electric system.
205

The main change needed to achieve Challenge Home compliance by SEVHFH was Challenge Home
Requirement 3, Interior Ducts. A foamed sealed attic like that used by MCHFH was rejected because of
the first cost exceeded budget limitations. The idea of a fur-down approach for interior ducts, that
creates a duct chase below the ceiling plane [4], was also rejected because of code-mandated ceiling
height requirements that are difficult to meet with the standard 8 ceiling height. Instead, SEVHFHs
Challenge Home used an innovative interior duct system design. SEVHFH Construction Director, Ray
Allnutt, worked very closely with the mechanical contractor to envision, design, and execute a creative
fur up or raised ceiling strategy. This innovative approach included a modified truss design to
accommodate a duct chase above the ceiling plane. While the general approach is not new, the method
developed by Allnutt represents a significant improvement in technical execution.
Figure 8 shows the duct system layout. In this home, the framing for the chase is formed by truss
members (2x4s) in a modified truss design that creates a chase through the center of the house (Figure 9).
The modification in the truss design is offset from the central king post to reduce the structural impact of
the modification. Accurate sizing of the chase and the ducts using exact dimensions is critical to
successful assembly.
Figure 8. SEVHFH layout for interior duct system.
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Figure 9. Truss modification design to create interior duct chase.

The technical challenges of building a duct chase, whether fur-down or fur-up, are establishing a
continuous, sealed air barrier between the chase and the surrounding unconditioned spaces (including
building cavities) and adequately insulating the chase. Conventionally, drywall or other sheet goods are
used to create the air barrier. Air sealing details must address all joints, edges, and penetrations in the air
barrier. Where the chase extends into rooms through interior walls, the air sealing must isolate the chase
from the wall cavities to remain truly in conditioned space. Regarding insulation, the tops of fur-down
chases are aligned with the ceiling plane; hence, attic insulation forms the thermal barrier for fur-down
chases. Alternatively, fur-up chases rise above the ceiling plane, requiring a different insulation strategy.
Insulating the top and vertical sides of the chase is similar to insulating tray ceilings and knee walls.
Typically built with 2 x 4s, its very challenging to achieve insulation levels similar to the rest of the attic
on these surfaces as mandated by IECC 2012.
SEVHFHs decision to build a fur-up chase was influenced by the availability of free materials
through Habitat for Humanity Internationals Gifts in Kind Program, which partners with DOW and
others. DOW provides free rigid foam insulation products to affiliates upon request. DOW Styrofoam
provides insulation of R-5 per inch. SEVHFH was already taking advantage of this partnership by using
DOW Styrofoam on the exterior of their houses. They requested 2 thick, Square Edge, unskinned8
Styrofoam Insulation from DOW, and utilized it to form the air barrier (and part of the thermal barrier)
for their fur-up chase. In total, SEVHFH achieved an R-33 insulation level on the sides and the top of
their fur-up duct chase by using a double layer of 2 Styrofoam, installed to the inside of the chase
structure, resulting in R-20. Then the top and sides of the chase were wrapped in R-13 fiberglass batts that
are sized to fit into the 24 truss bays (Figure 10).
The Styrofoam used does not have a thin plastic facing found in some versions. That film constitutes a vapor flow retarder.
By using the un-faced product, the chase assembly is vapor open allowing moisture to flow in both directions.
207

Figure 10. SEVHFH lined the inside of their fur up chase with rigid foam insulation, and then wrapped
the top and sides with batt insulation for a total of R-33.
The edges and seams of the first layer of Styrofoam were sealed with a construction adhesive
specifically designed for foam. The seams in the second layer of Styrofoam are staggered (with respect to
the first layer) to further impede air exchange between the chase and the surrounding attic space and
sealed in a similar manner. Through this careful attention to detail, the major challenge of creating a
continuous sealed air barrier was conquered. The structure to support the duct system is installed to the
inside of the chase. This is an important detail that eliminates leakage paths around the structural element.
Careful detailing proved effective as evidenced in the duct leakage test which showed no leakage to the
surrounding attic. Runout chases to serve rooms throughout the house branch off the main chase. Dead
wood installed between trusses provided attachment surfaces for the foam top and sides. This ensures that
all run out ducts are fully within the conditioned space. The air handler is also in conditioned space,
housed within an interior closet (Figure 11). Table 3 summarizes the energy related specifications
SEVHFH incorporated into their first Challenge Home.
Figure 11. Left photo shows intersection of runout chase with main chase. Right photo shows interior
air handler closet.
Table 3. Summary of SEVHFH Challenge Home energy related specifications.
COMPONENT/PARAMETER
DESCRIPTION
208

Challenge Home HERS Index score

(Challenge Home Target = 59)
Design
Envelope
Whole House air tightness
Foundation
Wall type and insulation
Windows
Roof Finish, Attic configuration, and
insulation
Equipment, Appliances, and Lighting
Mechanical equipment
Air distribution system materials
Air distribution system air tightness
Air distribution system location
Lighting and Appliances
Renewable Energy
Water Heating
Photovoltaics
49
1250 ft2, 3 Bedroom, 2 Bath single family home
Well sealed house, ACH50 = 4.00
Slab-on-grade R-0
R-13 frame walls with R-3 exterior rigid insulation
ENERGY STAR labeled Double-pane, low-e,
vinyl windows. U = 0.33, SHGC = 0.18
Light color shingle roof with RBS roof deck over
vented attic with R-38 blown insulation
SEER 15/HSPF 8 Heat Pump; energy recovery
ventilator (ERV) provides balanced ventilation
R-4.3 duct board sealed with water based mastic
and fiberglass mesh.
CFM25,total = 39 cfm (Qn, total=0.03)
CFM25,out = 0 cfm (Qn, out=0.0)
Ducts in a fur-up chase created with modified
trusses; air hander closet in conditioned space
100% ENERGY STARCFLs, ceiling fans,
refrigerator, dishwasher, and clothes washer.
Flat plate, open loop, 40 ft2l solar water heater with
80 gallons of storage
Renewable ready
3. Cost effectiveness and marketability of ZNER and ZNE homes

The Challenge Homes described in this report are both built by Habitat for Humanity affiliates.
Habitat for Humanity Internationals (HFHI) vision involves a world where everyone has a decent place
to live, and their mission brings people together to build homes, communities, and hope. To fulfill
those goals many affiliates have realized that building the least expensive home generally does not result
in the least expensive home to live in. HFHI has many partners at the national and local level that donate
goods and services to the affiliates. In addition, some of the affiliates sub-contractors donate or discount
labor and materials.
Energy Gauge USA energy analysis software was used by the affiliates and their energy raters to
determine Challenge Home compliance, and used here to estimate annual energy use. The MCHFH
Challenge Home is projected to save $949 in annual energy costs at $0.12 per kilowatt, compared to the
same home configured to meet Florida code. This includes a projected photovoltaic output of $427 per
year. Total cost for the upgraded package was $17,008, increasing the total cost of the home by 23%9.
However, Florida Power and Light (FPL), the electric utility, provided a low income solar water heating
incentive covering the cost of the solar water heating system, and a $2/watt rebate on the photovoltaic
9
Total costs include soft costs such as architecture, survey, permitting, and certifications. Total costs also include hard costs
such as materials and sub-contractor labor. General construction labor is not included, as habitat uses primarily volunteers.
209

system, reducing the added cost to $7,774, or about 10% of the total cost of the home. The SEVHFH
Challenge Home is projected to save $509 in annual energy costs at $0.12 per kilowatt, compared to the
same home configured to meet Florida code. Total cost for the upgraded package is approximately
$8,300. SEVHFH also received a low income solar water heating incentive from FPL, as well as DOW
Styrofoam at no cost, reducing the added cost to approximately $3,00010.
The economics of Habitat for Humanitys business model vary significantly from market rate
housing. A portion of the buyers down payment comes from building with Habitats volunteer labor
force. Finance terms are 0% interest over 20 to 30 years. These variations and the narrow market niche of
affordable housing skew the relevance of their business metrics to market rater builders who pay full price
for labor and face rigorous competition. To examine economic implications of Challenge Home in the
production builder market, BAPIRC is also working with partners to prototype and document incremental
changes necessary to achieve Challenge Home cost effectively in production housing. Tommy Williams
Homes (TWH) and Lifestyle Homes (LSH) have been continuous partners in the Building America
program since 2004 and 2009 respectively (Figure 12), and are currently in the planning stages for their
first Challenge Homes. Their transition from building minimum code homes to building high
performance homes is well documented, and their current ZNER designs, with similar levels of
performance to Challenge Home and now standard practice for each builder, have been shown to result in
net positive annual cash flow for home buyers [1]. This is quantified by showing that the forecasted
average monthly energy savings over minimum code exceed the added monthly mortgage cost for the
improvement package. The designs also serve as a reliable and cost effective platform with which to
deliver ZNE homes, with TWH and LSH selling 9 and 15 zero energy homes since 2010 respectively. In
each case, the builders deliver net zero energy by simply adding PV to their standard designs.
Figure 116. TWH (left photo) and LSH (right photo) have each been successful at standardizing ZNER
designs, and offer ZNE homes as an option.
Previous work by BAPIRC has discussed the importance of combining effective sales and marketing
solutions with technical solutions in order to successfully deliver ZNER and ZNE homes [1]. Market rate
builders must translate the benefits and advantages of high performance technical solutions into a
marketing campaign that engages buyers bombarded with nearly endless choices. When successful, the
approach has been found to lead to robust sales and growth within the marketplace.
Upon adopting a ZNER package as standard in 2009, a year in which the down housing market only
generated 25 closings, LSH has increased business nearly 5 times, with 120 closings in 2013. Their
10
Detailed cost analysis for the SEVHFH home is ongoing.
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marketing strategy combines model home displays that show the logic differences behind their
construction techniques. They communicate value with case studies of first year cash flow examples.
Before adopting elements of high performance housing as standard in 2006, TWH was only able to
claim a 40% market share against a competing builder within the same development. As the TWH
package evolved into a ZNER level of performance, they simultaneously developed a print media
marketing strategy focused on tangible benefits of high performance homes and model home displays
where prospective buyers could see and touch the things that distinguish them in the market. The
builders market share in the same development grew to 84% by the end of 2012. These examples show
that new home buyers are able to understand, appreciate, and value homes that optimize performance and
economics. Enough time has elapsed that now some of the ZNER homes built by the builders are
appearing in the resale market. Data from the resale of 18 TWH homes (vs. 13 from their principal
competitor) shows the TWH ZNER homes selling at a $23,000 premium, with an average of 92 days on
the market vs. 240. Advancing current ZNER packages to comply with Challenge Home is expected to
complement the robust sales these production builders are currently experiencing, and advance the
housing market in general one step closer to cost neutral ZNE homes.
4. Conclusions
BAPIRC, one of the Building America research team leads, has partnered with several builders in the
hot-humid climate, as they work through the process of adopting Challenge Home. Two HFHI affiliates,
MCHFH and SEVHFH, have constructed prototype homes certified under the program. Each used
different approaches to meeting the technical specifications. MCHFH transformed their home building
process to incorporate a number of advanced and emerging products and materials. SEVHFH adopted a
more conventional approach by identifying and implementing adjustments to their existing home building
process. In each case, by leveraging various incentives and partnerships, economics were favorable and
the end products complemented the mission of the non-profit affordable housing sector.
BAPIRC has also partnered with TWH and LSH, small production builders that have implemented
ZNER packages as standard practice, and have used the package as a platform to successfully market
upgrades to ZNE. Sales data shows that the optimization of efficiency and performance results in robust
sales and on both the new and resale market. It is expected that the DOE Challenge Home program is
able to provide the guidance and tools necessary for any builder to recreate the success our partners have
experienced.
The authors would like to thank the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Building Technologies,
Building America program for providing the funding for this research. This support does not constitute
endorsement of the views expressed in this paper. The authors acknowledge the leadership of DOE
program managers David Lee, Sam Rashkin, and Eric Werling. The authors are extremely grateful for
the partnership with the builders described in this report. It is through their contributions, feedback, and
dedication that this research is able to move forward. The following individuals have been instrumental
in the partnerships:
Bruce Winter, Manatee County Habitat for Humanity
Ray Allnutt, Southeast Volusia Habitat for Humanity
Larry Hufford, Karen Hufford, and Jordan Luhn Lifestyle Homes
Bill Webb, Bill Webb MIRM, LLC
Todd Louis and Ginney Williams, Tommy Williams Homes
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5. References
[1] S. Thomas-Rees, D. Beal, E. Martin, and K. Fonorow. Approaches to 30% Energy Savings at the Community
Scale in the Hot Humid Climate. Golden, CO. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/SR-5500-57823
(2013) http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/57823.pdf
[2] J. McIlvaine and K. Sutherland. Applying Best Practices to Local Government Retrofit Programs. Golden, CO.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/SR-5500-60846 (2013)
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy14osti/60846.pdf
[3] D. Beal, J. McIlvaine, K. Fonorow, and E. Martin. Measure Guideline: Summary of Interior Ducts in New
Construction, Including an Efficient, Affordable Method to Install Fur-Down Interior Ducts. Golden, CO. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL/SR-5500-52825 (2011) http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy12osti/52825.pdf
[4] K. Fonorow, D. Jenkins, S. Thomas-Rees, and S. Chandra. Low Cost Interior Duct Systems for High
Performance Homes in Hot Climates, ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings (2010), August 1520, Pacific Grove, CA. http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/publications/pdf/FSEC-PF-451-10.pdf
212

Renewable Energy as an Airport Revenue Generation Source

Deny Dwiantoro1 and Charles J. Kibert1
1
Powell Center for Construction and Environment, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
32611-5703 USA
1
d.dwiantoro@ufl.edu and ckibert@ufl.edu
Abstract
There are numerous motivations for implementing renewable energy as widely as possible. Among
these motivations are mitigating climate change, minimizing non-renewable energy resource depletion,
minimizing the uncertainty of energy supplies from unstable regions of the world, and coping with the
rising costs of energy. One additional motivation that can be added to the list is the opportunities
presented by the rapidly falling costs of many types of renewable energy systems (RES) that can be
turned into a profit center for many times of operations, including airports. Although is certainly
significant potential, the decision to implement renewable energy systems on or in the vicinity of an
airport presents a complex, interlocking set of technical, financial and regulatory problems that must be
analyzed in order to assess the feasibility of capitalizing on renewable energy. This paper presents the
results of an accurate and efficient approach to analyzing the revenue addition in considering renewable
energy systems as part of an airport business plan. A brief discussion about key decision making process
from the existing traditional revenue system in airports continued by the current revenue enhancement
using non-traditional revenue system by incorporating selected renewable for Florida as a test case has
been discussed. Examples of three existing revenue systems in Florida airports have shown that airports
are still trying to sustain with current economic conditions. Dunnellon Airport in Marion County has
been chosen as a specific case study for the revenue enhancement by using selected renewable energy
systems as a viable option for generating significant revenue to improve the financial outlook of the
airport operation. Furthermore, Dunnellon Airport has also been used for a more detail analysis in net
zero energy as the future of sustainable construction. Various scenarios to approach the potential of nontraditional revenue in Dunnellon Airport have also been investigated to maximize the revenue. The
results suggested that Dunnellon Airport should own utility-scale renewable energy systems since it will
benefit the airport long-term goal as part of its next business plan by using a 25-year study period
assumption.
Keywords: renewable energy systems (RES), airport non-traditional revenue, airport business plan
1. Introduction
Airport authorities have traditionally depended solely on revenue generated by the traditional airport
management system, for example, rental space and fuel sales to the airlines. Unstable gas prices have
made it even more difficult for the airport to sustain its profitability. The growing sustainability
movements, including the push for more renewable energy use, have triggered many actors both
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individuals and organizations to start considering sustainability in their goals. This mindset-shift creates
a domino effect that affects many other fields, such asin this caseairports In the past, airports have
investigated the potential for implementing renewable energy systems (RES) as an additional income.
However, a comprehensive approach that includes an evaluation process for selecting the most
appropriate RES, determining the optimum financial structure, and assessing the impact of regulations
has not been developed. Most airports can benefit from often abundant resources.
The growing pace of utility service providers to purchase electricity from renewable energy has also
encouraged this implementation. As a matter of fact, the airport authority should experience multiple
stages in conducting feasibility study for implementing this opportunity. Different types of renewable
source potentials on airport area, current viable technology, available space, financial funding as well as
local regulatory issues require a comprehensive decision system to evaluate renewable energy project
options for airports. Most importantly, the rapidly falling cost of renewable energy could benefit the
installation of renewable energy. As the key research question, there is question that can be immediately
posed: How can installed RES benefit the airports long-term goal of adding an additional revenue
source?
2. Review of Literature
There are two main sources of the airport revenue, i.e. aeronautical activity and passenger related
services. However, the fashion of airport business model has shifted from previously traditional model to
a newer system using any other potential income generations that is passenger-independent business
model [17]. Airport operators nowadays are trying to diversify the income generation using various
possible sources. According to prior study by [17, 23], the general aviation has newer system for airport
management to sustain its operational activities. The oldtraditional systemrefers to mainly charging
the airlines as service providers for passengers. Nevertheless, the newer systems provide some possible
revenue diversification. Figure1 presents the summary those studies.
Figure 1. General aviation revenue generation with additional revenue from RES
The highlighted possible new income drivers are the focus of this research. The utility services box refers
to the land agreement, which means that the airport authority can be the electricity provider or it can share
the ownership with the utility provider to provide electricity to the surroundings, i.e., residential area.
The renewable energy box refers to the possible type of renewable energy. In terms of using the actual
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economic model, this paper has incorporated all possible income generations based on the newer sources
after including all renewable energy cost estimations.
In defining parameters for the economic model, this paper has identified parameters that are suitable
to be implemented in airport revenue system. The airport operating net income is simply defined as the
result of total revenues minus operating expenses [14]. This net operating income can be used to pay debt
service, allocated to the capital investments and returned to the airlines as revenue sharing [14].
However, the role of airport will influence the financial model. For instance, there will be questions
regarding this issue. First, who owns the airport? Second, what is the role of the owner? In investigating
the role of airport, the role of ownership also influences the financial model for a specific airport (Figure
2).
Figure 2. Factors influencing airport financial services. Adapted from: [14]

From Figure 2, it can be seen that stakeholders such as city, county and state government also
influence the financial decisions in most U.S airports. In addition, the role of privatization will affect the
financial model in the case of using partial or full privatization in operational activities [14]. The process
of privatization is beyond the scope of this paper. Still, from Figure 2, it is obvious that various factors
will influence the revenue estimation. Moreover, the Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) will also
influence the revenue estimation especially in term of profit sharing among parties or the potential
revenue for the owner of the system. This paper has also investigated the airport revenue generation by
comparing the actual revenue that can be obtained after offsetting the sharing percentage from for
instance, agreement type, with both the actual revenue and expense.
2.1. Airport and Sustainability

According to the World Commission for Environment and Development (WCED), from The
Bruntland Report definition, which was published nearly three decades ago and is still used until today,
sustainable development is defined as providing for the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs [28]. The sustainable development,
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or shortly known as sustainability, has been used as the foundation for numerous efforts to make sure the
future generations have a decent quality of life [15]. As it becomes foundation, sustainability has been
used by various organizations to improve their operational activities. For example, organizations such as
airports have their own definition of sustainability. The airport sustainability is defined as broad terms
that encompasses a wide variety of practices applicable to the management of airports; as an
organization, airport authority has come to embrace sustainability as its priority for airport project
improvement [3]. Some of the sustainability efforts have been widely implemented in both US and
international airports. The synthesis also provides various examples that an airport can perform to
support sustainability. For instance, in sustainable energy management, since 2005 the Aroports de Paris
has been addressing issue in climate change in carbon credit to gain revenue as one factor to the strategic
decision making [3]. In addition, Tacoma International Airport in Seattle has invested $ 7 million to
improve electrical consumption by retrofitting equipment with energy efficient equipment and improving
heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) system and installing a solar hot water system as well as
a 20 kW roof-top photovoltaic (PV) system [3].
The tendency of airports to implement sustainability programs has triggered researchers and many
organizations to provide guidelines for various sustainability programs. In 2012, particularly in airport
administration, an assessment tool was developedAirport Sustainability Assessment Tool [19]. This
report explains a wide variety of applicable sustainability programs including environmental impact
assessment for the surrounding area near airport activities. The group has provided steps and methods in
doing airport assessment and possible activities to support sustainability implementation and made a
spreadsheet-based decision analysis tool that can be used by airport authority. Most principles and steps
made are generalization and the development of Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
certification system by the United States Green Building Council USGBC). The results of the report
present a step-by-step process in identifying and providing information for airport authority to involve for
sustainability programs. It started from the airport organization knowledge, readiness and interest in
implementing sustainability to the implementation of sustainability by covering social, environmental and
economic benefits. The report however does not clearly define sustainability for each specific case,
especially the implementation of renewable energy in airports.
As publicly announced, Airport Cooperative Research Program (ACRP) requested for proposal
project to investigate a research project in developing specific guideline in incorporating renewable
energy as additional revenue source for the airport [27]. The complexity of the environment and the wide
variety of methods will significantly influence the revenue analysis results. Nonetheless, the chosen
evaluation methods have to be clearly understood and easily used by various audiences. To do this, the
case-based investigation is required to make a proper model that is applicable in airport management
systems. For instance, the uniqueness of each airport management system, regulatory constraints around
the airport location, type of funding and agreement will affect the determination of what kind of
renewable energy is suitable in the implementation. Since the goal of this renewable energy use is to gain
additional revenue source, one part of the decision systems will be determining financial parameters that
applies in the region. As a result, the goal of this paper is to evaluate and help decision makers in various
scenarios such as type of systems, financing scenario based on mainly the ownership options.
2.2. Revenue Model Formulation

After knowing the role of airport for its operational and cost formulation, now the important factor is
determining the role of airport in the renewable energy project. As a portion of the source of revenue,
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renewable energy project in airport has been considered to have different types of agreement. This will
have significant influence to the financial system of the airport. There are two types of agreements that
can be made from producing electricity near airport that have been implemented [23]. The agreement
will be based on a system called Power Purchase Agreement (PPA). This is the long-term and fixed-price
contract of electricity between two entities, i.e. buyer and seller that can be described as long term
revenue source [6, 22] which is needed in formulating the airport business plan. This type of agreement
usually occurs between private developer and either private or public consumer.
Figure 3. Private ownership financial model from the airport standpoint. Source: [24]
Figure 4. Airport-owned financial model from the airport standpoint. Source: [24]
One example of this PPA system is the third-party model [6]. For instance the airport, as a host or
public entity, is obligated to buy electricity. This is private and airport-owned RES. Figure 3 shows the
dollar addition to the airport in the form of private-owned financial model. Figure 3 also indicates that
the airport will obtain the revenue addition mainly from leasing the land. This model will benefit the
private entity that not only can get tax credit but also obtain revenue from buying Renewable Energy
Credit (REC) and get offset value from electricity price under power purchase agreement. Therefore
under this system, the only revenue addition for the airport is from leasing the land.
From Figure 4, the airport will obtain the two revenue additions mainly from the offset price of for
instance, usually based on net metering or PPA under feed in tariff. Another source is from buying REC
contracts from the utility provider. This model will benefit the airport even after the contract purchase
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has finished. The airport will get the free electricity after that contract period just because it self-produces
the electricity.
Renewable energy incentives are promoted by the government to attract individual, public institutions
and private sectors to be actively involved in renewable energy projects. The utility providers have
tendency to own wind generator instead of signing PPA [7]. The financial model that attracted the
utilities is the type of third-party ownership model. In the actual research implementation, these factors
should be considered and crosschecked to the actual systems that have been applied before conducting
further step. Research is also required to investigate the role of airport in the renewable energy model
since this will influence the financial condition for the airport authority [6]. Therefore, the investigation
in each case of airport basis will be important to further analyze the results.
2.3. Renewable Energy Incentives

Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) also known as Renewable Electricity Standard, is a mandate
from the governmentthe most applicable in state wide policyfor the utility providers either to provide
or buy electricity from renewable energy generators [5, 7, 24]. The regulation provides the opportunity to
expand the market of renewable energy development nation-wide. In the case of this research, airport
will be best to act as owner of the renewable energy. Each paragraph below will briefly describe the type
of incentives that will be useful for primarily the reduction of upfront cost of RES installation.
Renewable energy credits (REC) is part of the RPS program. The format is a certificate that states the
renewable energy producerin most cases private companyis eligible to produce renewable energy
and this certificate is issued by an independent organization [24]. The value of this certificate is usually
in dollar per 1MWh per stock of renewable electricity and in the range $3 30 per megawatt hour [7].
This is the type of commodity that is tradable and most companies have just bought to show their support
of green power.
Tax credit is intended to the private entities that support renewable energy development. No public or
government entities are eligible to achieve the tax credits. There are two types of tax credits, i.e
investment tax credit (ITC) and production tax credits (PTC) [24]. ITC can be obtained directly from the
Internal Revenue Service (IRS) in the amount of 30% and this value is tradable. This will attract other
private sector to collaborate in developing renewable projects [24]. PTC has previously supported the
expansion of wind turbine generators until its expiration in year 2008. PTC did not contribute to the
private developers. However, it was just seen to benefit the utilities only. In addition, most PTC has been
expired in the year 2008 [7].
Depreciation is another form of incentives. Depreciation with other incentives combination can
reduce the investment cost [1, 4, 16]. Cost allowance using asset depreciation would be a favorable
option to attract renewable project for energy developer especially in private sectors. Internal revenue
service (IRS) has settled a five-year basis depreciation calculation using Modified Accelerated Cost
Recovery System (MACRS). After that period, the developers can take benefit of not paying taxable
property, which will result to lower the operating expense of producing electricity. The depreciation
values will be counted after subtracting the first cost by other incentives. The first year value based on
MACRS depreciation multiplication factor will be the factor to reduce the total first cost.
Grants and rebates are the direct fund that also considered as applied to the RES installation that can
be obtained before or after the renewable construction project finishes. These are the most favorable
incentives from the developers standpoint since it offers cash instead of credit [24].
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Bond, the example of this incentive is Clean Renewable Energy Bonds (CREB). This is the way of
government to fund the renewable energy project. If the government is the borrowing entity, the payment
of the money will be in tax credit form [24].
The feed in tariff (FIT) system is intended to provide renewable energy project reasonable return by
setting reasonable price that is higher than the market price [5]. This system was firstly applied in
California in 2008 [24]. This system guarantees the electricity generator to have a long-term fixed price
based on the price that is not market-dependent. For instance, during peak sun hours, the system sends
electricity to the grid. The contract between the renewable generator and the electricity utility enables the
renewable energy generator to sell the electricity at predetermined fixed price.
Net metering (NM) system is another electricity cost offset pricing that is straightforward. The
renewable energy generator can fulfill its consumption of electricity based on the installed system; in
addition, the overproduction can be exported to the utility-grid. The federal law mandates the utilities to
buy back this overproduction. In this situation, the utility has to pay for the amount of its avoided cost
due to its operational cost that is some amount of dollars determined by the state and equal to the actual
utilitys avoided cost [11]. Conversely, if the generator system cannot fulfill its electrical load, it has to
pay the electricity in the dollar amount based on agreement. In designing the system, the producer does
not need to export as much excessive energy during peak sun hours as the producer needs during other
time. The constraint is the excess production from the maximum load at certain month will be unpaid.
Therefore, it is recommended to design system that approaching the monthly use curve.
3. Research Approach
There are three main approaches that have been used in this paper. The first was developing
hypothesis to align with the investigation of finding potential revenue generation from renewable energy
system. Furthermore, second approach was to conduct literature review of renewable energy potential
that will be applicable for a very site specific case such as airport. It is noteworthy that not all renewable
energy potential suitable in a site specific location such as airport. This paper has supported, mainly, the
literature studies with the state of Florida as a test case that finally have concluded the renewable energy
potential will be solar photovoltaics [16, 22]; hence, no further investigation explored. The third
approach was to process the publicly financial data and review the cost assumptions for the analysis.
Finally, the revenue comparisons based on the public ownership and private ownership option also need
to be investigated. The revenues generated were based on the combinations of several systems of solar
photovoltaics mountings and modules as well as combining three scenarios namely, maximum energy
scenario, realistic scenario and the scenario for net-zero energy building (NZEB). The outcomes will be
then compared to the hypothesis.
3.1. Developing Flow of the Study
Since the goal of this paper is to investigate the revenue generation from RES, this paper has
identified one literature that provides information from actual situation that occurs at the airports. General
aviation (GA) current financial situations are at a loss of about 60,000 dollars in average per year. To
cover most of the general aviation losses, 4.9 to 11.5 % additional revenues are needed to cover costs and
a number higher than 11 % of current revenue to financially break even [2]. Break even here means
revenues equal to expenses.
As suggested by Kumar [18], research can utilize a hypothesis development in order to make the
clarity and emphasize to the problem. Thus, in order to focus the flow of the research, this paper has
219

made hypothesis generalization: by diversifying non-traditional revenue in RES, there is a chance for the
airport to gain additional revenue at least 5% to cover expense. This hypothesis will be used to direct the
research in order to focus and the revenue generation assessment in the airport management system.
3.2. Data Processing for Case Studies Revenue Assessment
Most international airports are managed by a larger structure of organization. For instance,
Jacksonville International Airport (JAX) has been directed under JAA management. The available data
are connected to JAA report. The airports that are managed under JAA include JAX, Cecil airport,
Jacksonville Executive at Craig airport (JAXEX) and Herlong airport.
3.2.1. JAA Airport Revenue Analysis: Figure 5 shows the average net income loss during 2008 to
2012 due to operational activities. Although the financial reports comprised of four different airports
under JAA management, it can be inferred that the airports need to have additional revenue from other
sources. The analysis began by targeting the utility service from operating expense using 2012 JAA
comprehensive financial report (CAFR) data [13].
Net Income
$ amount in thousands
15,000
10,000
TOTAL Operating (Loss)
5,000
0
TOTAL Non-operating (Loss)

2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
(5,000)
Net Income before capital contributions
(Loss)
(10,000)
(15,000)
(20,000)
Fiscal Year
Figure 5. Net income (NI) before capital contribution for JAA
The goal is to enhance the revenue from non-operating activity and aimed at the expense due to
electricity consumption. The ratio between total revenues and total expenses is 92.4%. It means JAA
needs additional combined revenue as much as 7.6%. This value is lower than the 1999 to 2002 study.
The ratio of total revenue and expense from GA airports was ranging between 95.1 and 88.5% [2].
Therefore, it is obvious that in recent years JAA has been struggling to sustain the financials. Figure 6
shows other revenue from the financial report that will be diversified in terms of additional nontraditional revenuefrom RES. In 2012, the margin between utility expense and other revenue is $
4,245,000or 21.8% of the utility expense (Figure 7). By comparing this to the combined operating and
non-operating expenses, the non-operating revenue diversification has contributed for only 1.48%. The
increase of non-operating revenue diversification can help the airport authority obtain additional revenue
that can cover the loss during these few years.
In this case, solar energy could be the best potential revenue addition choice since it has some benefits.
For instance, the airport can produce its own electricity that brings significant reduction in the utility
billscharges.
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Other Revenue
1,200
1,180
1,000
800
600
539
516
400
200
0
22
Fiscal Year
Figure 6. Other revenues of JAA
Utility services
7,000
5,973
5,259
6,000
5,534
5,425
4,723
5,000
3,646
4,000
3,000
3,571
3,038
2,088
2,000
1,000
0
Fiscal Year
Figure 7. Utility service charge for JAA
3.2.2. Airglades Airport Revenue Analysis: Figure 8 shows that Airglades airport has suffered loss.
According to the financial report [12], during the 2010 to 2012 period, there were no additional nonoperating revenue sources that help the Airglades airport sustain its losses. The operational expenses
increased during 2009 to 2012.
Net Income
2,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
TOTAL Operating (Loss)
500,000
0
(500,000)
TOTAL Non-operating (Loss)

2009
2010
2011
2012
NI (Loss)
(1,000,000)
(1,500,000)
(2,000,000)
Fiscal Year
Figure 8. Net income (NI) before beginning balance for Airglades airport
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In 2012, the ratio between total revenue and expense was 75.2%. Therefore, it can be concluded that
this airport needs additional revenue from innovative non-operating revenue diversification to sustain
with current condition. Figure 9 shows the tendency of operating expense to increase.
Operating Expenses
1,000,000
869,775
857,808
900,000
800,000
624,027
700,000
600,000
475,858
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
Fiscal Year
Figure 9. Operating expenses charge for Airglades airport
3.2.3. Dunnellon Airport Revenue Analysis: From Figure 10, according to [20], in general, during 7
fiscal years period, Dunnellon Airport had slightly positive net income value. However, the trend of two
year2011 and 2012period show the revenue from operational activity decreased by $ 68,301,
whereas the operating expense increased by more than twofold from the previous year which is $
1,172,493 (Figure 11).
Net income
2,500,000
2,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
Operating expenses
500,000
Operating revenues
0
(500,000)
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
$ NI (Loss)
(1,000,000)
(1,500,000)
(2,000,000)
(2,500,000)
Fiscal Year
Figure 10. Net income (NI) before beginning balance for Dunnellon airport
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Operating expenses
2,500,000
1,972,968
2,000,000
1,430,480
1,500,000
$
1,000,000
648,277
484,511
613,864
707,957
749,209
800,475
500,000
0
Fiscal Year
Figure 11. Operating expenses charge for Dunnellon airport
3.2.4. Dunnellon Airport Energy Consumption Data: This sub section describes mainly the latest
actual data for Dunnellon for FY 2012 for further complete analysis. Table 1 presents the data from the
operational officials of Dunnellon. It can be concluded that in 2012, Dunnellon used 8,924 kilowatt hour
electricity per year. According to Marion County Master Plan [21], Progress Energy is the electricity
provider for Dunnellon Airport. By using utility retail cost $ 0.119 /kWh from Progress Energy [25a]
rate, the monthly use of electricity yield to total $ 1,098 per year. It is obvious that Dunnellon Airport is
not a cost-intensive airport that uses much electricity; yet, the authority has planned to upgrade the
electricity to support future facilities [21]. This will be the opportunity to generate power in as a
diversification for non-traditional revenue addition. The reason is the larger the available vacant land
with the insignificant amount of electricity use, the better opportunity to own or deal with various scheme
of agreement.
Table 1. FY 2012 energy consumption and utility charge for Dunnellon airport
Month
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Year (FY 2012)
2012
[ kWh ]
920
828
920
736
736
736
644
552
736
644
736
736
8,924
2012
[$]
109
96
109
88
88
88
77
66
88
77
88
88
1,062
Source: Dunnellon airport operational officials

3.2.5. Summary of Selected Case Studies Revenue Assessment: From the three existing case
studies, the revenue of each airport tends to decline for the past few years. In case of Dunnellon Airport,
the operating expense for FY 2011-2012 has increased by more than 100% of the previous year; yet,
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declined in terms of the net income. From actual Dunnellon CAFR, it can be inferred that Dunnellon
Airport has never diversified the non-operating revenue. Therefore, since there is no non-operating
revenue, the airport can expand the revenue by for example installing the RES. The revenue addition
from non-aviation activity can help the airport to increase the overall revenue.
3.3. Assumptions, Ownership Options and Incentives
3.3.1 Assumptions: The financial parameters used are based on the U.S. current situation [8, 26]. As
can be seen in Table 2, the adjusted values were the main values that were inputted to the spreadsheet
analysis. The results of the calculations will be presented in results section.
Table 2. Financial parameters input assumptions
Parameter
Study
Public
30 years
10 and 25 years
Reference
[8, 26]
[25c]
Adjusted
-
Private
30 years
10 and 25 years
Reference
[8, 26]
[25c]
Adjusted
-
N/A
[8]
6%
6%
[8]
3%
[26]
4.6%
[8]
5%
Energy inflation
1.17%
[26]
1%
1.95%
[26]
2%
General inflation
0.9%
[8]
1%
1.3%
[8]
2%
Federal income tax
N/A
[8]
N/A
34%
[8]
30%
State income tax
N/A
[8]
N/A
6.5%
[8]
N/A
Rate
Loan
Discount
The cost inputs were using more conservative total $3.3/watt for crystalline, $ 3.2/watt for thin film
module both using fixed-tilt mounting; and total $3.6/watt for crystalline using tracking system [1].
3.3.2. Public and Private Sector Defined: In terms of ownership options, Dunnellon Airport can
choose either to handle the project or lease the available potential to third party. Since the results will
come out significantly different, the analyst should define the role of the airport at the beginning before
running the tool. As mentioned before, according to the Dunnellon Airport master plan, the utility
provider of the airport is Progress Energya privately owned utility provider. According to Progress
Energy official website [25c], there are three Tiers for the interconnection, e.g. Tier 1 (10 kW); Tier 2
(>10 kW and 100 kW) and Tier 3 (>100 KW 2 MW). Table 3 presents the summary of rates that
should be input to run the scenarios.
Table 3. Progress Energy rates input assumptions
Parameter
Utility rate
Avoided cost
Residential
[$/kWh]
0.123
0.03
[25b]
Commercial
[$/kWh]
0.119
[16]
0.03
Reference
Reference
[25a]
[16]
In terms of utility FIT rates, there is no other utility provider in the state of Florida that accept FIT
system as renewable energy incentive except Gainesville Regional Unit (GRU); the rates for FIT system
224

assumption in City of Gainesville [9] have been used in designing solar utility scale in Dunnellon Airport
(Table 4).
Table 4. GRU FIT rates 2013 input assumptions
System size
10 kW
>10 kW ; 300 kW
>10 kW ; 25kW
>25 kW ; 1MW
Roof or
Pavement
[$/kWh]
0.21
0.18
N/A
N/A
Ground Mounted
Reference
[$/kWh]
0.21
N/A
0.18
0.15
[10]
[10]
[10]
[10]
3.3.3. Viable incentives in Dunnellon Airport area: According to [9], there are only two possible
incentives in the Dunnellon airport area. Table 5 presents the summary of applicable incentives as inputs
for analysis integration.
Table 5. Possible incentives in Dunnellon Airport area
Incentives
Desccription
Public
Private
Reference
Adjusted
Reference
Capacity
Orange County-OCHEEP
Max $700
[9]
Solar energy system
$4/W; max. 20,000
[9]
Orlando utilities commission
$ 0.05/kWh
[9]
Green Power REC
$ 0.01/kWh
[16]
Production
Federal income tax
N/A
34%
[8]
30%
[9]
State income tax
N/A
6.5%
[8]
N/A
4. Results
After conducting a rigorous process, generally, the results have provided information that can be used
by the stake holders, mainly airports authority, to assess the feasibility of solar project installation at their
operational areas. As previously mentioned before, this paper tries to maintain the direction of the
revenue evaluation by developing a hypothesis. The revenue evaluation has been implemented to
Dunnellon Airport for thorough analysis. Therefore, as finalization of the results, the sections below
describe the hypothesis examination. However, the hypothesis test will be based on the Dunnellon
Airport ownership, public-owned option. In term of private entity option, the results from the revenue
that come from leasing will be used to the analysis of 25 years study period.
4.1. Non-traditional Revenue Percentage from Dunnellon Airport Ownership
The results have been provided in revenues percentage based on the ratio from actual revenue and
expense in Dunnellon Airport. The revenue from RES installation was the non-traditional revenue that
has been compared to the existing 2012 revenue and expense. The Dunnellon Airport total revenue in
2012 was $ 2,013,004; operating is $ 1,972,968. Under the public-owned option, only final years
revenuein the last five years of study periodwill go to Dunnellon Airport; therefore the compared
revenues were based on those values that had been treated the same manner in terms of inflated and
discounted values for both revenue and expense over 25 years study period. The present worth (PW) of
225

revenue and expense have used the baseline financial parameters general inflation rate 1%; discount rate
3% over 25 years. In terms of revenue from leasing, the total of the last cumulative five years present
worth will still be used as the comparison factor.
4.1.1. Utility-scale scenario: Under the scheme of utility purpose installation, Dunnellon Airport can
install RES from solar into three different areas, i.e. solar farm 1 (SF-1), solar farm 2 (SF-2) and solar
farm 3 (SF-3) and various combinations of mounting and module type as well as incorporating maximum
power of each module that can be generated. Table 6 provides the ratio of the revenue that Dunnellon
Airport can gain for the RES installation at airport.
Table 6. Dunnellon Airport non-traditional revenue ratios (utility-scale)
Proposed
Utility-scale
Area
Size
System
SF-1
[S.F.]
269,840
[MW]
4.92
0.96
4.92
Mounting
Fixed-tilt
Fixed-tilt
1-axis
Module
Crystalline
Thin film
Crystalline
Nontraditional
Revenue
[$]
2,576,066
502,548
3,146,541
Ratio to 2012
Revenue
Ratio to 2012
Expense
[%]
49.9
9.7
61.0
[%]
40.9
7.9
50.0
SF-2
243,383
4.43
0.87
4.43
Fixed-tilt
Fixed-tilt
1-axis
Crystalline
Thin film
Crystalline
2,407,066
469,640
3,022,797
46.6
9.1
58.6
38.3
7.5
48.0
SF-3
642,218
11.7
2.28
11.7
Fixed-tilt
Fixed-tilt
1-axis
Crystalline
Thin film
Crystalline
6,341,014
1,237,889
7,977,506
122.9
24.0
154.7
100.0
19.7
126.9
The results were convincing since there was no single value lower than 5%. In addition, even though,
Dunnellon Airport authority decides to choose the lower ratio, system with combined fixed-tilt and thin
film module type, the result will still be favorable. The net initial cost after subtracting all incentives
yields to the lowest installation cost compared to other system sizes and combination. Therefore, the
results of installing utility-scale RES can benefit the airport with the revenue ratio, compared to expense,
of at least 7.5% to cover the yearly Dunnellon Airports operational expense.
4.1.2. Realistic design scenario: The realistic design scenario provides conceivable minimum 3
acres 130,674 square foot of leasing area requirement. Therefore, for quick implementation as well as
tackling the maximum Tier 3 constraint from Progress Energy, the results of realistic design will be a
more applicable and doable RES option to install at Dunnellon Airport. Table 7 provides the summary of
non-traditional potential revenue ratio to the existing Dunnellon Airport 2012 revenue and expense.
Under this scenario, the RES installation using combined fixed-tilt and thin film module non-traditional
revenue percentage varied slightly lower than 5% target expense coverage. However, if Dunnellon
Airport decides to install crystalline type panel in those three areas, the chance to cover expenses is
almost four times larger than the predetermined hypothesis.
Table 7. Dunnellon Airport non-traditional revenue ratios (realistic design)
Proposed
Utility-scale
Realistic
design SF-1
Area
[S.F.]
130,674
Size
[MW]
2.38
0.96
System
Mounting
Fixed-tilt
Fixed-tilt
Module
Crystalline
Thin film
Nontraditional
Revenue
[$]
1,247,117
242,987
Ratio to 2012
Revenue
Ratio to 2012
Expense
[%]
24.2
4.7
[%]
19.8
3.8
226

4.92
1-axis
Crystalline
1,523,377
29.5
24.2
Realistic
design SF-2
130,674
2.38
0.96
2.38
Fixed-tilt
Fixed-tilt
1-axis
Crystalline
Thin film
Crystalline
1,292,031
251,759
1,622,621
25.1
4.8
31.4
20.6
4.0
25.8
Realistic
design SF-3
130,674
2.38
0.96
2.38
Fixed-tilt
Fixed-tilt
1-axis
Crystalline
Thin film
Crystalline
1,289,640
251,294
1,622,621
25.0
4.8
31.4
20.5
3.9
25.8
4.1.3. NZEB scenario: The NZEB scenario provides different areas that are aimed to be in the
border of building footprint only. In the Dunnellon Airport case, the airport has been shown not to be an
energy-intensive airport since it consumes only 8,924 kWh (2012 data) of energy per year. In addition,
since there are two power purchase agreement systems, i.e FIT and net metering, the analyses have been
expanded into two different schemes. First is NZEB under FIT, which allows the airport to use as large
area as possible to benefit from the RES installation. Second is the net metered or buy back system that
only emphasizes the peak load analysis. The excess electricity production will not be paid at the
agreement rate; but, using the avoided cost rate, which is not very beneficial to install a larger system.
Therefore, the correct area estimation as well as aligning with the actual load curve shall be conducted in
the RES photovoltaic sizing. Table 8 represents the potential non-traditional revenue ratios under FIT
system; whereas, Table 9 provides the potential non-traditional revenue ratios under net metering
agreement.
Table 8. Dunnellon Airport non-traditional revenue ratios (NZEB-FIT)
Proposed
NZEB-FiT
Area
Size
System
Rooftop-1
[S.F.]
10,452
[kW]
190.7
37.25
Mounting
Fixed-tilt
Fixed-tilt
Module
Crystalline
Thin film
Nontraditional
Revenue
[$]
118,326
21,950
Ratio to 2012
Revenue
Ratio to 2012
Expense
[%]
2.3
0.42
[%]
1.9
0.34
Rooftop-2
5,081
92.8
18.12
Fixed-tilt
Fixed-tilt
Crystalline
Thin film
56,778
9,928
1.1
0.19
0.90
0.16
Parking-1
3,240
59.2
11.62
Fixed-tilt
Fixed-tilt
Crystalline
Thin film
35,684
5,810
0.69
0.11
0.57
0.09
Parking-2
9,601
175
34.25
Fixed-tilt
Fixed-tilt
Crystalline
Thin film
108,582
20,047
2.1
0.38
1.7
0.31
Combined-1
Combined-2
All scenarios
28,374
28,374
28,374
517.7
101.2
618.9
Fixed-tilt
Fixed-tilt
Fixed-tilt
Crystalline
Thin film
Mixed
319,370
57,735
377,105
6.2
1.1
7.3
5.1
0.91
5.9
From Table 8, the non-traditional revenue values were lower than the expected 5% expense coverage.
However, since the FIT contract allows the host, in this case Dunnellon Airport, to design the system
without being concerned of the excess production, the combined options could be applicable except for
Combined-2 system which consists of all thin film module type. By using the Combined-1, fixed-tilt and
crystalline type module, it was convincing that the airport could sustain with the 5% expense coverage.
In case of Table 9 (NZEB under the net metered agreement), none of the results could help the airport
authority to achieve at least 5% expense coverage.
227

Table 9. Dunnellon Airport non-traditional revenue ratios (NZEB-NM)

Proposed
NZEB-NM
Area
Size
System
Rooftop
[S.F.]
376
[kW]
7.04
Mounting
Fixed-tilt
Module
Crystalline
Nontraditional
Revenue
[$]
2,636
Parking
376
7.04
Fixed-tilt
Crystalline
2,636
Ratio to 2012
Revenue
Ratio to 2012
Expense
[%]
0.051
[%]
0.042
0.051
0.042
4.2. Non-traditional Revenue Percentage from Leasing

The non-traditional revenue was calculated based on the square foot of the area multiplied by the nonaviation lease rate of Dunnellon Airport; and, based on the private-ownership results. Two differences
were that the general inflation was set to 2% rate and the discount rate was set to 5% rate.
Table 10. Dunnellon Airport non-traditional revenue ratios (leasing option)
Proposed land/roof for lease
Area
Solar Farm-1
Solar Farm-2
Solar Farm-3
[S.F.]
269,840
243,383
642,218
[$/year]
10,794
9,735
25,689
Feed in Tariff
Feed in Tariff
Feed in Tariff
Non-traditional
Revenue
[$]
189,196
170,632
450,275
Realistic Design
130,674
5,227
Feed in Tariff
10,452
5,081
3,240
9,601
418
203
130
384
376
15.5
Rooftop-1
Rooftop-2
Parking-1
Parking-2
Rooftop or Parking
Rate
Agreement Type
Ratio to 2012
Revenue
[%]
5.6
5.1
13.4
Ratio to 2012
Expense
[%]
3.7
3.3
8.8
91,619
2.7
1.8
Feed in Tariff
Feed in Tariff
Feed in Tariff
Feed in Tariff
7,326
3,557
2,279
6,730
0.21
0.10
0.07
0.20
0.14
0.07
0.04
0.13
Net Metering
272
0.008
0.005
In the meantime, the only favorable choice is to let the private entity develop, finance and operate the
RES for utility-scale purpose for a very large area, Solar Farm-3. Table 10 presents the values of leasing
revenue that goes to Dunnellon Airport.
5. Summary
5.1. Conclusions
The chance for the airport authority to cover at least 5% of its expense exists if the Dunnellon Airport
plans to own the renewable energy system. The utility-scale scenario provides at least 7.5% (ratio may
cover the airport expense over 25 years study period. However to target maximum profit, Dunnellon
Airport could feasibly reached up to 154% revenue increase. Under realistic design scenario, a
reasonable19.8% gain could be obtained to exceed 5% of the expense over 25 years study period. This
scenario allowed revenue maximization of up to 31.4% increase. In case of NZEB concept, the FIT
system using all rooftops and parking areas covered with crystalline system could reach 5.1% revenue
that could cover all expenses; in addition, 6.2% revenue increase could also be achieved. Unfortunately,
although there will be a $ 995 yearly saving under the net metering system, it failed to cover expense and
fulfill the 5% Dunnellon Airport expense over 25 year; yet, it translated to 93.7% yearly energy cost
savings. This case also happened to all leasing options; but, the only scenario that satisfied the hypothesis
228

was to lease all 642,218 square foot area over 25 years which yields to 8.8% revenue increase to cover
expense and a 13.4% revenue gain over 25 years study period.
After a step-by-step assessment, in order to answer the research question, this paper has conducted the
case study based analysis and developed a hypothesis to direct the flow of analysis in order to focus on
revenue assessment. According to the hypothesis examinations, the NZEB concept under net metering
was the only scenario that failed to justify the 5% ratio requirement for the airport authority to cover the
total expense. The other scenarios suggested that the airport to own the system; because, the net present
value of leasing option could not be higher than the net present value of owning the RES. Thus, in terms
of fulfilling long-term revenue addition as well as formulating the airport business plan, a 25-year
assessment has suggested that airport generally can cover expense by implementing renewable energy
system with utility-scale size.
5.2. Limitations
For Dunnellon Airport case study, this paper has not considered the calculation of carbon credit, since
there was no up to date reference that suggested the incentive from carbon mitigation for Dunnellon
Airport area. The costs used were based on July 2013 data using the total installation cost per watt basis.
Cost breakdown should be done for further analysis purpose since the cost per watt of modules are falling
rapidly compare to the balance of system cost per watt. It is required to obtain the earthwork data for a
more meticulous analysis. For instance, the cost of ground or earth work per watt should be further
investigated because this cost value is believed to have correlation with airport operational hours as well
as the distance to the electricity central connection. If in case the airport has to reduce hours of operation
due to ground work, this will be another factor that should be calculated.
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230

Cost Optimality and nZEB target in building renovation of Portuguese

residential buildings
Manuela Almeida1, Marco Ferreira1, Ana Rodrigues1 and Lus Bragana1
1
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minho, Campus Azurm, 4800-058 Guimares,

Portugal
1
malmeida@civil.uminho.pt, marcoferreira@civil.uminho.pt, anarocha32846@yahoo.co.uk,
braganca@civil.uminho.pt
Abstract
Promoting the improvement of the overall energy performance of buildings is a relevant part of the
European climate action and the Roadmap for moving towards a competitive low carbon economy in
2050, with an expectation of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by around 90% when compared
to 1990 values, in the area of the built environment.
The recast of the European Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) introduced the goal
of nearly zero-energy buildings (nZEB) for all new buildings from January 1st, 2021 and plans should be
drawn to stimulate the transformation of existing buildings that are refurbished into the same concept.
EPBD also requires that all European Member States must ensure that the minimum energy performance
requirements for buildings are set to achieve optimal levels, i.e. the energy performance levels that lead to
the minimum cost during the life cycle.
Therefore, Cost Optimality and nZEB are two fundamental concepts within the current European
Union policy related to the energy performance of buildings and consequently related to climate change
mitigation and non-renewable resources consumption, with Cost Optimality mainly focused on costs and
nZEB focused on low energy consumption levels and on site renewables harvesting.
In this context, this paper, using two characteristic buildings of the Portuguese residential building
stock, aims at presenting the results that emerged from the analysis and identification of the most costeffective packages of renovation measures needed to adapt existing buildings to zero energy balance and
comparing them with those resulting from the calculation of cost-optimal levels.The investigation of the
trade-offs between a renovation towards zero energy balance and a cost optimal renovation without
energy use restrictions is relevant to provide clues to the development of national plans for increasing the
number of nZEB and to provide appropriate financing and other instruments to catalyze this
transformation.
Keywords: Nearly Zero-Energy Buildings, Building Renovation, Energy Efficiency, Cost Optimality
1. Introduction
The reduction of the greenhouse gas emissions, as predicted in the Kyoto protocol, has become an
important target for the European Commission. Therefore, policies have been created to make sure that
EU Member States make their best to gradually achieve the values established by the protocol [1].
231

The greenhouse gas emissions have different origins, such as the industry, transports, buildings,
agriculture, among other, but the building sector is responsible for 40% of the energy consumption and
32% of the greenhouse gas emissions in Europe [2]. These numbers make buildings an important target in
what concerns the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions [3].
In Portugal, the building sector is the third largest consumer of energy [4], therefore, the improvement
of energy performance and the reduction of energy consumption in buildings is an important step to the
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate changes [5], [6].
In an effort to fight against this problem, the recast of Energy Performance of Buildings Directive
(EPBD) [7] introduced the concept of Nearly-Zero Buildings (nZEB) implying, after the end of 2020 and
for new buildings, very high energy performances and low energy needs that must be suppressed by
renewable energy sources harvested on-site [8]. Despite these efforts, the European Union will only
achieve its goals if also intervene in the existing buildings, once the rate of replacement of these buildings
is very low [6].
The EPBD recast also requires that buildings have to be cost-effective during their life cycle and
establishes a methodology for cost-optimal calculations. Improving the energy performance of buildings
should take into consideration not only the improvement of users comfort and energy performance, but
also the costs associated with them throughout the life cycle of the building [2]. In this context, the limits
established by the regulations for the energy needs, for the efficiency of the equipment used and for the
performance of each building element, should be set with a view to achieving the cost-optimal balance
between the investments and the savings achieved by implementing energy saving measures throughout
the entire life cycle of the buildings [7]. These limits should be defined based on the cost optimal levels
for buildings and their components, being the cost optimal level the energy performance corresponding to
the lowest cost during the life cycle, considering the costs of investment, maintenance and use [3], [9].
This methodology is intended to guide member states in the process of establishing minimum energy
requirements for buildings and buildings components [2], [8].
Therefore, Cost Optimality and nearly Zero Energy Buildings (nZEB) are two fundamental concepts
within the current European Union policy related to the energy performance of buildings and
consequently related to climate change mitigation and non-renewable resources consumption. While Cost
Optimality is mainly focused on costs, nZEB are focused on low energy consumption levels and on site
renewables harvesting.
If the differences between Cost Optimality and nZEB approaches result in major differences in the
selection of the best package of renovation measures, the transition from the Cost Optimal concept to
nZEB might result incompatible.
In this context, this paper aims at presenting the results that emerged from the analysis and
identification of the most cost-effective packages of renovation measures needed to adapt existing
buildings to zero energy balance and comparing them with those resulting from the calculation of costoptimal levels. The zero energy balance means that the building only uses energy from renewable sources
or, if using non-renewable energy, it also harvests on-site energy from renewable sources equivalent to
the non-renewable energy used. This study uses typical single and multifamily buildings representative of
the Portuguese housing stock built at the time (in the nineties for the multifamily building) or before (in
the seventies for the single-family building) the entrance into force of the first thermal regulation.
Investigation of the trade-offs between a renovation towards zero energy balance and a cost optimal
renovation without energy use restrictions is relevant to achieve a smooth transition from Cost Optimal
levels to nearly Zero Energy Buildings.
232

2. Methodology
The cost-optimal calculations are based on the cost-optimal methodology introduced by the European
Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) No 244/2012 of 16 January 2012, supplementing the Directive
2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Energy Performance of Buildings [3],
[9]. The methodology basically consists in the evaluation of different renovation packages considering the
calculated energy use and overall costs. The solution with the lowest overall costs indicates the cost
optimal level. Graphically, as can be seen in Figure 1, this relationship between the overall costs and
primary energy use of each renovation package corresponds to a point. In the analysis of several
renovation packages it is possible to obtain a curve in which the lowest point corresponds to the cost
optimal level, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 17. Cost optimal solution identification

For the application of the methodology, two representative buildings of the Portuguese housing stock
were selected, and for each of these buildings measures for the improvement of the building envelope
were analyzed (walls, roof, floor and glazing) and also the use of different heating, cooling, and domestic
hot water preparation equipment. The calculation of the energy needs for heating, cooling and domestic
hot water preparation was based on the Portuguese regulation for the thermal performance of buildings
[10], in accordance with ISO-13790. The use of primary energy was calculated considering the total
energy needs with conversion factors of 2,5kWhEP/(m2.y) per kWh/(m2.y) for electricity and
1kWhEP/(m2.y) per kWh/(m2.y) for gas. The indoor comfort temperatures considered were 20C for winter
and 25C for summer.
To calculate the total cost for each of the renovation packages, the respective investment costs,
maintenance costs and costs related to the calculated energy use were considered. The costs of renovation
and maintenance measures were calculated based on CYPE software
(http://www.geradordeprecos.info/). The CO2 emissions prices, as well as the evolution of energy prices
were calculated based on the European Union forecasts (http://ec.europa.eu/energy/observatory/trends
_2030/index_en.htm). The 2010 scenario of the International Energy Agency
(http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/publications/weo-2010/) was used to define the price of natural gas.
233

The contribution of the photovoltaic panels for reaching the zero energy level has been calculated
using the Photovoltaic Geographical Information System (PVGIS) from European Commission
(http://re.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pvgis/).
The analysis of cost effectiveness and the cost optimal level may be done under different
perspectives, currently distinguishing between social or macroeconomic perspective and private or
microeconomic perspective, both serving different purposes. In the social perspective, societal concerns
are considered, notably those related to the effects of the consumption of fossil energy on environment
health and in the elimination of non-renewable resources, while in the private perspective, only financial
aspects are considered. Thus, in the social perspective, costs of CO2 emissions are included and taxes and
subsidies are excluded, while in the private perspective all fees and allowances applicable to the
investment are considered and the costs of emissions are not considered [3], [9]. In the present study both
perspectives are analyzed, considering, for the evaluation of the overall costs, a discount rate of 6% in the
private perspective and a discount rate of 3% in the social perspective.
3. Case studies
To demonstrate the applicability of the methodology for determining the cost optimal levels, two case
studies were used, whose description is presented below. The tested renovation measures are described,
and the cost optimal levels, as well as the packages of renovation measures that allow obtaining a zero
energy balance building with the lowest global costs, are presented and analyzed. The results of the
sensitivity analysis performed regarding the changes in energy prices and discount rates throughout the
life cycle of the building, are also presented.
3.1. Buildings characterization
The first case study is a single-family house that corresponds to the dominant typology of residential
buildings in Portugal. It is located in the northern part of the country, in the city of Braga and was built in
the 70s. This is a semi-detached building with four bedrooms, with a floor area of 157m2 on two floors
with a ceiling height of 2.5m and with a non-heated basement. It features a reinforced concrete structure
with lightweight slabs, non-heated attic under a lightweight roof slab covered with ceramic tiles, double
hollow brick exterior walls with air cavity, windows with wooden frames and single glazing with exterior
blinds in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and with the box of blinds built inside the wall. The basement is partly
above ground level and the facades are oriented northwest (opaque envelope with 38.18m2 and glazed
envelope with 10.69m2), southeast (opaque envelope with 37.25m2 and glazed envelope with 8.59m2) and
southwest (opaque envelope with 60,66m2 and glazed envelope with 6.70m2). This building has no
insulation in the building envelope. The energy needs for heating, cooling and domestic hot water
preparation amounts to 198kWh/(m.year).
The second case study is a multifamily building with two apartments per floor, also characteristic of
the Portuguese housing stock. It is located in the north of the country, in the district of Porto and was built
in the early 90s, just after the entrance into force of the first thermal regulation in Portugal. This building
has five residential floors with a heated area of 673m2, with 2 apartments (one with two bedrooms and
one with three bedrooms) per floor and a basement for garage partly above ground level. A lightweight
slab covered with corrugated metallic plates composes the roof and the exterior walls are double brick
walls with air gap without insulation. The windows are single glazed with aluminium frames and have
PVC blinds on the outside. The three facades of the building are oriented northeast, southeast and
southwest in a total area of 378m2, of which 37.5m2 northeast, 6.6m2 southwest and 22.5m2 southeast are
234

glazed. The Portuguese thermal regulation predicts the calculation of the energy needs for each dwelling
instead of the whole building. Therefore, in order to reduce the number of calculations, the energy needs
used for the cost-optimal analysis were a weighted average of the energy needs of the ten apartments of
this building. This way, the energy needs for heating, cooling and domestic hot water preparation
considered in this study were 128kWh/(m.year).
3.2. Renovation measures
In both case studies, the tested renovation measures are common measures in the Portuguese market.
These include improving the building envelope, with the introduction of insulation on the walls through
the application of External Thermal Insulation Composite Systems (ETICS) with expanded polystyrene
(EPS) and polyisocyanurate (PIR) and application of rigid extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) on the
ceiling of the basement and on the roof, improving window frames and glass and replacing the heating,
cooling and hot water preparation equipment. On the facades, the thicknesses of EPS considered for the
ETICS system were: 30, 40, 50, 80, 100 and 120mm. The thicknesses of PIR considered were 40 and
50mm. For the roof and floor, XPS and PIR insulation were tested for the same thicknesses considered on
the facade. Regarding window frames, renovation measures tested were aluminium window frames with
double glazing and PVC window frames with double glazing.
The heating systems tested were electrical resistance with 100% yield, natural gas boiler with 93%
yield and heat pump with a coefficient of performance (COP) of 3.33, with these last two devices also
being used for domestic hot water preparation. For cooling, the systems analyzed were air conditioning
with energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 3.50 and a heat pump with EER of 2.68. In addition to the
equipment with dual function (heating and domestic water preparation), it was also analyzed, in the
multifamily building, a gas water heater with 84% efficiency for the preparation of domestic hot water.
For renewable energy harvesting, photovoltaic solar panels were tested.
3.3. Cost Optimal levels
Each analyzed package of renovation measures consists of a combination of measures related to both
building envelope improvement and heating, cooling and domestic hot water preparation systems
upgrading. Each combination of measures gives a building renovation variant. The cost optimal levels are
expressed in Figures 2 and 3, wherein each group of variants with a different colour corresponds to one of
the systems analyzed. Each figure contains two types of markers for the same variant that correspond to
the private perspective and the social perspectives. The black dots represent the optimal variant for each
system and each of the perspectives. In the private perspective, the variants corresponding to the optimum
level imply a calculated primary energy use of about 95kWh/(m2.year) for the single-family building and
about 89kWh/(m2.year) for the multifamily building, values that represent a reduction of about 20% and
30% of the values that the buildings had before any intervention. In the social perspective, variants that
lead to cost optimal level present values of calculated primary energy use of 87 and 65kWh/(m2.year)
respectively for the single-family building and for the multifamily building.
235

Gas heater (financial calculations)
Gas boiler (financial calculations)
Heat pump (macroeconomics calculations)
Global Costs ()
170,000
160,000
150,000
140,000
130,000
120,000
110,000
100,000
90,000
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
Heat Pump (financial calculations)

Gas heater (macroeconomics calculations)
Gas boiler (macroeconomics calculations)
Gas boiler
Heat pump
Electric heater and gas heater
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
Primary Energy (kWh/m.y)
Figure 18. Cost Optimal levels for the renovation variants tested in the single-family building
Gas heater (Financial calculations)
Gas boiler (Financial calculations)
Heat pump (Macroeconomics calculations)
Global Costs ()
600,000
Heat pump (Financial calculations)

Gas heater (Macroeconomics calculations)
Gas boiler (Macroeconomics calculations)
550,000
500,000
Heat pump
450,000
Gas boiler
400,000
350,000
300,000
250,000
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
Figure 19. Cost Optimal levels for the renovation variants tested in the multifamily building
Table 17. Characteristics of the cost optimal solution for the renovation variants of the single-family
building
Equipment
Perspective
Primary
energy
(kWh/m.y)
Reference
Private and
Social
Gas heater + Electric

heater
Natural gas boiler
Heat pump
Heat transfer coefficients U (W/m2.y)

Facade
Roof
Floor
Window
469,49
1,10
2,50
1,56
3,90
Private
219,19
0,29
0,31
0,30
2,30
Social
209,99
0,23
0,27
0,26
2,30
Private
120,90
0,52
0,64
0,61
2,30
Social
109,03
0,29
0,33
0,50
2,30
Private
94,25
0,60
0,72
0,72
2,30
Social
87,43
0,38
0,77
0,69
2,30
236

Table 18. Characteristics of the cost optimal solution for the renovation variants of the multifamily
building
Equipment
Perspective
Reference
Private and
Social
Gas heater + Electric

heater
Natural gas boiler
Heat pump
Primary
energy
(kWh/m.y)
Heat transfer coefficients U (W/m2.y)

Facade
Roof
Floor
Window
277,41
1,08
1,88
2,50
4,80
Private
139,23
0,33
0,39
0,38
2,40
Social
139,23
0,33
0,39
0,38
2,40
Private
88,62
0,52
0,62
0,72
2,40
Social
85,19
0,46
0,54
0,52
2,40
Private
64,31
0,52
0,62
0,72
2,40
Social
64,31
0,52
0,62
0,72
2,40
Comparing the results obtained with different heating, cooling and domestic hot water preparation
systems, there is a close relationship between their efficiency and energy performance of the building
envelope. The optimal variants have more demanding levels of energy performance of the building
envelope for the least efficient equipments, both in private and in social perspective. Tables 1 and 2
present the main characteristics of the optimal variants for each set of equipment and for both
perspectives.
3.4. Sensitivity Analysis
In order to assess the robustness of the results obtained depending on possible future changes in the
data used in the calculations, especially regarding the evolution of energy prices and discount rates,
sensitivity analysis were performed varying these assumptions. For energy prices, instead of the European
Union and IEA forecasts above described, a scenario of a continuous growth of energy prices of 5% per
year has been tested. With this assumption, there are significant changes in the design of the cost curves
and the optimal renovation variants, in the private perspective, also change, as can be seen when
comparing Figures 2 and 4 and Figures 3 and 5. For the discount rates, instead of the values contemplated
in the reference scenarios (6% for the private perspective and 3% for social perspective), discount rates of
3% for the private perspective and 1.5% for the social perspective have been tested. In these cases, there
are no significant changes in the design of the cost curves and renovation variants, which indicate that the
cost optimal levels are also kept in both buildings and in all equipments tested.
237

Global Costs ()
180,000
170,000
160,000
150,000
140,000
130,000
120,000
110,000
100,000
90,000
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000

Gas boiler (Macroeconomics calculations)
Gas boiler
Heat pump
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
Figure 20. Cost Optimal level for the single-family building with an annual growth of energy prices of
5%
Global Costs ()

600,000

Gas boiler (Macroeconomica calculations)
550,000
500,000
Heat pump
450,000
Gas boiler
400,000
350,000
300,000
250,000
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
Figure 21. Cost Optimal level for the multifamily building with an annual growth of energy prices of 5%
3.5. Zero energy balance
Given the long-term expectation that greenhouse gases emissions may, by 2050, be reduced by
approximately 90% when compared to 1990 levels, as advocated in the roadmap for transition to a
competitive low carbon economy by 2050 [6], the use of energy from renewable sources harvested on the
building site can effectively complement the energy efficiency measures. In order to analyze how these
two types of measures interact, photovoltaic panels were introduced in some renovation variants in a way
they would deliver the equivalent to the required non-renewable primary energy to achieve a net zero
energy balance (it was assumed a free exchange of electricity between the building and the electric grid
regardless the price of energy). Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the results obtained for each one of the case
studies and for each one of the equipments considered, on the private perspective. Generally, there is a
strong correlation between the variants with higher cost-effectiveness in all situations. Occasionally,
energy efficiency measures in the building envelope with better energy performance become more costeffective when the goal is zero energy balance, but this effect is sporadic (see Figures 6c and 7a).
238

Cost
()
132000
Heater
Cost
()
Heat pump
Cost
()
Natural gas boiler
90000
78000
125000
87000
76000
118000
84000
74000
111000
81000
72000
104000
97000
78000
70000
0 50 100 150 200 250
Primary energy (kWh/m2.y)
75000
0
50
100
50
100
150
Figure 22 a), b) and c). Overall costs and calculated use of non-renewable primary energy for different
variants (combinations of different measures to renovate the building envelope), in the single-family
building with and without PV panels and for each type of equipment
Cost
()
470000
Heater
450000
Cost
()
405000
Heat pump
Cost
()
380000
395000
370000
385000
360000
375000
350000
430000
Natural gas boiler
410000
390000
340000
365000
370000
0
50
100
150
50
100
50
100
Figure 23 a), b) and c). Overall costs and calculated use of non-renewable primary energy for different
variants (combinations of different measures to renovate the building envelope), in the multifamily
building with and without PV panels for each type of equipment
4. Conclusions
Calculations of cost optimal levels performed for the case studies previously shown, despite the
limitations resulting from dealing with only two buildings in two specific places, allow drawing some
conclusions concerning the cost effectiveness of some packages of renovation measures related to the
improvement of the energy performance of the building envelope, the upgrading of the building systems
and the use of on-site harvested renewable energy to achieve a zero energy balance of existing residential
buildings in Portugal.
The interaction between the measures for improving the building envelope and the upgrading of the
building systems shows that for systems with different efficiencies and using different sources of energy,
the cost optimal levels are found with different renovation measures in the building envelope. Altogether,
as the efficiency of the systems increase, the necessity of improving the performance of the building
envelope reduces.
239

Among the solutions tested, the cost optimal levels correspond to renovation variants that use a heat
pump for heating, cooling and domestic hot water preparation. In the case of the single-family building,
this situation occurs in both perspectives (private and social) while in the case of the multifamily building
it only occurs in the social perspective. In the private perspective, the use of a natural gas boiler for
heating and domestic hot water preparation, combined with air-conditioning for cooling, proved to be
more cost effective.
Comparing the cost optimal levels in the two buildings studied, it can be concluded that, in general,
the renovation measures are more cost effective in the case of the single family house than in the
multifamily building.
The use of photovoltaic panels for meeting the energy needs towards a net zero energy balance, only
occasionally causes changes in the hierarchy of the cost effectiveness of the renovation variants when
compared with the situation without their contribution. When changes occur in this hierarchy,
systematically the renovation variant with the lowest global cost corresponds to a higher energy
performance of the building envelope in the scenario of net zero energy than in the scenario without this
restriction.
The sensitivity analysis performed showed that for some of the systems tested, the cost optimal levels
changed when an alternative scenario for the evolution of the energy prices was considered. These
changes are particularly evident in the single-family house in the private perspective, and for all the three
systems analysed. In this case, when the energy prices rise, the cost optimal renovation variant
corresponds to a clearly higher energy performance of the building. These results alert for the fact that an
evolution of the energy prices steeper than expected would place the identified cost optimal levels as
suboptimal.
The sensitivity analyses also showed that when considering a raise in the energy prices, the optimum
levels in the private perspective become similar to those obtained in social perspective. This indicates that
results obtained with the social perspective might be considered more reliable once the impact of
uncertainty on the future evolution of energy prices is reduced.
As a final conclusion, the results of this study show that the EC cost optimal methodology is robust in
the definition of the most cost effective packages of renovation measures, leading to very similar results
for a zero non-renewable primary energy goal or without this energy restriction. Nevertheless, a cost
optimal range of measures instead of a cost optimal single renovation package should be considered and
from this range of measures, those with a better energy performance of the building envelope should be
favoured. This option decrease the impact of unpredicted strong raises of energy prices and additionally
takes into account the external costs of energy (incorporated in the social perspective).
5. References
[1] European Commission - The European Climate Change Programme. European Communities, ISBN 92-7900411-5 (2006)
[2] BPIE - PRINCIPLES FOR NEARLY ZERO-ENERGY BUILDINGS Paving the way to effective
implementation of policy requirements (2011)
[3] European Commission - Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) No 244/2012 of 16 January 2012
supplementing Directive 2010/31/EU of European Parliament and of the Council on the energy performance of
buildings by establishing a comparative methodology framework for calculating cost-optimal levels of minimum
energy performance requirements for buildings and building elements, Official Journal of the European Union, pp.
L81/18-L81/36 (2012)
[4] INE, I.P./DGEG, Inqurito ao Consumo de Energia no Sector Domstico, Lisbon - Portugal (2011)
240

[5] Nenry, F., Uihlein, A., Colodel, C. M., Wetzel, C., Braune, A., Wittstock, B., Hasan, I., Kreiig, J., Gallon, N.,
Niemeier, S., Frech, Y. - Options to reduce the environmental impacts of residential buildings in the European
Union Potential and costs, Elsevier, Energy and Buildings. Vol. 42, Issue 7, pp. 976-984 (2010)
[6] European Commission - A Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050, Brussels (2011)
[7] European Parliament and the Council of the European Parliament - DIRECTIVE 2010/31/EU of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 2010 on the energy performance of buildings (recast), Official Journal of
the European Union., pp. L153/13-L153/35 (2010)
[8] BPIE Europes Buildings under the Microscope - A country-by-country review of the energy performance of
buildings, Brussels (2011)
[9] European Commission - Guidelines accompanying the Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) N244/2012 of
16 January 2012, supplementing Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council on the energy
performance of buildings. Official Journal of the European Union C115/1 (2012)
[10] Portugal - Thermal Performance Building Regulation (RCCTE). Dirio da Repblica, Decreto-Lei n. 80/2006
de 4 de Abril I srie-A, Lisbon (2006)
241

Zero Net Energy and Corporate Sustainability Affecting

Global Corporations Today
James McCarthy 1, Robert Ries2, Russell Walters 3
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-5703 USA
E-mail(s) i.e. 1 jimjmccarthy@hotmail.com, 2 rries@ufl.edu, 3 rwalters@ufl.edu
Abstract
In order to properly trace the origins of the corporate sustainability movement, one has to look at
two distinct areas: the history of the environmental movement around the world and the philosophy that
supports it. These two areas came together to form the perfect storm of change in the late 1990s and the
early 2000s.
Thomas Kuhn, a scientist and philosopher, coined the term paradigm shift in his influential book
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) as a change in the basic assumptions within the ruling
theory of science. Corporations can no longer operate under the assumption that there are unlimited
resources, or that their operations do not impact the earths climate. Corporate social responsibility , the
role of stakeholder theory , and technological advances have enabled international companies to embrace
sustainable initiatives such as renewable, low, and zero net energy in their strategic business models.
Companies need to embed these issues into their businesses and turn them into a competitive advantage.
Zero net energy is an important, integral, and critical factor in companies meeting their sustainability
(EGSEEP) goals.
In this paper, four case studies have been chosen: Volkswagen Group, Taiwan Semiconductor
Manufacturing, Santander Group, and Walmart..
1. The History of the Environmental Movement

The history of the corporate sustainability movement began with The Industrial Revolutionthe
transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to 1840. It began in Great
Britain and spread to Western Europe and The United States. It was a process of enormous economic and
social change but there were significant abusesincreasing levels of pollution in the atmosphere and
harsh working conditions, including child labor. (McLamb, 2011)
The 1960s and 1970s really ushered in a sea change in the corporate sustainability movement,
especially in the United States. The first establishment of a national policy for environmental
sustainability began in 1969 with the passage of The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) whose
purpose was to foster and promote the general welfare, to create and maintain conditions under which
man and nature can exist in productive harmony and fulfill the social, economic and other requirements of
present and future generations. And on December 2, 1970, the (EPA) Environmental Protection Agency
was founded. (Brockett and Rezaee, 2012)
The movement in the United States spread to Europe with The United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment, known as The Stockholm Conference, which was held in Stockholm, Sweden in
242

1972. The concept of sustainable development was born. It led to UNEP (United Nations
Environmental Program). UNEP launched the IEEP (International Environmental Education Program) in
1975 and the World Conservation Strategy in 1980. All these efforts eventually led to the Brundtland
Commission and the 1992 Rio Earth Summit. The Brundtland Commissionin a UN sponsored study
entitled Our Common Future described sustainability as an approach that meets the need of the present
without comprising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. (Brockett and Rezaee, 2012)
The Earth Summit was a significant event because over 170 governments participated. The issues
addressed were renewable energy, hazardous waste, reduction in fossil fuel use, climate change, and
water scarcity. Agenda 21 was created from the conference. Agenda 21 is a non-binding, voluntarily
implemented action plan with regard to sustainable development. (Brokett and Rezaee, 2012)
Corporate sustainability began to take shape on the world stage with the Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro in 1992. Business leaders from 50 leading companies formed The Business Council for
Sustainable Development. They launched the concept of eco-efficiency, emphasizing the potential
economic gains from reducing pollution and better managing natural resources. Many company leaders
attended the Rio convention and hundreds of companies followed what transpired. It was the formal
beginning of corporate environmental stewardship. In 2002, many of the same players came to The
World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa. Companies were embracing
sustainable practices but were still more focused on the bottom line. Corporate sustainability was
becoming institutionalized within multi-national companies. (Brokett and Rezaee, 2012)
2.The Philosophy of Corporate Sustainability

The basic tenets of corporate sustainability appear in the writings of Joseph DesJardins. Professor
DesJardins believes that corporations have been changing and will be changingeconomically,
environmentally, and ethically. He believes that corporations must be ethical, responsible, and sustainable
in order to help deal with the ecological deterioration of the planet. Dejardins notes that at the beginning
of the 21st century, businesses started to reconceptualize their strategic models to meet sustainability
goals. (DesJardins, 1998)
Green economics is a field of research in that deals with the correlation and inherent interdependence
between natural ecosystems and human economics. Ecological economics is defined by its focus on
nature, justice, and time. Issues of intergenerational equity, irreversibility of environmental change,
uncertainty of long-term outcomes, and sustainable development guide economic analysis and valuation.
The three pillars of sustainability are social, environment, and economic. Malte Faber takes an
interdisciplinary approach to the economic challenges that we face todayeconomics, natural science,
and philosophy. (Faber, 2007)
However, ecological economics has not found a sure foothold in the scientific community as it is
made up of theories which are not entirely agreed upon. Ecological economists have questioned
fundamental mainstream economic approaches such as cost-benefit analysis, and the ability to separate
economic values from scientific research, contending that economics is unavoidably normative rather
than positive. Positional analysis, which attempts to incorporate time and justice issues, is proposed as an
alternative. (Faber, 2007)
3. Paradigm Shift
Corporations realize that they have to reconceptualize and redesign their business strategies due to the
fact that there are limited resources and their behaviors affect the environment. Corporate social
243

responsibility, the role of stakeholders and technological advances have enabled international companies
to embrace sustainable initiatives such as renewable, low, and net zero energy in their strategic business
models. Companies need to embed these issues into their businesses and turn them into a competitive
advantage.
4. Measuring Corporate Sustainability

Corporate sustainability is a strategic business approach that creates long-term value for the company,
the consumer and the investor through a green strategy. It is believed that sustainability can increase
revenue, reduce energy, waste, materials and water, increase employee productivity, and reduce strategic
and operational risks. The metrics used to evaluate corporate sustainability are still evolving. There are
four areas to examine: business case for sustainability, transparency, shareholder role, and future strategy.
(Strandberg Consulting, 2009)
According to Ernst and Young, there are six growing trends in the environmental strategy and
performance arena: Sustainability reporting is growing, but the tools are still developing, CSOs role is on
the rise, employees emerge as key stakeholders for sustainability, greenhouse gas reporting, water
reporting, awareness of resource scarcity, rankings and ratings matter to company executives and
investors. (Ernst and Young, 2013)
4.1 Corporate Sustainability Metrics:
An integral part of continuously improving a corporations sustainability is to develop good metrics.
Metrics are a way of keeping score and can be used to compare performance between different
corporations. Corporate sustainability metrics cover broad range of categories known as the EGSEEP
goals, which are the Economic, Governance, Social, Ethical, and Environmental Performance goals.
These metrics can then be used as Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) of a corporations sustainability
efforts. The most important of these KPIskey performance indicators - are the economic goals, which
are the cornerstone of business sustainability. In terms of economics, renewable energy platforms such as
low energy or zero net energy will prove to be critical areas as businesses continue to sharpen their
economic strategies. (Brockett and Rezaee, 2012)
There are many systems of sustainability metrics, but some are known for their widespread
acceptance. These include the Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI), Morgan Stanly Capital
International (MSCI), Sustainable Asset Managemnet (SAM), Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), Trucost,
Jantzi / Sustainalytics, Carbon Disclosure Project, Newsweek Green Rankings (NGR) and FTSE4Good.
Each of these has its strengths and applicability as discussed in the following paragraphs.
Renewable energy (zero net energy) is an important, integral, and critical factor in companies meeting
their economic, governance, social, ethical, and environmental performance goals. The most important of
these KPISkey performance indicators is economic, the cornerstone of business sustainability. And,
in terms of economic, renewable energy platforms such as low energy or zero net energy are likely to be
critical areas as businesses continue to refine their economic strategies.
4.1.1 The Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI)
DJSI was launched in 1999. DJSI has become the longest-running global sustainability benchmarks
worldwide and the key reference point in sustainability investing for individuals and companies alike.
DJSI include the top 10% of the 2500 largest companies listed on the Dow Jones. DJSI is based on an
analysis of corporate economic, environmental and social performance, assessing issues such as corporate
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governance, risk management, branding, climate change mitigation, supply chain standards and labor
practices. DJSI partners with RobecoSAM to assess companies. (DJSI Corporate Sustainability
Assessment, 2013)
4.1.2 Sustainable Asset Management(SAM)
SAM was founded in 1995. SAM was acquired by the Robeco Group (RG) in 2007. Robeco Group is
the worlds first investment company focused solely on sustainability themes. RobecoSAM considers
economic, environmental and social criteria in its investment strategies. (RobecoSAM, 2013)
4.1.3 Morgan Stanley Capital International (MCSI)
MCSI was founded in 1970 and headquartered in New York City. MCSI is a leading provider of
investment support tools to around 6200 clients worldwide. MCSI indices are widely used as the
benchmark indices by which the performance of global equity portfolios are measured. The sustainability
indices target the highest esg-rated companies making up 50% of the adjusted market capitalization in
each sector of the underlying index, subject to the limitation that only companies with an ESG rating of
B or above are eligible for inclusion. MSCI Global Environment Indices has five key environmental
themes: Alternative Energy, Sustainable Water, Green Building, Pollution Prevention and Clean
Technology. (MSCI. Annual Report, 2013)
4.1.4 Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)
GRI, founded in 1997 and located in Boston, provides sustainability reporting guidelines and is
successfully used by most companies. GRI is an international not-for-profit organization, with a networkbased structure. Its activity involves thousands of professionals and organizations from many sectors,
constituencies and regions. Its roots lie in two US non-profit organizations: the Coalition for
Environmentally Responsible Economies (CEBES) and the Tellus Institute. GRI concentrates on a
corporations economic, social, and environmental performance. (Global Reporting Initiative, 2013)
4.1.5 Trucost
Trucost was founded in 2000 and is headquartered in London. Trucost specializes in quantitative
measurements of environmental performance. Trucost holds the most extensive data available on
corporate environmental impacts. Trucost calculates an environmental impact score for each company
based on a comprehensive review of over 700 metrics. Key performance areas are energy, water, waste,
pollutants, and supply chain management. (Trucost, 2013)
4.1.6 Jantzi/Sustainalytics
Jantzi, created in 1992 and located in Canada, merged with Sustainalytics in 2009.
Jantzi/Sustainalytics is known for its credible and independent environmental, social and governance
analysis and its vast research, including U.S., global, and emerging markets companies.
Jantzi/Sustainalytics assesses each companys environmental policies, management systems and
programs: community involvement, corporate governance, employee relations, environment, and human
rights. And then it establishes an Environmental Management Score. (Sustainalytics, 2013)
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4.1.7 Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP)

CDP, based in the United Kingdom, is an international, not-for-profit organization providing the only
global system for companies and cities to measure, disclose, manage and share vital environmental
information. CDP made its first request for climate change information from industry in 2003. CDP now
holds the largest collection of primary climate change, water, and forest-risk information and puts these
insights at the heart of strategic business, investment and policy decisions. The primary analysis
categories are water, supply chain management, waste and emissions. (Carbon Disclosure Project, 2013)
4.1.8 FTSE4Good
FTSE4Good was launched in 2001 and is located in Europe.. FTSE4Good objectively measures the
performance of companies that meet globally recognized corporate responsibility standards. Key areas
are environmental, human rights, compliance, supply chain, and climate change. (FTSE4Good, 2013)
4.1.9 Newsweek Green Rankings (NGR)
NGR, headquartered in New York City, has been published annually since 2009. NGR
comprehensively assess the environmental performance of the largest publicly traded companies around
the world. NGR is the effort by a major media organization to rank companies based on their
environmental footprint, the management of that footprint, and sustainability communications. NGR
scores are based on environmental Impact, management and disclosure. NGR has a rigorous peerreviewed process, including both quantitative and qualitative data from some of the worlds leading
environmental research organizations. NGR partnered with Trucost and Sustainalytics. NGRs key
indicators are energy, water, emissions, supply chain and compliance. (Newsweek Green Rankings, 2013)
4.2 Summary of Metrics/Zero Net Energy
These metrics provide a picture of the scale of data that are available to measure the Enviromental,
Social, and Governance (ESG) qualities of publicly traded corporations. These systems can be grouped
into three categories (see Table 1). First are systems that set standards for data collection and reporting.
GRI and CDP are examples of agencies that develop standards for sustainability reporting guidelines.
Companies that participate in these indices have a uniform platform for disclosing their ESG qualities.
GRI measures energy saved due to conservation and efficiency improvements as well as total direct and
indirect GHG emissions. CDP measures the percent of energy spent and electricity consumed. The DCP
also measures greenhouse gas emissions, emissions intensity, and reductions.
The second category includes agencies that provide an analysis of corporate ESG factors for the
purpose of investing. These services are used to ensure that investments meet the ESG requirements of
the investor and to identify companies exposure to economic impacts due to operating in a nonsustainable fashion. For example, in areas of the world where energy is in short supply, a company that
reduces energy usage of provides on-site generation would be better able to maintain profitability and
market share when faced with rocketing energy costs. Examples of the reporting agencies are the
FTSE4Good, Jantzi, MCSI, SAM, and Trucost. SAM recognizes the energy challenges driven by the need
for sustainable, reliable and affordable sources of energy. SAM values the search for alternative sources
of energy and energy-efficient solutions. One recommendation is a Smart Energy fund that invests in a
diversified portfolio of companies that operate in renewable energy, energy transmission & storage,
energy efficiency and natural gas. MSCI Global Environment Indices focuses on five key environmental
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themes: Alternative Energy, Sustainable Water, Green Building, Pollution Prevention and Clean
Technology. Jantzi and Trucost look at electricity use which also emits greenhouse gas emissions.
The final category are companies that provide rankings of corporations according to their Corporate
Responsibility (CR). This category includes the DJSI and NGR. The DJSI partners with SAM to provide
rankings for the top 10% of the 2500 largest companies listed on Dow Jones. The DJSI values innovative
products that are energy efficient. NGRs rankings are based an environmental impact score and an
environmental management score. The environmental impact score (45% of the total) is compiled by
Trucost and involves more than 700 metrics a comprehensive, quantitative, and standardized
measurement of the overall environmental impact of a companys global operations. The environmental
management score (45%) is compiled by Jantzi/Sustainalytics, and is an assessment of how a company
manages its environmental footprint, including its environmental policies, programs, targets and
initiatives of both its own operations and its suppliers and contractors, as well as the impact of its
products and services.
Table 1. Summary of Sustainability Reporting Agencies
Index
Category Description
CDP
1
A venue where companies can measure, disclose, and manage
environmental factors
GRI
1
Develops sustainability reporting guidelines
FTSE4Goo 2
Provides indices that objectively measure the performance of companies
that meet CR.
Jantzi
2
Provides data to help clients include environmental, social and governance
factors
MCSI
2
Provides investment decision support tools
SAM
2
Provides sustainability data to DJSI and others
Trucost
2
Provides data on economic cost of natural capital dependency
DJSI
3
Sustainability rank of the largest companies listed on Dow
NGR
3
An annual ranking of the environmental performance of the largest public
corporations
(Data compiled from metric companies)
5. Case Studies
Volkswagen Group, Taiwan Semiconductor, Santander, and Walmart are the international
corporations that were ultimately selected as case studies because of their impressive corporate
sustainability strategies, ratings, and rankings.
5.1 Volkswagen Group
Founded in 1937 with headquarters in Germany, Volkswagen (VG) is a publicly traded multinational
company. Europes largest automobile manufacturer, Volkswagen produces twelve brands of cars with
sales in over 160 countries. They have manufacturing plants worldwide and employ a workforce of
570,000 employees. It is the second largest automotive corporation in the world in terms of revenue. In
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2013, the company was ranked 9th in the Fortune Global 500 list. (Volkswagen Group Annual Report,
2013)
The company has an impressive list of sustainability ratings, rankings and achievements. Per
September 2013 DJSI and Robecosam assessment, industry group leader in the automobile and
component category. VG is prepared in accordance with the standards of Germanys Institute for
Ecological Economy Research (IOW) and the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI). VG is listed in
FTSE4Good and STOXX Global ESG leaders indexes. VG is rated 93 % B** in the Carbon Disclosure
Project. VG is ranked 3rd in Sustainaltytics-DAX 30. And the company was a finalist in the SAM
sustainability awards. (Volkswagen Group Sustainability Report, 2013)
Volkswagen becomes the worlds most sustainable automotive group based on their DJSI ranking.
Their efforts involve both reducing the environmental impacts of their cars and trucks, and extend into
their production facilities. Through improvements in fuel efficiency of their products, they have reduced
the impact on resources. This, coupled with lower emissions, has improved the impact of their cars and
trucks on the environment. (Volkswagen Group Sustainability Report, 2013).
Volkswagens efforts extend beyond improved automobile efficiency, and include efforts towards
net-zero production facilities. A recently completed project at their Chattanooga, TN production plant
includes a 9.5 MWatt solar array. The solar array will produce 12.5% of the energy consumed by the
plant, and helped Volkswagen get LEED platinum certification a first for any automobile manufacturer.
The array was developed under a partnership with Phoenix Solar and Silicon Ranch. Pheonix Solar
provided engineering, procurement, and construction services. Silicon Ranch provided financing and
executed a 20 year power purchase agreement (PPA) with Volkswagen. This arrangement shows
demonstrates the new market opportunities provided by net-zero systems whereby one party
(Volkswagen) benefits by having from having power supplied at a known cost along with the added
benefit marketing their efforts to include green energy. Another party (Silicon Ranch) provides the
financing, which reduces the project risk for Volkswagen. As building large solar arrays is likely outside
of the expertise of an automobile manufacturer, this arrangement shifts the risk to another entity with the
required expertise. Finally, Phoenix Solar brings the technical expertise to design, procure, and construct
the facilities, which creates market opportunity to sell their products. (Newcomb, 2013).
5.2 Taiwan Semiconductor
Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing (TSM), a Taiwanese multinational founded in 1987, is the
worlds first semiconductor foundry. In addition to semiconductors, the company has also begun
investing in lighting and solar-energy related industries. It is listed on both the New York Stock Exhange
(NYZE) and the Taiwan Stock Exchange (TSE). (Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Annual Report,
2013)
The company has an impressive list of sustainability ratings, rankings, and achievements. Per June,
2013, MCSI EM ESG Indices Global Summary, the largest constituent in the MSCI EM ESG index. TSM
was selected as a component of DJSI for 12 years. TSMs Fab 12 Phase 4 facility was the first to receive
Taiwans Green Factory Mark, the worlds only certification to cover water and power conservation,
waste reduction, pollution prevention, green transportation, labor health, and surrounding ecosystems.
(Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Sustainability Report, 2013)
TSM is notable in sustainability and has been a component of the DJSI for 12 years, and names the
Semiconductor Industry Leader twice. TSM has four facilities with LEED certification, two of which
earned LEED Platinum. Although TSM manufactures thin film photovoltaics, none of the LEED certified
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projects include any renewable energy credits. TSM is a proponent of sustainability through seeking
water and energy conservation, but does not include net-zero as part of their emphasis. (Taiwan
Semiconductor Manufacturing Sustainability Report, 2013)
5.3 Santander Group
Santander Group (SG), founded in 1857 with corporate headquarters in Spain, Santander is a
publically traded multinational bank it is the largest one in the Eurozone by market value. It has 14,400
branches in 10 countries and a workforce of 187,000 employees. In April 2013, Santander was ranked as
43rd in the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world's largest companies. (Santander Group Annual Report,
2013)
The company has an impressive list of sustainability ratings, rankings and achievements. It was a top
10 company on the global list of Newsweeks Green Rankings. Newsweek Ranking is in partnership with
Trucost and Sustainalytics. SG is covered by DJSI and FTSE4Good. (Santander Group Sustainability
Report, 2013)
Santander achieved high marks in sustainability ratings in part from their efforts to target financing
towards net-zero projects (Bloomberg ranking). An example of these efforts is demonstrated by the new
facilities for the David and Lucile Packard Foundation in Los Altos, California. This project involved a
partnership with Santander and DPR construction. DPRs net-zero work includes its San Diego and
Phoenix offices. The San Diego office was the first commercial facility in San Diego to achieve LEED
Platinum and net-zero status, which demonstrates DPRs leadership in developing net-zero projects. The
Packard project included the deconstruction of the existing buildings that diverted 98% of the waste from
landfills. The building produces 100% of the power consumed through rooftop mounted photovoltaic
coupled with energy conservation through use of daylighting and an innovative chilled beam cooling
system. Further improvements were achieved through a green roof that improved thermal performance
and captures rainwater. The captured rainwater is used for irrigation and toilet flushing and helped
achieve a reduction in water consumption by 40%. (Santander Group Sustainability Report, 2013)
In another effort to push towards net-zero, Santander achieved carbon neutral status for its London office
by purchasing carbon credits. These credits then financed upgrades to small ceramic factories in Brazil
where they replaced oil fired kilns to renewable energy sources such as sawdust and sustainable wood.
This project will result in a reduction of 4 million liters of oil per year. This demonstrates how a financial
institution can focus its efforts into the net-zero market to make positive impacts on the environment.
(Santander Group Sustainability Report, 2013)
5.4 Walmart
Walmart began as a retailer in Arkansas that grew to a national and then international presence. The
company adopted three key goals for sustainability: using 100 percent renewable energy, creating zero
waste and selling more sustainable products. LEED certification of its buildings is not a priority. Walmart
has one LEED Silver certified store, which was done to satisfy the code requirements in their South
Euclid, OH store. However, Walmart has been aggressive in pursuing net-zero with 150 solar installations
in seven countries. They have targeted to include some form of renewable energy in 75% of their
California stores. In addition to solar, Walmart has 26 fuel cell installations and is investigating the
incorporation of wind, solar water heating, and solar thermal. Other efforts include buying power from
large scale wind farms in Mexico and Texas. (Walmart Global Responsibility Report, 2012)
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The company has an impressive list of sustainability ratings, ranking, and achievements. It was number
41 of the top 500 US companies in the Newsweek Green Ranking (Jantzi and Trucost). Walmart utilizes
the GRI guidelines for reporting. (Walmart Global Responsibility Report, 2012)
Walmart has an impressive renewable energy platform. Wal-Mart is pushing themselves to adopt
energy above ground with solar rather than below ground with fossil fuels. Wal-Marts goal is to become
powered by 100 percent renewable energy. They will invest in different technologies and power
generation strategies. Wal-Mart is a leader in both testing and scaling onsite renewable energy projects,
including solar rooftops, microwind on our parking lots, biodiesel generator sets, and fuel cells. (Walmart
Global Responsibility Report, 2012)
Led by companies like Walmart, other big box retailers like IKEA, Kohls and Costco, have been
installing solar systems on their rooftops. The move is two-fold: the brands connection to healthier living
and reducing energy costsheavy electrical needs from lighting, heating, cooling and refrigeration.
(Fedrizzi and Rogers, 2002)
Walmart, which currently has approximately 120 solar installations, plans to have 1,000 by 2020.
Other retailers like Bed, Bath and Beyond, Staples, and Walgreens have been following suit. They want to
utilize their rooftops and reduce energy costs. (Cardwell, 2012) The retailers are pursuing other forms of
renewable energygeothermal and wind. In fact, IKEA has employed a geothermal power station at a
store in Colorado. Kohls and Walmart are experimenting with wind energy. And Kohls is looking at
electric vehicle charging stations in their parking lots. They envision green consumers driving electric
cars to their stores. (Cardwell, 2012)
6. Conclusion
Adopting sustainability means to treat natural resources as limited and to use these resources in a way
as to not create generational inequity by leaving future generations to pay for current practices. However,
public corporations must answer to stakeholders and pursue what makes economic sense. These come
from many causes.
Institutional investors are checking sustainability rankings
Good sustainable practices creates goodwill to customers
Reducing dependence on limited resources such as energy reduces the impact of energy price
volatility
Investments in on-site energy production make economic sense and reduce price volatility
Corporations are finally taking the lead in the sustainability movement. They are choosing to do the
right thing along with producing a profit for their shareholderssustainability can lead to profitability.
However, it is clear that one size does not fit all. In other words, as stated before, metric companies value
different aspects of sustainability. In order for corporations to really profit from the movement, they will
have to focus on reducing expenses and maximizing profit: energy, water and waste are those areas that
will challenge corporations.
Going forward, energy efficiency and clean technology will become essential in all business models.
Zero net energy will increase net operating income and ultimately profitability for corporations. Smart
companies are finally realizing that environmental responsibility can lead to future cost reductions,
greater customer satisfaction and other corporate benefits.
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7. References
[1] Brockett, Ann M. and Rezaee, Zabihollah. Corporate Sustainability: Integrating Performance and Reporting.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 2012.
[2] Carbon Disclosure Project, 2013. Retrieved from www.cdp.net.
[3] Cardwell, D. (2012). Chain stores said to lead firms in use of solar. The New York Times Article.
[4] DesJardins, Joseph. Corporate Environmental Responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics. June, 1998.
[5] DJSI Corporate Sustainability Assessment, 2013. Retrieved from www.djsi.com.
[6] Ernst and Young, 2013. www.ey.com.
[7] Faber, M. How to be an ecological economist.University of Heidelberg, 2008.
[8] Fedrizzi, R.; Rogers, J. Energy Efficiency Opportunities: Big Box Retail and Supermarkets The Center for
Energy and Climate Solutions. 2002
[9] FTSE4Good, 2013. Retrieved from www.ftse4good.com
[10] Global Report Index, 2013. Retrieved from www.globalreporting.org.
[11] McLamb, Eric M. The Ecological Impact of the Industrial Revolution. Ecology Global Network, 2011.
[12] MSCI Annual Report, 2013. Retrieved from www.msci.com.
[13] Newsweek Green Rankings, 2013. Retrieved from www.newsweek.com/greenrankings.
[14] Newcomb, Doug, How Volkswagen Turns Tennessee Sunshine Into Passats Wired.Com. January, 2013.
[15] RobecoSAM, 2013. Retrieved from www.robecosam.com
[16] Sustainalytics, 2013. Retrieved from www.sustainalytics.com.
[17] Strandberg Consulting, 2009. Retrieved from www.corostranbergconsulting.com.
[18] Santander Group Annual Report, 2013. Retrieved from www.santander.com.
[19] Santander Group Sustainability Report, 2013. Retrieved from www.santander.com.
[20] Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Annual Report, 2013. Retrieved from www.tsmc.com.
[21] Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Sustainability Report, 2013. Retrieved from www.tsmc.com.
[22] Trucost, 2013. Retrieved from www.trucost.com.
[23] Volkswagen Group Annual Report, 2013. Retrieved from www.volkswagenag.com.
[24] Volkswagen Group Sustainability Report, 2013. Retrieved from www.volkswagen.com.
[25] Walmart Global Responsibility Report, 2012. Retrieved from www.walmart.com.
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Track III (Energy Efficient

Strategies/Technologies/Systems)
252

Environment Adaptive Behaviors as User Satisfaction Assessment Criteria for

Energy Efficient Cooling System Design
A. Keyvanfar1, A. Shafaghat2, M. Z. Abd Majid3*, H. Lamit4, Kherun Nita Ali5, Mohd Warid Hussin6
1
Construction Research Alliance [CRA], Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Skudai, Johor, 81310, Malaysia, alikeyvanfar@gmail.com, 0060-177033482
2
Landscape Center of Excellence, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai,
Johor, 81310, Malaysia, arezou.shafaghat@gmail.com, 0060-178430730
3
Construction Research Alliance [CRA], Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
Skudai, Johor, 81310, Malaysia, 0060-197536100, Fax 006075537843, mzaimi@utm.my
4
Center of Built Environment in the Malays World [KALAM], Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, 81310, Malaysia, 0060-166912818, b-hasanuddin@utm.my
5
Department of Quantity Survey, Faculty of Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai,
Johor, 81310, Malaysia, 0060-197750354, b-kherun@utm.my
6
Construction Research Center, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai,
Johor, 81310, Malaysia, 0060-197750354, warid@utm.my
Corresponding Author, Muhd Zaimi Abd Majid
Abstract
The sustainable building assessment tools have not yet measured energy efficiency index by involving
user satisfaction from adaptive behavior, dependently. Hence, this research aimed to provide a
comprehensive list of adaptive behavior to promote the existing energy efficiency indexes formulated by
the sustainable building assessment tools. The study focused to establish adaptive behaviors which are in
response to indoor conditions provided by cooling systems in energy efficient office buildings. This
research involves adaptations across common passive and active cooling building systems. The research
methodology had two phases. Phase one identified the list of user satisfaction adaptive behavior criteria
through a systematic approach. Next, an expert input study was conducted to validate findings of
literature review. Expert input data was collected using Delphi structured close group discussion method,
and then, was analyzed through Grounded Group Decision Making [GGDM] method. Eight experts were
involved in four sessions of GGDM procedure. The research established 18 adaptive behaviors within two
categories, included, Self-adaptation and Adaptation to the Environment. Using the comprehensive list
aids to measure and also benchmark user satisfaction from adaptive behavior in energy efficient cooling
system design. The list of user satisfaction adaptive behavior criteria can be applied in promoting both
current and future building assessment tools energy efficiency indexes. Applying this list of criteria aids
architects, facility managers, building owners, consultants, authority, and contractor to fulfill the
requirement of building sustainability accreditation more intimately, reducing office buildings energy
consumption, and simultaneously, increasing staffs satisfaction and well-being.
Keywords: Building user satisfaction, Adaptive Behavior, Energy Efficient Building Design,
Building Assessment, Design for energy efficient cooling
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1. Introduction on Sustainable Building Assessment Tools

The largest contributor to enhance sustainability in building practices are the private and professional
associations and Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) [1]. NGOs have mainly resulted with multiperspective Building assessment tools [2, 3] which are used for Managing Sustainability of the
building construction industry [4]. Since early 1990s, around sixty Sustainable building assessment
tools have been established all over the world, such as, Hong Kong Building Environmental Assessment
Method (HK-BEAM) [5], Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design-LEED [6], Malaysia Green
Building Index [7], and Singapore Green Mark Scheme [8].
Sustainable building assessment tools are mainly aimed to benchmark a Capacity Building as a
sustainable building case [i.e. social, economic, and environmental building] in a specific geographic
region across diverse functionalities [e.g. office, residential, and commercial buildings] [9]. These tools
are used as the decision support tools which verify the buildings mainly in terms energy efficiency, water
management, waste management, and land use [1] with consideration on economic and social-friendly
approaches.
2. Gap in Sustainable Building Assessment Tools and Standards

According to reviewed literature, majority of building assessment tools lack with focusing on energy
and environment. Chen et al. [10] express the tools calculation process are not convincing enough to
provide a reasonable assessment results in energy consumption and energy savings within design phase of
building life cycle. Ltzkendorf and Lorenze [11] state due to the complexity involved, only a few
tools (i.e. LEGEP in Germany [12] and OGIP in Switzerland [13]) exist that allow to occupational
health. Christensen [4] states user satisfaction as social sustainability criteria need to be considered in
these tools. The user satisfaction has been measured dependent to building environmental and economic
aspects [14]. However, user satisfaction needed to be measured as an independent criterion in the tools
assessment indexes. To date, the SBtool [i.e. Sustainable Building Tool] is the tool seeks to analyze user
satisfaction independent to energy efficiency.
Furthermore, the tools do not specifically undertake building occupants behaviors and activities [15].
According to Zhun et al., [16], among diverse types of building occupants behavior and activities, the
adaptive behavior is a measure of user satisfaction which may enhance energy programs [17, 18, 19, 20,
21]. This confirms the necessity of enhancing sustainable building assessment tools in consideration with
the user satisfaction from adaptive behavior as a missing criterion.
In addition, there are efforts undertaken by Standards to establish standardized requirements for
building assessment tools. International Organization for Standardization (ISO), ISO/TS21929- 1 [22] and
ISO/TS21931-1: [23], ASHRAE-55 [24] standard, and EN15251 standard [25] are the most referred
standards that measure the corsarelation of indoor thermal environmental parameters and user parameters
regarding energy consumption and savings [26]. However, these standards did not yet consider user
satisfaction from adaptive behavior as an independent criterion as well.
3. Aim of Research
According to mentioned issues and problems, this research aimed to identify and establish user
satisfaction from adaptive behaviors criteria deal with energy efficient indoor environment design of
sustainable office buildings.
This research defines adaptive behavior in office indoor cooling environment as follows;
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Behavior which express users personal or environmental adjustment in response to following indoor
conditions:
- Off time running of energy consumable systems.
- Slightly uncomfortable indoor environmental condition which is not considered by them as an
unacceptable indoor condition.
4. Research Methodology
The research methodology engaged into two phases. First phase is to conduct a systematic literature
review, next phase, is to validate the literature review findings through an expert input study.
4.1 Systematic Literature Review
In first phase, the research organized the literature review study in a systematic process to investigate
user satisfaction from adaptive behavior criteria in the existing literatures [Figure 1].
To conduct the process, a set of keywords have been searched, included; building user adaptive
behavior in energy efficient buildings, user adaptive behavior in energy efficient environment, and user
life style in energy efficient buildings. The search was conducted on available online databases, included,
sciencedirect, Google Scholar, and Scopus.
Systematic literature Review

Online Searching Keywords
Building-user adaptive behavior in energy
efficient building
User adaptive behavior in energy efficient
environment
Search in available online databases
User life style in energy efficient building
List of relevant publication
Referenc
e
Citation
Literature review
Findings: User Satisfaction Adaptive behavior
Criteria in Energy Efficient Buildings
Figure 1: Systematic literatures review process in user satisfaction from adaptive behavior criteria
4.2 Control Variables on User Satisfaction From Adaptive Behavior Criteria Investigation
Two following control variables have been undertaken to investigate the most relevant criteria.
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Users Cultural and Social Dimensions: According to literature, one of the control variables in
research on satisfaction from environmental condition in response to cooling system is the cultural and
social contextual dimension of users [27, 28, 29, 30, 31].
Users Attitude and Beliefs: According to de Dear [32] and Edwards [33] users attitudes and
beliefs towards environment may boost the forgiveness factor in the assessment of conditions and are
not always translated into an action.
5. Building User Satisfaction from Adaptive Behavior Criteria in Energy Efficient

Indoor Environment
Different scopes of energy efficient indoor environment are understood as followings, Slightly Warm
Environment, High Ventilation, Low Ventilation, High Velocity, and Low Velocity. Corresponding to the
cooling condition of the energy efficient indoor environment a list of sixteen adaptive behaviors has been
identified.
Table 1 presents the literature review output on sixteen user satisfaction from adaptive behavior
criteria and their definitions in response to indoor cooling conditions. The criteria have been clustered into
two categories as follows,
Self-adaptation: The self-adaptation category involves five adaptive behaviors which were
proposed in response of building users to control slightly warm enevironmnet. Self-adaptation
behaviors are a set of personal activities individuals do to balance self-body thermal condition in
against the environmental conditions.
Adaptation to the Environment: Adaptation to the environment is a set of adaptive behaviors
which individuals balance indoor condition of environment through adjusting accessible and available
cooling facilities and equipment.
6. Validation of User Satisfaction Adaptive Behavior Criteria

In second phase, the research conducted Expert Input Study to validate the literature review findings
on building user satisfaction adaptive behavior in energy efficient indoor environment. Field expert
Delphi structured Close Group Discussion was used which is the most applicable group decision making
method. A structured fixed format self-reporting questionnaire form was designed to be filled up in the
interviews. The interviews validated based on experts judgment in the scale of 1 for Weak to 5 for
Excellent. Based on purposive sampling method, a total number of eight participants were involved
within four group decision making sessions, two field-experts who had an experience in building energy
management, five field-experts in building facility management, and one in assessment model
development.
Data analysis was conducted using Grounded Group Decision Making [GGDM] method. Adapted
from Lamit et al. [2012],
[Equation 1] is to calculte final weight [FW] of sub-issue number i,
[
of the discussion.
[1]
Where;
, refers to assigned weight by participants number j in close group discussion for sub-issue ,
, refers to assigned weight by resource[s] relevant to the issue, whom introduced by participants
number j in close group discussion for sub-issue ,
, refers to sub-issue of discussion,
256

, referred to maximum possible weight can be given for sub-issue ,

, refers to CGD sessions value [SV] considered by the decision researcher which the CGD session
included participant number j,
Equation [2] indicates the consensus calculation in GGDM for sub-issue . If the final consensus
calculated more than 70% the alternative is selected, and that criterion is approved.
/
= Consensus in %
[2]
257

Table 1: Summery of literature review on users adaptive behaviors in response to indoor cooling conditions
Self-adaptation
Criteria
Description
Drinking cold beverages

Less-sweating life style
Restraining
physical
activity level
Changing or adjusting
cloths from warm to cool
Decreasing level of body
skin moisture
Taking a break and moving
to cooler location
Changing position and
direction
Adaption to the Environment
Adjusting furniture material

Adjusting finishing material
Opening or closing door[s]
using feedback system
Opening
or
closing
operable window[s]
Opening
or
closing
window[s] using feedback
system
Using the portable fan
Using hand fan
Adjusting
thermostat
rooms
Adjusting
air-condition
operative hours
It is in reference to user drinking as an unaccepted behavior.

It is in reference to users life style codes, e.g. cutting hair, changing diet.
It is in reference to users reduction in activity level cooling adaptation purpose.
It is in reference to users changing or adjusting cloths.
Citations
Indoor conditions
[34, 30]
[30]
[35, 30, 36]
Slightly warm
It is in reference to users drying body moisture, e.g. using tissue to dry the face.
[17, 30, 21,

38]
[39, 40]
It is in reference user take a temporary break to move to cooler location, e.g. going to
Slightly warm
a cooler room or balcony.
Low ventilation
It is in reference to users temporary or permanent adjustment of seating position,
Low velocity
e.g. changing orientation of desk.
It is in reference to users temporary or permanent adjustment of buildings furniture
materials, e.g. changing warm material to cold material.
Slightly warm
It is in reference to users temporary or permanent adjustment of buildings finishing
materials, e.g. changing warm color to cold color.
Opening or closing door depends on several indoor and outdoor data by using an
automated decision making of the feedback system.
It is in reference to user may open/close the window[s] based on his/her selfpreference.
[30]
This depends on several indoor and outdoor data. The user may instruct the feedback
Slightly warm
system by using an automated decision making of the feedback system.
[18]
It is while the fan is not provided as building facility and it is an energy consumable
device, e.g. using a self-USB fan.
It shall be considered that in the case that fan is not provided as building facility
which is not an energy consumable device.
It is in reference to users direct adjustment in rooms thermostat, e.g. reducing the
thermostat sensitive temperature.
It is in reference to users direct adjustment in running time of cooling systems, e.g.
turning the cooling system off based on occupancy rate.
[30, 18, 37, 49]
Low ventilation
Low velocity
37, 34,
[30, 40]
[40, 30, 32]
[40, 30]
[18]
[30, 41, 33, 18, 42, 43]
[18]
[41, 42, 33, 43]
Off time running
[41, 42, 33,

30, 34, 21]
43, 27,
258

7. Data Analysis Procedure

In GGDM application, the researcher firstly added up following criteria to the list provided by
literature review, included, C4-Decreasing body skin temperature using fresh- aqua sprays, and C13Opening or closing window[s] using remote.
The researcher appointed the Session Value [SV] for each session of CGD. The researcher appointed
SV 1 for two first sessions and SV 3 for the session 3 and SV 4 for the session 4 of CGDs. In the first
session, two [2] participants [i.e. experts] have been involved. According to Table 2, participant 1
appointed WP = 3 for the criterion C1 [i.e. Drinking cold beverages] as his weighting value to
validation. The participants were asked to introduce any other resource to validate the list of criteria, if
needed. As can be seen in Table 2, participant 1 introduced participant 3 [WPr = c-WP3]. Then, the
research has to conclude the minimum between WPs weighting value and c-WP3s weighting value.
For example, according to WP column of the participant 3, the researcher had to select the minimum
between 3 and 5 as the weighting value indicated by participant 1 and 3 for the criterion C1 [i.e.
Drinking cold beverages], which equals 3. Then, researcher put this value in the column c-WP for the
participant 1 records. For example, for the criterionC1 [i.e. Drinking cold beverages] the following
calculations have been done,
= [3*1]+ [4*1]+[5*1]+[5*3]+[ 5*3]+[ 5*3]+[5*4]+[5*4]= 97
/
= 97 / 100 = 97%
In the second, third, and fourth sessions, all the mentioned process has been conducted.
In some cases the participants did not introduced any other sources for the CGD, for example, participant
3 [i.e. WPr = -]. Also, in some cases the participant did not appoint any value, and accepts all identified
by his/her introduced resource expert. For example, participant 6 did not ranked [i.e. WP = -] and
introduced participant 7 and claimed he accepted all weighting values appointed by participant 7.
8. Expert Input Validation Results

Experts through Delphi structured close group discussions validated the findings of literature study on
user satisfaction from adaptive behaviors criteria. The GGDM data analysis result shows that expert input
reached more than 70% saturation with seventeen user satisfaction from adaptive behaviors criteria in
response to energy efficient office cooling system. The criterion Adjusting rooms thermostat [C17] was
not approved due to 45% consensus.
259

Table 2: Summary of GGDM data analysis on building users satisfaction from adaptive behavior criteria validation in response to office cooling systems
Aprv.
88
Aprv.
92
Aprv.
97
Aprv.
92
Aprv.
77
Aprv.
94
Aprv.
85
Aprv.
92
Aprv.
81
Aprv.
2 5 2 3 4 3 1 5
5 1 4 5 4 5 5 5 - 5 5 3 5 - 5 - 5 5 4
92
3 5 3 4 5 4 1 5
3 5 3 4 5 4 1 5
5 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 - 5 5 3 5 - 5 - 5 5 4
5 1 5 5 5 5 5 5 - 5 5 3 5 - 5 - 5 5 4
97
Aprv.
97
Aprv.
4 3 3 4 5 4 1 3
3 1 3 5 3 4 5 4 - 5 5 3 5 - 5 - 4 4 4
86
3
3
2
3
4
5
2
5
93
4
4
3
4
4
5
3
5
4
4
3
4
1
1
1
1
4
5
2
5
1
1
1
1
4
5
3
5
5
5
2
5
4
5
3
5
5
5
3
5
5
5
2
5
5
5
2
5
5
5
2
5
5
5
2
5
3
3
3
3
c-WP
97
3
3
2
3
WP
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
2
5
WPr = -
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
3
3
5
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
5
3
5
5
5
4
5
3
5
4
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
3
3
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
3
5
5
5
4
5
3
5
4
Cons.
[%]
GGDM Consensus
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
4
c-WP
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
4
WP
c-WP
WPr = c-WP5
WP
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
4
SV
SV
c-WP
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
4
Participant Participant
7
8
WP
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
4
WPr = c-WP7
5
4
4
5
4
3
4
5
5
4
c-WP
5
5
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
4
WP
5
4
4
5
4
3
4
5
5
5
SV
WPr= WP7
c-WP
4
3
3
4
3
3
4
4
4
5
WPr = c-WP7
5
4
4
5
4
3
4
5
5
5
SV
Validation
session 4
Participant Participant Participant

4
5
6
WP
4
3
3
4
3
3
4
4
4
5
Participant
3
Validation
session 3
WPr = -
3
2
2
3
2
4
4
3
2
3
c-WP
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
3
5
WP
3
2
2
3
2
4
4
3
2
3
r-WP = c-WP4
C6-Drying body skin moisture

C7- Taking a break and moving to cooler location
C8-Changing position and direction
C9-Adjusting furniture material
C10-Adjusting finishing material
C11-Opening or closing door[s] using feedback
system
C12-Opening or closing operable window[s]
C13-Opening or closing window[s] using remote
C14-Opening or closing window[s] using feedback
system
C15-Using the portable fan
C16-Using hand fan
C17-Adjusting rooms thermostat
C18-Adjusting air-condition operative hours
c-WP
C1-Drinking cold beverages

C2-Less-sweating lifestyle
C3-Restraining physical activity level
C4-Decreasing body skin temperature
C5-Changing/adjusting cloths from warm to cool
WP
Building users adaptive behavior
Validation
session 2
Participant Participant
1
2
WPr = c-WP3
Environment Adaptation
Self-adaptation
Approach.
Validation
session 1
5
5
2
5
5 - 5 5 4
5 - 5 5 4
2
3 3 4
5 - 5 5 4
Aprv.
Aprv.
Aprv.
97
Aprv.
45
n-Aprv.
97
Aprv.
Note. WP: Participants Rate to the validation aspect, c-WP: conclusion of Participants Rate to the validation aspect considered as
, WPr: Participant introduced resouce Rate
to the validation aspect, -: Participant did not provide value, SV: CGD Session Value considered by the GGDM researcher, Aprv.: the validation aspect is approved based on GGDM Consensus
rate of more than 70% agreement, n-Aprv.: the validation aspect is not approved based on GGDM Consensus rate of not more than 70% agreement.
260

9. Discussion
The research determined that study on user satisfaction adaptive behavior requirements enhances
sustainability of building in terms of functionality, serviceability, adoptability, user comfort, user health and
well-being, and risk reduction of investment which have been previously indicated by Ltzkendorf and
Lorenz [11] and Rantanen et al. [44]. User satisfaction measurement has been traditionally considered in the
operation and maintenance phases of building lifecycle. However, this study identified that majority of
building assessment tools are lacking with user satisfaction measurement in design phase of building
lifecycle. In this purpose, the research established a comprehensive list of seventeen [17] technological and
personal user satisfaction from adaptive behavior criteria for assessing energy efficient office buildings
indoor environment for design phase of lifecycle. Psychological and Physiological adaptations were not
covered in this study, due to are dynamic and cannot be foreseen accurately in design phase of project life
cycle [45].
The findings may specifically help to improve current sustainable building assessment tools and
standards in response to user satisfaction measurement in indoor office environment. These tools can be
promoted in benchmarking Capacity Office Building to have a metric assessment on downstream
requirement of the end-users satisfaction. In addition, this comprehensive list of user satisfaction from
adaptive behavior can be applied for future building design and decision support tools, building assessment
frameworks and systems, energy modeling software, environmental lifecycle analysis tools, environmental
rating systems, environmental design guidelines or design checklist, and environmental labeling and
certification.
10.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the research proved that among diverse aspects of user satisfaction, user satisfaction
from adaptive behavior was the focal approach in inter-connection with energy efficiency in office
buildings. The research resulted with 18 user satisfaction from adaptive behavior criteria relevant to
cooling systems in energy efficient office indoor environments. The end-users of the research output would
be both professionals and practitioners. Architects, facility managers, building owners, consultants,
authority, contractor, and academic researchers may use this comprehensive list of criteria for fulfilling the
requirement of sustainability accreditation in design phase of office building lifecycle.
11. Further Works

Further study of this research is either to develop a new sustainable building assessment tool or to
improve the existing tools. The future advancement would focus on followings;
Descriptive study on energy index of adaptive behavior
Formulating energy index of adaptive behavior
Framework to assess correlation of building performance criteria
12. Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation [MOSTI] funded the
research projects vote no. 4S055 and 4S042. Also, the authors appreciate theses organization for their
supports and contributions, Research Management Center, KALAM, and Sustainability Research Alliance
[SUTRA] at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
261

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263

Watts Per Person Paradigm to Design Net Zero Energy Buildings: Examining
Technology Interventions and Integrating Occupant Feedback to Reduce Plug
Loads in a Commercial Building
Mika Yagi Kim
University of Southern California
E-mail: myagi@usc.edu
Abstract
As building envelopes have improved due to more restrictive energy codes, internal loads have
increased largely due to the proliferation of computers, electronics, appliances, imaging and audio visual
equipment that continues to grow in commercial buildings. As the dependency on the internet for
information and data transfer increases, the electricity demand will pose a challenge to design and operate
Net Zero Energy Buildings (NZEBs). Plug Loads (PLs) as a proportion of the building load has become the
largest non-regulated building energy load and represents the third highest electricity end-use in California's
commercial office buildings, accounting for 23% of the total building electricity consumption (Ecova
2011,2). In the Annual Energy Outlook 2008 (AEO2008), prepared by the Energy Information
Administration (EIA) that presents long-term projections of energy supply and demand through 2030 states
that office equipment and personal computers are the "fastest growing electrical end uses" in the commercial
sector.
This thesis entitled Watts Per Person" Paradigm to Design Net Zero Energy Buildings, measures the
implementation of advanced controls and behavioral interventions to study the reduction of PL energy use in
the commercial sector. By integrating real world data extracted from an energy efficient commercial
building of its energy use, the results produce a new methodology on estimating PL energy use by
calculating based on "Watts Per Person" and analyzes computational simulation methods to design NZEBs.
Keywords: plug loads, net zero energy, internal loads, advanced controls
1. Statement of Intent
This section is an introduction to the thesis topic and explains: 1) policy and framework of PL use in
commercial buildings, 2) impact of PLs in NZEBs, and 3) current industry standard assumptions to calculate
PL energy use. The "Watts Per Person paradigm is explained as the unit measure to benchmark PL
standards for NZEBs.
Hypothesis
Two (2) hypotheses were developed in this pilot study to address two (2) PL interventions.
Hypothesis 1: Technology to Reduce Energy
Implementation of Advanced Plug Strips (APS) will reduce PL energy use
264

Hypothesis 2: Feedback to Influence Behavior

When given the objective to reduce PL energy use, occupants given daily feedback on their PL energy
use reduce more PL use than occupants without feedback
Policy Framework
In October 2007, the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) adopted the Long Term Energy
Efficiency Strategic Plan to set forth a roadmap for energy efficiency in California through 2020 and
beyond, in which one of the four programmatic goals in the "Big Bold Energy Efficiency Strategies" is for
new and a substantial proportion of existing commercial buildings in California to be put on a path to Net
Zero Energy Building (NZEB) by 2030. At present, commercial buildings consume more electricity than
any other end-use sector in California and of that, office buildings are the largest consumers (CPUC 2008,
30).
Table 1.2. - California's roadmap for energy efficiency through 2020 and beyond
(Source: CPUC)
Due to the advancement of building technology in envelope, lighting and HVAC systems, the overall
energy use has reduced in the commercial sector while the dependency on computers and other electronic
office equipment has expanded, increasing in its demand load (see Figure 1.6). In achieving NZEBs, end
users will need to reduce the PL demand to minimize on-site energy generation. The implementation of
both technology and change in occupant behavior will be necessary to reduce PL energy use in buildings
and furthermore, research is needed to understand how to better predict PL energy use through
computational simulation in the design phase.
International Policy
In 2008, the City of Zurich made a ground breaking decision and adopted the goal of the "2,000-Watt
Society" into its municipal code developed by researchers at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
265

(ETH), as the model for energy policy to demonstrate its commitment to sustainable development. The
energy policy is based on every person in every society limiting their energy consumption to a maximum of
2,000-Watts per Person with at least 75% of its source to be met by renewable energy. Although the energy
use fluctuates from country to country, 2,000-Watts is the average energy consumption per capita worldwide and takes into account of all aspects of sustainability from energy demand in buildings to mobility,
food, consumption and infrastructure (City of Zurich 2011, 7). The PL energy use demand is addressed
within the building category where it targets its limit to 500-Watts per Person.
In the United States, the figure is six times higher at 12,000-Watts per Person while countries such as
Bangladesh, Zimbabwe and rural areas of China need barely a fraction of the average energy consumption.
In 1985, research conducted by Brazilian scientist, Jose Goldemberg found that below a threshold of 1,000Watts per Person, people are indeed better off if they can increase their energy consumption, however, once
this threshold is reached, more energy does not improve the quality of life. The goal of the 2,000-Watt
Society enables a balance between the industrialized and developing countries use of energy to address
concerns of Global Climate Change but more importantly, is a tool that allows the industrialized countries to
be informed on its energy use status per person in comparison to the worldwide average and a reminder that
it requires everyone to get involved. This concept of Watts per Person will be adopted for this thesis as a
metric tool to inform building occupants on its energy use per person.
Table 1.3.1. - Global rate of energy consumption based on Watts Per Person (Source: PSI)
Standards and Guidelines
At present, PLs are classified as non-regulated energy and are addressed in the building code standards
only in terms of controls. Supplemental guidelines and modeling requirements are available for calculating
proposed and baseline building performance to design teams which are discussed in the following subsections in this section.
266

ASHRAE
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 90.1 is the
basis for the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) and is widely adopted as the minimum energy
efficiency standard for most states. The most recent version of the standard was published in 2010 and in
Section 8.4.2 , it is stated that 50% of receptacles are required to be on automatic shutoff systems, however
the load itself is not being regulated. Generally, regulated energy includes heating, ventilation, air
conditioning, water heating, and lighting.
In the reference standard, there is no definition that currently exists of plug or receptacle loads but in its
Appendix section, there are guidelines that exist of modeling requirements for calculating proposed and
baseline building performance for receptacle and other loads (see Section 1.5 for more information).
Automatic Receptacle Control

Automatic shutoff of 50% of all 125 volt
receptacles in private offices, open offices,
and computer classrooms (including
receptacles installed in modular partitions
through:
ASHRAE
90.1-2010
ASHRAE
90.1-2007
IECC
2012
CA Title
24/2008
1) Scheduled Shutoff
2) Occupancy Sensor (shutdown within 30

minutes)
3) Signal from another control/alarm system
Exceptions: 1) receptacles dedicated to

equipment with 24 hour operation, 2) spaces
where automatic shutoff would endanger
safety/security of occupants
Table 1.4.1. - Code Compliance on Receptacle Controls

ASHRAE Handbook
The 2009 ASHRAE Handbook - Fundamentals, include basic principles and data used in the HVAC&R
industry as guidelines that cover general information to estimate PL density. In Section 18 of the
Nonresidential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations, equipment load factors are included as
recommendations based on breakdowns as shown in Table 1.3.2. The general guidelines were developed by
ASHRAE Research Project RP-822 with the intention to develop a method to measure the heat gain from
equipment in buildings. In the recommended Power Density, the breakdown is shown to include general
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office equipment and excludes computer peripherals, server equipment, appliances, telephones, audio visual
and task lighting.
Recommended Load Factors for Various Types of Offices

Load Density of Load Factor Description of Equipment Types
Office
(W/ft)
Light
0.50
(6) Computers, (6) Monitors, (1) Laser Printer, (1) Fax

Machine
Medium
1.00

Machine
Medium/Heavy
1.50

Machine
Heavy
2.00

Machine
Table 1.4.2. - Recommended Equipment Power Load Factor (Source: Wilkins and Hosni, 2000)
ASHRAE 50% Advanced Energy Design Guide
The 2011 Advanced Energy Design Guide (AEDG) for Small to Medium Office Buildings developed
by ASHRAE, AIA, IESNA, USGBC and U.S. DOE provides design strategies and recommendations to
achieve 50% energy savings over the minimum code requirements of ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard
90.1, 2004. PLs reductions are addressed through the following recommendations:
Plug Load Reduction Recommendations

Equipment Choices
Controls
Laptop computers
Minimum 2/3 of total computers
ENERGY STAR
equipment
For all computers, equipment, and appliances
Equipment Power
Density
For all computers, equipment, and appliances
Computer Power
Control
Network control with power savings modes and

control OFF during unoccupied hours
Occupancy Sensors
Desk plug strip occupancy sensors

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Timer Switches
Water coolers and coffee makers control OFF

during unoccupied hours
Vending Machine
Control
Yes
Table 1.4.3. - AEDG Recommendation Table

Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design
The 2009 Edition of the Reference Guide used for LEED green building certification programs
defines plug loads to be synonymous with receptacle loads by identifying it as current drawn by all
equipment that is plugged into the electrical system. LEED establishes one of the minimum level of energy
efficiency by addressing new eligible equipment to be ENERGY STAR qualified by 50% (by rated power)
and includes appliances, office equipment, electronics, and commercial food service equipment. In terms of
parameters within the whole building simulation method, LEED relies entirely on the performance rating
method in ASHRAE 90.1-2007, Appendix G for both the baseline building model and the proposed building
model to cover all building energy components. In the Appendix G, PLs are included in the process energy
load estimation which includes office and general miscellaneous equipment, computers, elevators and
escalators, data center and telecom room computing equipment, kitchen cooking and refrigeration, laundry
washing and drying, lighting exempt from lighting power allowance. In the modeling requirements for the
calculation, the baseline case for the total plug and process loads are required to be identical to the proposed
building and cost must be equal to at least 25% of baseline building performance. To model the proposed
building, values in Table 1.5 are provided as default plug loads. These values are mentioned that they do
not necessarily reflect all process loads but the values are recommended to achieve the 25% process loads.
Table 1.5. - Default Tenant Receptacle Loads, by Occupancy Type (Source: LEED)
Plug Load Impacts on Net Zero Energy Buildings
PLs are miscellaneous building energy loads that are not direct HVAC, building envelope, process,
lighting or domestic hot water loads and are heavily owner, operator, occupant driven demands. In energy
efficient buildings, PLs can contribute up to 50% or more of the total Energy Use Intensity (Lobato 2010).
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With NZEBs, the baseline represents a value of zero and the term "net" implies, in most cases, that the
building will use the utility grid as its "battery" source to charge when the building produces more energy
than it consumes and draws at other times when it consumes more than it is producing. Thus, to operate a
building that consumes no more energy than it produces (and potentially produces more energy than it uses
for a net positive outcome) poses a challenge to examine reduction measures of all energy use including
those that are non-regulated. The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) Annual Energy Outlook
forecasts PL demands to increase 94% from 2005 to 2030 (see Figure 1.6.) which will classify its demand as
one the major contributors in energy use in commercial buildings.
Figure 1.6. - Electricity Demand Load Growth Projections (Source: EIA 2008 Annual Energy Outlook)
Case Study Building

The importance of PL energy use reduction is strongly emphasized by the award winning Department of
Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory Research Support Facility (RSF) project completed in
2010. By adopting a net zero energy approach to construct its large scale commercial building, the energy
use intensity (EUI) totaled to 35.4 kBtu/ ft/yr, with the PL energy use contributing to over 25% of the total
EUI and found to be the second highest energy demand next to process loads. To achieve maximum PL
energy use reductions, the project used the finding that for every one (1) Watt (W) of continuous energy use
saved; $33 of Photovoltaic (PV) System cost that would be required to offset this energy saved. This case
study project is a demonstration of how important the consideration of PL energy use is in high performance
buildings.
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Figure 1.6.1. - RSF Energy Use (kBtu/ft) Breakdown (Source: NREL, 2010)
Current Methods for Estimating Plug Loads

Based on current industry standards, PLs are typically estimated by using a combination of the
following variables: 1) specified area per workstations or offices (for example, 85 ft/Workstation), 2)
quantity of equipment type within the specified area (for example, 6 computers/6 monitors), 3) peak
electrical load (W), 4) load factor (W/ft), 5) design max occupancy (for example, 200 ft/Person), and 5)
usage diversity to determine the ratio of measured peak electrical load to the sum of the maximum electrical
load of each individual item of equipment. These variables in conjunction with consideration of time using
load profiles defined by building types are often factors to determine PL consumptions in buildings.
Based on research funded by the California Energy Commission (CEC) Public Interest Energy Research
Program (PIER) performed by the New Building Institute (NBI), the published PL Performance Level
guidelines suggests that load factors for PLs can be as low as 0.25 W/ft. These plug load factors will be
used in the pilot study to set the benchmark.
Plug Load Factor Benchmark (W/ft)

Poor
Standard
High
Performance
Best
Occupied Load
Factor
0.75+
0.75
0.40
0.25*
Unoccupied Load
0.70+
0.70
0.35
0.20**
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Factor
Combined Load
Factor
1.45+
1.45
0.75
0.45
Peak Demand
Density
1.5+
1.5
1.0
0.75*
* Includes Load Factor suggested by Wilkins,Hosni, "Plug Load Design Factors" ASHRAE
Journal in May 2011 that includes equipment of: 100% Laptop Use, (1) Printer per 10, Speakers
& Miscellaneous per 167 ft
**Load Factor based on NREL's RSF case study
Table 1.7. Plug Load Factor Benchmark (NBI & PIER Analysis)
Watts Per Person Benchmark Approach
Technology in equipment continually evolve to become more efficient and trends in space planning
continually evolve, where private offices today are being converted to open plan workstations to optimize
real estate value and as a result, it has made it challenging to estimate PL energy use based on Watts per
Area (ft). Due to these variables that are not always constant, the current method of estimating PLs is
flawed in that it fails to address these changing trends, including the growing demand of shared spaces in
buildings and planning strategies that include unassigned seating to encourage mobility that require more
use of laptop equipment by users.
To take these factors into account when estimating PL energy use, this thesis suggests that power
density assumptions (W) and area (sf) need to be replaced with more focus on the load intensity
classifications by user types (determined by power consumption of the equipment) and the average load (W)
per Person over time to determine "Watts per Person", adopted by the concept used for the 2,000-Watt
Society described in the preceding section. This method allows for customization to estimate PL energy use
that take into account of changing trends of equipment type usage and its space use. In Section 2, further
explanations of the load intensity classifications are described in detail as the basis of the Watts per Person
calculation method.
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2. Background Data
This section provides background data of the pilot study by explaining: 1) the origin of the real world
data of the energy use summary for the high performance commercial building, 2) summary of the
equipment audit and descriptions of each load intensity classification, and 3) definitions to related terms and
standards. In the last section, the Watts per Person metric used as the benchmark for the pilot study is
further outlined in detail.
As mentioned in the previous section, PLs in high performance buildings can exceed 50% of its total
energy use. This section evaluates the energy use consumption for a commercial building completed in
2011 awarded LEED Platinum certification and analyzes the results by focusing on PLs, the highest
electricity load measured for the building with the highest discrepancy between the modeled and measured
outcome.
The three-story 40,000 ft project was designed to house over 300 occupants of 30 ft per Person
allocated for the open plan benching desk system concept with multiple shared spaces throughout the
building. In addition to the multiple strategies used to optimize energy use, PL reduction strategies were
implemented by replacing the needs of individual task lighting with integrated task ambient lighting system
throughout and specifying 100% of its new equipment to be ENERGY STAR rated.
Submeters were installed in the building to separately monitor the energy use for lighting
systems/controls, plug loads, process loads, heating and cooling which were all being monitored through
the Building Automation System (BAS). The actual measured energy use from the submeters will be
shared in the next section.
Energy Use Tracking Summary
While working in conjunction with the design teams, the monthly energy use tracking summary was
developed in order to compare the design phase energy use estimates to the actual building energy use. By
extracting the data from the eQuest energy model software used during the design phase, energy use
estimates were established as the baseline case to compare to the building energy performance tracked
through the BAS.
As a result, six months into reporting, a trend revealed that the highest electricity use (kWh) consumed
in the building came from PL energy use (see Figure 2.1) . In addition, results indicated that the modeled
(estimate) use for PLs were highly underestimated compared to its measured (actual) use by over 50%. The
opposite was true for the process loads where the server room equipment and all of its associated dedicated
cooling for the equipment indicated that the modeled (estimate) use were highly overestimated compared to
its measured (actual) use by over 50%. Given these results, this thesis and pilot study will focus on PL
energy use from the perspectives of how it can be reduced and also to further investigate where the
discrepancies may have come from in terms of modeled outcomes compared to actual use.
The understanding of these factors will become critical when designing and operating NZEBs. The
discrepancies between the modeled (estimate) and measured (actual) data is an issue since with NZEBs, the
renewable energy systems may not have been properly sized in this case to generate these types of
unanticipated energy load for the building.
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Figure 2.1. - Energy Use Tracking Summary (By Month)
Equipment Audit Summary

As with most organizations and businesses, classifications of office equipment use by occupants vary
based on job descriptions to suit the specific needs. Based on that, it is nearly impossible to make accurate
estimations of PL energy use based on one standardized load factor of W/ft, which is in most cases the
methodology used. In doing so, results can be demonstrated in Figure 2.2.A where the baseline comparison
utilizes the commonly used load factor of 1.0 W/ft for Medium Load Density of offices with the default
load profile and 200 ft per Person (see Figure 5.1. for more information) used in eQuest energy models
while comparing it with the actual people density of the benching system at 30 ft/Person (5 ft Wide x 6 ft
Deep). The assumption of estimating PL energy use by a standardized load factor and people density was
likely the explanation of the underestimated modeled PL energy use for the building which in the case of
designing NZEBs will become a critical issue.
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Figure 2.2. - PL Energy Use Estimate Comparison (with default 1.0 W/ft and 0.46 load factor as baseline)
It is also common practice to have multiple classifications of equipment use within the same building
type, which adds another layer of complexity. By conducting the equipment audit for the energy efficient
building, results indicated that four (4) load intensity classifications were identified and which is described
in detail in Section 2.2.1.
Due to these factors of having multiple load intensity classifications within one building type, this pilot
study uses the different classifications and categorizes the variations of its equipment types using four (4)
categories: 1) Heavy, 2) Medium, 3) Light and 4) Ultra Light.
Having these multiple load intensity classifications within one building type when tabulating the PL
energy use helps to prevent from the one size fits all calculation methodology when estimating PL energy
use for buildings.
Load Intensity Defined
The breakdown of equipment use by the load intensity classifications discussed in the previous section
is shown in Table 2.2.1. to identify the multiple variables.
These classifications are characterized as follows: 1) Heavy Load - describes user types that spend <
20% of the time away from the desktop computers throughout the occupied demand hours and has the
highest baseline of W/Person with advanced computing equipment features to support high processing and
memory capacities coupled with two (2) LED/LCD Flat Panel monitors to enhance productivity for graphic
intensive workflows, 2) Medium Load - describes user types that spend <20% of the time away from the
desktop computers throughout the occupied demand hours and has the second highest baseline of W/Person
with semi-advanced computing equipment features to support medium processing and memory capacities
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coupled with one (1) LED/LCD Flat Panel monitor to perform daily administrative tasks, 3) Light and 4)
Ultra Light Load - describes user types that spend >20% of the time away from laptop computers to support
the high mobility work flow performance and is separated by classification by the monitors with Light as the
same monitor as the Medium Load Intensity of (1) LED/LCD Flat Panel, whereas the Ultra Light Load
Intensity is supported by (1) USB/LED/LCD Flat Panel powered by the laptop computer.
Load Intensity
Classification
Equipment Type
Heavy
Medium
Light
Ultra Light
*Telephones were excluded from the pilot study

Table 2.2.1. - Equipment Use per Load Intensity Classification
Load Intensity Classification Summary

Of the total equipment audited (N=1,238) for the pilot study, findings indicated that of the 302
occupants, 35% were classified as Light and Ultra Light load intensity and the remaining 48% were Heavy
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and 17% were Medium load intensity. In summary, desktop computers comprise 65% of the load intensity
classification for the energy efficient commercial building.
Figure 2.2.2. - Load Intensity Classification Summary
Equipment Audit Using Nameplate Data

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) defines the nameplate data on equipment to
evaluate the basic design and dimensional parameters to identify the performance of the equipment. The
rated power provided on the nameplate refers to the maximum active power that the device can output under
the rated operation conditions and differs from the active power. The information on the nameplate
typically include, but not limited to: 1) Manufacturer's Type, 2) Frequency, 3) Rated Load Current, 4)
Voltage, 5) Ampere and manufacturers often include additional information such as Input Wattage to further
define its features. Since the nameplate data is different than the active power consumption, calculations of
determining PL energy use can be complex and inconsistent across equipment and user types. There are
multiple variables to consider which include but are not limited to peak load (or peak demand), operating
hours, load (or capacity, or part-load) factor, number of occupants, equipment type and control type. In later
sections, results of the average active power (W) is presented and compared against the nameplate data.
PC Equipment List
Load Profile # of Users
Classification
Quantity
Description
Rated Power (W)
Heavy
432
- Desktop Computer
- Dual LED/LCD Monitors
562
144
144
277

Medium
52
104
- Mini Tower Desktop

Computer
- LED/LCD Monitor
200
72
Light
105
210
- Laptop Computer
- Docking Station
- LED/LCD Monitor
98
130
72
Ultra Light
- Laptop Computer
- USB LED/LCD Monitor
65
10
TOTAL
302
748*
*The remaining equipment audited are non-computing equipment and is further discussed in
Section 6
Table 2.2.3. - Computing Equipment Audit
Power Modes
Most computing, audio visual and imaging equipment have various power modes when active vs.
inactive that are separate from the power management settings that will be discussed in detail in Section 2.4.
The definitions for these modes are as follows:
Power Modes
Level of Power
Consumption
Type
Description
Highest
Peak
- Level of power use: Max
High
Active
- Level of power use: < Peak

- Performing at is intended function
High/Medium
Idle
- Level of power use: < Active

- Ready to perform work but not doing anything
Low
Sleep*
- Level of power use: < Idle

- Wakes up in seconds
- Same as equipment being on "pause"
Low
Hibernates
- Level of power use: < Sleep

- Wakes up in 20+ seconds
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- Saves work in the event of power loss

- Primarily used for laptops but available on desktops
Lower
Standby / Shut
Down (Off)
- Level of power use: < Hibernate

- Turns on in 20+ seconds
- Referred to as Parasitic Load
Lowest
Disconnected /
Unplugged
- Level of power use: zero
*Default system settings for most equipment

Table 2.3. - Power Mode Summary (Source: ENERGY STAR)
Power Management Settings
Power management controls are system settings that manage how computing equipment uses power.
The settings vary by the amount of power consumed and is available in the following control plans: 1) High
Performance, 2) Power Savings, 3) Balanced, and 4) Custom.
High Performance
The "High Performance" power management control maximizes the screen brightness and uses more
energy and reduces the amount of time that the laptop battery lasts between charges.
Balanced
The "Balanced" power management control is the system recommended setting and is the combination of
"High Performance" and "Power Savings" and offers full performance when needed and saves power during
periods of inactivity but uses more energy than "Power Savings".
Power Savings
The "Power Savings" power management control reduces the system performance and screen brightness
and helps the laptop users get the most from a single battery charge.
Custom
The "Custom" power management control allows users to modify settings from the existing default
settings. In this option, the sleep and display settings can be customized to the user's preference including
the brightness of the display to optimize performance or to save more energy.
No Control
The "No Control" power management control disables the system settings and sets the equipment to be
in active mode for 24/7 unless the user's command to shut down. This setting disables the equipment to go
into sleep mode unless it is shut down.
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Power Management Settings

Level of Power
Consumption
Type
Description
High
No Control
- Level of power use: > High Performance, Balanced, Power

Savings
High/Medium
High Performance
- Level of power use: < No Control, > Balanced & Power

Savings
Medium
Balanced
- Level of power use: < No Control & High Performance, >

Power Savings
- Wakes up in seconds
Low
Power Savings
- Level of power use: < High Performance & Balanced
Varies
Custom
- Level of power use: < / > / = Power Savings
Table 2.3.5. - Power Management Setting Summary

Parasitic Loads
In 1999, the International Energy Agency (IEA) launched the One-Watt Initiative, an energy savings
proposal targeted to reduce parasitic loads in equipment to be one (1) watt. Many regions and countries
such as the European Union, the United States, Australia, Japan and South Korea have adopted this
benchmark as policy. Parasitic loads are continuous power consumed when equipment is shut down, also
referred to as standby power (often called vampire draw or phantom loads).
According to IEA, parasitic loads are responsible for 1% of the global CO2 emissions, or about 240
million tonnes of CO2 every year. Most common culprits that contribute to parasitic loads include devices
with LED display or functions that consume power while they are in their "off" state. Typical examples of
devices that consume parasitic loads are microwaves that are not in use but consumes power from their
digital clock/timer display that stays on 24/7 while the equipment is connected to the power source, devices
with "instant-on" functions such as laptops, computers and monitors, motion sensor operated equipment, or
audio-visual equipment that is operated by remote controls such as televisions.
Product labels from ENERGY STAR identify products which meet strict energy efficiency guidelines
set by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and on average are 25% more efficient than standard models
(www.energystar.gov). At present, California Title 20 Appliance Efficiency Regulations regulates the
280

external power supply standby power. Parasitic loads become critical considerations when designing
NZEBs as each watt consumed can lead to the need of upsizing the renewable energy system for buildings.
Watts Per Person Analysis
Based on the W/ft load factor benchmark reviewed in earlier sections (see Table 1.4.2), direct
conversions to Watts per Person are shown in Table 2.6 which will be used in the pilot study to benchmark
the results. Both occupied and unoccupied demand times will be evaluated as both are important factors in
estimating plug load energy use. The goal for the pilot study will be to achieve an average of 60 Watts per
Person and not higher than an average of 190 Watts per Person with the interventions being implemented.
The results of the pilot study are presented in future sections.
Average Watts/Person* (W)
Poor
Standard
High
Performance
Best
Occupied Demand
100+
100
55
35
Unoccupied Demand
90+
90
45
25
Combined Demand
190+
190
100
60
Peak Demand
Density
200+
200
135
100
* Load Factor is calculated based on values provided in Table 1.5. and is based on 40,000 ft
with 302 persons
Table 2.6: Plug Load Factor Benchmark based on W/Person
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3. Research
This section describes the pilot study designed for this thesis that consists of two (2) parts to address the
two hypotheses: 1) to explore the technology interventions by implementing advanced controls to reduce PL
energy and 2) to explore the behavioral interventions by implementing a daily feedback system given the
objective to reduce PL energy use.
Test subjects in the pilot study were selected based their load intensity classification with the focus on the
devices used by the participants (N=20) to measure the energy use consumption for a one week duration per
intervention. In this section, the highest priority was put on computers, computer peripherals and
monitor(s). The data and analysis can be found in Sections 4 and 5.
Research Goals
Below are the research goals that this thesis will attempt to answer based on the two hypotheses stated
in Section 1.
Technology to Reduce Energy
Comparison of Rated Power (W) vs. Peak Demand Power (W)
As described in Section 2 (see Section 2.2.3.), the rated power from the nameplate data is often considered
as the maximum or peak load for the equipment energy use and those will be compared against the actual
measured peak demand power to assess discrepancies, if any.
Impacts of Power Management Settings
In order to understand the impacts of the power management settings on equipment performance, a variable
for "No Control" (see Section 2.4.5) that disabled all power management and intervention controls was
included to be able to compare those measured data to the "Baseline".
Baseline PL Energy Performance
To determine the baseline for the pilot study, test subjects selected for the study were provided explicit
instructions to conduct "business-as-usual" and were advised not to modify any of the power settings on the
devices that were being tested. Although there were variables within those parameters of laptops and
desktop computers having different default settings, network settings on the devices were verified which
were all on the same balanced" power management settings (see Section 2.4.2). With no other information
given other than that the study measured the test subjects PL energy use, the pilot study deployed for one
week. As mentioned in the previous section, the study placed the highest priority on computers, computer
peripherals (i.e. cell phone charger) and monitor(s) per Table 2.2.1.
Implementation of Advanced Controls
To measure the impacts of advanced controls on PL energy use, Advanced Power Strips (APS) were
implemented in the pilot study to assess the efficiency and effectiveness of the technology intervention
while integrating custom power management settings to reduce energy use which is further detailed in
Section 3.3.
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Feedback to Influence Behavior

To implement the behavioral change intervention using the daily feedback response to measure PL
energy use, test subjects were given information regarding their PL energy use from the "Controls" results
(see Table 3.1.2.) prior to starting the pilot study as a reference. Each morning for the duration of the week
study, test subjects were notified by email with the previous workday PL energy use to determine whether
that would be a motivation factor that influenced behavior. Although there was no reward for the load
intensity classification with the highest % reduction, a daily winner was identified to study whether
competition was a factor that influenced behavior.
Table 3.1.2. - Daily Feedback Protocol
Methodology
To implement the pilot study to test the interventions to reduce PL energy use, participants in the four
(4) load intensity classifications described in preceding sections were given four (4) variables in the study
design, each measured for one week duration that lasted a total of three months. The variables included the
following: Variable 1) No Control, Variable 2) Baseline, Variable 3) Control, and Variable 4) Daily
Feedback. The test subjects were voluntary participants selected based on load intensity classifications,
each representing a different load user profile: 1) Heavy, 2) Medium, 3) Light and 4) Ultra Light. The
selected test subjects remained constant throughout the pilot study to maintain consistency with the
equipment measured. All results were evaluated using average load (W) per person over time (h).
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Pilot Study Schedule*

Schedule
Intervention Type
Description
Week 1
Technology
No Control
Week 2
Technology
Baseline
Week 3
Technology
Control (Power Management Settings & Advanced

Controls)
Week 4
Behavioral
Daily Feedback
*Each intervention measured for each load intensity classification

Table 3.2. - Pilot Study Schedule
No Control
The "No Control" test condition is intended to measure the computing equipment that is disabled of all
controls. These settings are often disabled by the users themselves as a preference to eliminate settings that
allow computers and displays to go into "sleep" mode after a specified time frame.
Table 3.2.1. - No Control, Power Management Setting

Baseline
The "Baseline" test condition is intended to measure the computing equipment to perform as "businessas-usual" and have the power management settings to the network recommended settings. The "Baseline"
test condition can be modified to have custom settings and often are adjusted to shorten or extend the
specified time frame to allow computers and displays to go into "sleep" mode.
284

Table 3.2.2. Recommended Control, Power Management Setting

Control
The "Control" test condition is intended to measure the computing equipment by implementing
advanced controls for optimal performance with the power management settings on power savers mode.
Similarly to the "Baseline" test condition, these can be modified to have custom settings and often are
adjusted to shorten or extend the specified time frame to allow computers and displays to go into "sleep"
mode.
Table 3.2.3. - Power Saver Control, Power Management Setting

Daily Feedback
The "Daily Feedback" test condition is intended to measure the computing equipment by implementing
daily feedback protocols to notify users of their energy consumption to measure whether it has an influence
on the behavior. This test condition includes advanced controls implemented in the "Controls" variable with
the option to customize the power management setting to adjust to shorten or extend the specified time
frame to allow computers and displays to go into "sleep" mode.
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Table 3.2.4. - Custom Control, Power Management Setting
Hypothesis: Part 1 (Advanced Controls)

To evaluate the PL energy use, highest priorities were put on computers, peripherals and monitor(s)
with the implementation of advanced controls to measure the optimal energy performance. The selected
four (4) Advanced Plug Strips (APS) were paired with the equipment from the four (4) load intensity
classifications (see Table 2.2.1) based on applicability and operability of systems. As an outcome, none of
the desktop computers were controlled due to its inability to automatically shut down.
Heavy
Medium
Light
Ultra Light
Load Sensing
Occupancy Sensor
Remote Switch
Timer Schedule
Table 3.2. APS Controls per Load Intensity Classification

Load Sensing Control
The load sensing control has a microprocessor inside that determines when the one (1) "master"
receptacle is on or off to send responses to the other five (5) "master-controlled" peripheral outlets to shut
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down. In addition to the six (6) receptacles, there are two (2) uncontrolled outlets to allow for equipment
that requires 24/7 operability.
Occupancy Sensor Control
The occupancy sensor consists of six (6) controlled and two (2) uncontrolled that are always on for
equipment that requires 24/7 use. The controlled receptacles are on personal occupancy sensors that utilizes
passive infrared (PIR) technology to sense occupancy to turn on and off controlled receptacles. An
adjustable time delay of thirty (30) seconds to thirty (30) minutes for the six (6) "sensor controlled"
receptacles. The multi-level lens used on the occupancy detection sensor has 120 coverage and can be
modified to allow for a more narrow detection as needed.
Remote Switch Control
The remote switch control allows for the whole computer system along with its peripherals to be shut
down including the standby power with a single click on a wireless remote switch. The remote control has a
range of up to sixty (60) feet and can be operated without having a direct line of sight. Six (6) of the eight
(8) are controlled on the automatic shut down switch and the other two (2) uncontrolled that are always on
for equipment that requires 24/7 use.
Timer Schedule Control
The timer schedule allows for control from the moment you require power by clicking on a button to
begin its timer for eleven (11) hours with manual override for the six (6) controlled receptacles. In the
situation that power consumption is not required for the full eleven (11) hours, users can click on the button
to shut-down including the standby power and in contrast, in the situation that power consumption is
required beyond the full eleven (11) hours, the LED on the control button will begin to click to notify the
user that the power is about to be shut down. In that case, since it is on a manual override, the user just
needs to push the button to continue its power source for its needed duration. The other two (2)
uncontrolled that are always on for equipment that requires 24/7 use.
APS Summary for Reference
Below is the table to summarize the characteristics of the advanced controls used for the pilot study:
Spec
Type
APS Evaluation
Parasitic Load (W)
On
Off
Automatic
Shut Off (Y/N)
Belkin Conserve Switch

Remote Switch
0.0
0.0
N
Pros:
- Allows ease and convenience to shut down multiple equipment with one switch and consumes no
standby parasitic loads when turned off
Cons:
- On manual shut off which means if user does not switch off, the devices connected to the
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controls will not automatically shut down the equipment

Belkin Conserve with Timer Schedule
0.0
0.0
Y
Timer
Pros:
- On automatic shut off which means if user does not switch off, the devices connected to the
controls will automatically shut down the equipment
Cons:
- Inability to modify the hours on the timer to customize to each user profile
Belkin Conserve AV
Load Sensing
0.0
0.0
N
Pros:
- It senses when the equipment in the master outlet is shut down to automatically shut down all
other computer peripherals connected to shut down along with it
Cons:
- On manual shut off which means if user does not switch off the equipment connected to the
master outlet, the devices connected to the controls will not automatically shut down the
equipment
Isole IDP-3050 Power
Occupancy
Strip with Personal Sensor Sensor
2.8 / 2.9
0.0
Y
Pros:
- On automatic shut off which means if user does not switch off, the devices connected to the
controls will automatically shut down the equipment
Cons:
- Constant power consumption during standby mode
Table 3.3.4. - APS Evaluation, Advantages & Disadvantages
Hypothesis: Part 2 (Daily Feedback)

To evaluate the PL energy use, highest priorities were put on computers, peripherals and monitor(s)
with the implementation of feedback response to measure the optimal energy performance. The feedback
intervention uses the primary approach of informing the selected participants with daily feedback of their
energy use consumption for a week duration following the technology intervention implementation to
examine any behavioral changes.
Watts Per Person Feedback
Each day of the Daily Feedback intervention was structured so that data was compiled from its previous
24-hour period to calculate the W/Person, which was described in previous sections as the average load (W)
per person over time (h). The data was provided each morning prior to the participants use of the
equipment and notified via email of the outcome with the results from the previous week shared as
reference.
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Daily Feedback Notification

The daily results of the daily feedback of W/Person was shared amongst all of the participants in the
pilot study and communicated through email with full transparency to examine whether knowing
information of others energy use has an influence on behavior.
Competition as a Factor
To further evaluate the influence of daily feedback as a factor to reduce PL energy use, results were
quantified per day to reveal percentage (%) reduction for each load intensity classification (see Figures
4.2.1. to 4.2.4) based on the measured outcome. Although there was no reward for the load intensity
classification with the highest % of reduction, by having a ranking structure in place that identified a winner
allowed for the study to measure whether competition as a factor influenced behavior. This information was
shared in combination with the daily email feedback notification and results will be discussed in Section 4.
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4. Research Data Review

This section presents the data collected from the pilot study to support the hypotheses as follows: 1)
technology to reduce PL energy use and 2) feedback to influence behavior. The results from the pilots study
are presented by providing the following data: 1) the output results, 2) comparing the measured average
W/Person against the baseline, and 3) analyzing the technology and feedback response intervention results.
For the purpose of this thesis, the PL energy use is calculated based on the average power consumption
(W) per person during a typical workday (h). The study evaluates an entire week of measurement over the
full 24 hour period of each day with the focus on the equipment usage patterns from Monday through Friday
to study its load profile by starting with results based on one minute intervals.
In the figures presented in this section, results are summarized by the load intensity classifications
(Heavy, Medium, Light, and Ultra Light) and by intervention type (No Control, Baseline, Control, and Daily
Feedback). The pilot study places the highest priority on computers, computer peripherals and monitor(s)
but results from the other miscellaneous equipment loads measured can be found in Section 6.
Measurement Results
In this section, the real time logged measurements extracted from Wattsup Pro ES will be presented
with results from the four (4) load intensity classifications described in the preceding sections categorized
based by load consumption : 1) Heavy, 2) Medium, 3) Light, and 4) Ultra Light.
The measured results are presented in load profile figures that represent data from measurements taken
at 1 minute intervals. The loads are presented in Watts (W). Furthermore, the results are presented in a
series of figures for representing each of the four (4) intervention categories: 1) No Control, 2) Baseline, 3)
Control, and 4) Daily Feedback. These results are summarized in Section4.3 by comparing the percent (%)
reduction for each category.
All findings from Sections 4 through 6 are used to outline a list of strategies for reducing PL energy use
and can be found in the Appendix of this thesis.
Metered Data
The metered data was recorded for 7 parameters, including: 1) Current Watts, 2) Volts, 3) Amps, 4)
Cumulative Watt Hours, 5) Average Monthly kWh, 6) Cumulative Cost, and 7) Power Cycle that recorded
for any power interruptions. For the purposes of this thesis, we will review the exported data measured
using Watts (W) by importing it to an Excel file for further analysis to calculate the average load of the five
(5) working days from Monday through Friday with weekends shown as reference only.
The metered data results of the average watts consumption categorized by the various load intensity
classifications can be found in the figure below (See figures 4.3.1.1 to 4.3.4.4). The load intensity
classifications varies by the equipment types used as described in the preceding section and the data
summary can be found in Section 4.3.
The heavy load intensity indicates the equipment type with the highest measured output and the ultra light
intensity indicates the equipment type with the lowest measured output (see Sections 4.2.1. thru 4.2.4. for
additional information). The figures summarized in this Section are informative to evaluate equipment use
patterns and are used to study the peak demand usage of electricity consumption. This type of data would
290

be difficult to view and to interpret using minute-by-minute data tabulations so it has been converted into
figures to evaluate the results.
Load Profile Analysis
As discussed in the preceding sections, below is the short summary of the variables used in the pilot
study. All the participants representing each load intensity classification remained constant throughout to
have a better understanding of the changes in PL energy use based on the same equipment measured.
The first variant with the figure denoted as No Control is the recorded meter data for the four (4) load
intensity classification types with disabled controls and without the implementation of advanced controls.
The second variant with the figure denoted as "Baseline" is the recorded meter data for the four (4) load
intensity classification types with enabled power management controls but without the implementation of
advanced controls.
The third variant with the figure denoted as "Control" is the recorded meter data for all the four (4) load
intensity load classification types with enabled power management controls with the implementation of
advanced controls.
The fourth variant with the figure denoted as "Daily Feedback" is the recorded meter data for the four
(4) load intensity load classification types with enabled power management controls with the
implementation of advanced controls, given daily feedback of their energy consumption.
Heavy Load User Profile
The Heavy Load Profile has the highest measured peak value and highest overall energy use per person.
The output is not as high as the rated power on the nameplate data and at its highest, measured to be more
than a third less. The parasitic load, on the other hand, is the highest amongst the Medium, Light and Ultra
Light Load Profiles.
The output data for the Heavy Load Profile can be seen in the figures below. They are labeled
according to the variables and shows the recorded data using average Watts (W). In the following section,
we will further analyze these load profiles by evaluating the average daily load profile, which is calculated
based on the average load in watts over fifteen (15) minute intervals. This average load profile will also be
used to compare against typical commercial building load profiles to better understand the deviation
between the measured data and typical assumptions.
The data output during the "No Controls" variant shows a constant demand requirement over the
occupied and unoccupied demand, where the average watts consumption is 176 W/Person. The "Baseline"
variant where the power management is enabled shows a reduction but shows the most significant impact of
load reduction with the use of APS with power management as the variant where the calculated
consumption is 67 W/Person. The "Daily Feedback" has a reduction compared to the "Baseline" measure
but shows a moderate increase compared to the "APS with power management" due to the increase in its
occupied demand. Based on the output data, the highest reduction achieved in the study case for the Heavy
Load Profile is 34%.
The power consumption during the unoccupied demand is the least with the implementation of the APS,
which is nearly twice the occupied hours. Due to the building automation system set up that resets devices
at 2am each day to allow for systems updates to occur during unoccupied hours, it disables the function
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afterwards for the equipment to completely shut down and results in continuous consumption of power
thereafter.
Figure 4.2.1.1. - Heavy Load Profile, No Control
292

Figure 4.2.1.2. - Heavy Load Profile, Baseline
Figure 4.2.1.3. - Heavy Load Profile, Load Sensing Control & Power Management
293

Figure 4.2.1.4 - Heavy Load Profile, Control with Daily Feedback

Medium Load User Profile
The Medium Load Profile has a lower measured peak load value and lower overall energy use per
person in comparison to the Heavy Load Profile. Conversely, it has a higher measured peak load value and
higher energy use per person than the Light Load Profile when measured. Yet interestingly, the rated power
is less than the Light Load Profile rated power. Despite the differences, the output is not as high as the rated
power and at its highest, measured to be more than a third less. The parasitic load is less than the Heavy
Load Profile.
The output data for the Medium Load Profile can be seen in the figures below. They are labeled
The data output during the "No Control" variant shows a constant demand requirement that stays
constant over the occupied and unoccupied demand, where the average watts consumption is 65W/Person.
The "Baseline" variant where the power management is enabled shows a reduction but has the most
significant with the "Daily Feedback" variant where the calculated consumption is 24W/Person. Based on
the output data, the overall reduction achieved in the study case for the Medium Profile Load profile is 37%.
which is nearly twice the occupied hours. Due to the building automation system set up that resets devices
at 2am each day to allow for systems updates to occur during unoccupied hours, it disables the function
afterwards for the equipment to completely shut down and results in continuous consumption of power
thereafter.
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Due to the automatic building system setting that resets devices at 2am each day to allow for systems
updates to occur during unoccupied hours, it disables the function afterwards to completely shut down,
which in comparison to the Light and Ultra Light Load Profile equipment types that typically is unplugged
when not in use, will continue to consume electricity thereafter. This is one of the main factors for this load
profile to have these higher loads, despite having lower rated power than the Light Load Profile.
Figure 4.2.2.1. - Medium Load Profile, No Control
295

Figure 4.2.2.2. - Medium Load Profile, Baseline
Figure 4.2.2.3. - Medium Load Profile, Occupancy Sensor & Power Management
296

Figure 4.2.2.4 - Medium Load Profile, Control with Daily Feedback

Light Load User Profile
The Light Load Profile has a lower measured peak load value and lower overall energy use per person
in comparison to the Medium Load Profile. Conversely, it has a higher measured peak load value and
higher energy user per person than the Ultra Light Load Profile when measured. Yet interestingly, the rated
power is higher than the Medium Load Profile rated power. Despite the differences, the output is not as
high as rated power and at its highest, measured to be more than a third less. The parasitic load is less than
both the Heavy and Medium Load Profile.
The output data for the Light Load Profile can be seen in the figures below. They are labeled according
to the variables and shows the recorded data using average Watts (W). In the following section, we will
further analyze these load profiles by evaluating the average daily load profile, which is calculated based on
the average load in watts over fifteen (15) minute intervals. This average load profile will also be used to
compare against typical commercial building load profiles to better understand the deviation between the
measured data and typical assumptions.
The data output during the "No Controls" variant shows less demand requirements during the
unoccupied demand in comparison to the High and Medium Load Profile, where the average watts
consumption is 28W/Person. The "Baseline" variant where the equipment enables the power management
controls shows a reduction but has the most significant impact with the "APS and power management"
variant where the calculated consumption is 16 W/Person. . The "Daily Feedback" has a reduction
compared to the "Baseline" measure but shows a moderate increase compared to the "APS with power
management" due to the increase in its occupied demand. Based on the output data, the overall reduction
achieved in the study case for the Light Load Profile is 39%.
which is nearly twice the occupied hours. Despite the building automation system set up that resets devices
at 2am each day to allow for systems updates to occur during unoccupied hours, the Light Load Profile is
297

not affected as the equipment is typically unplugged during this period. This is one of the main factors for
this user type profile to have these lower loads, coupled with having lower rated power than the Heavy and
Medium Load Profile.
Figure 4.2.3.1. - Light Load Profile, No Control
298

Figure 4.2.3.2. - Light Load Profile, Baseline
Figure 4.2.3.3 - Light Load Profile, Remote Switch Control & Power Management
299

Figure 4.2.3.4 - Light Load Profile, Control with Daily Feedback

Ultra Light Load User Profile
The Ultra Light Load Profile has the lowest measured peak value and lowest overall energy use per
person. The output is not as high as the rated power on the namplate data. The parasitic load is lowest
amongst the Heavy, Medium and Light Load Profiles.
The output data for the Ultra Light Load Profile can be seen in the figures below. They are labeled
The data output during the "No Controls" variant shows less demand requirements during the
unoccupied demand in comparison to the Light Load Profile, where the average watts consumption is
23W/Person. The "Baseline" variant where the equipment enables the power management controls shows a
reduction but has the most significant impact with the "APS with power management" variant where the
calculated consumption is 11 W/Person and is near equivalent to the data output with the "Daily Feedback"
variant. Based on the output data, the overall reduction achieved in the study design for the Ultra Light
Load Profile is 10%.
The power consumption during the unoccupied demand is the least with the implementation of the
advanced power strips, which is nearly twice the occupied hours. Despite the building automation system
set up that resets devices at 2am each day to allow for systems updates to occur during unoccupied hours,
the Ultra Light Load Profile is not affected as the equipment is typically unplugged during this period. This
300

is one of the main factors for this user type profile to have these lower loads, coupled with having lower
rated power than the Light Load Profile.
Figure 4.2.4.1. - Ultra Light Load Profile, No Control
301

Figure 4.2.4.2. - Ultra Light Load Profile, Baseline
Figure 4.2.4.3 Ultra Light Load Profile, Timer Control & Power Management
302

Figure 4.2.4.4 Ultra Light Load Profile, Control with Daily Feedback
3.2. PL Energy Use Summary
The results from the pilot study conducted for the four (4) load intensity classifications with the various
technology interventions identified that an energy use reduction of up to 39% can be achieved as compared
to the baseline intervention.
The highest energy reduction percentage from the technology intervention was the Remote Switch
Control from the Light Load Profile with the result of 39% compared to baseline. The results draws the
conclusion that although laptop computers have less power consumption than desktop computers, the
monitor, if not properly shut down, can be the factor to make up for the difference when not managed by the
implementation of advanced controls.
The highest reduction from the Daily Feedback intervention was the Occupancy Sensor Control from
the Medium Load Profile with the result of 37% compared to baseline. The results draws the conclusion
that although mini-tower desktops have less power consumption than the standard towers, due to its
compact equipment size can be placed in difficult locations to access the on/off button, making it
inconvenient for users to reach to turn on unless daily feedback is provided to make users aware of its
wasted consumption.
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PL Energy Use Summary for Reference

The table and the figures below summarizes the data output results from the pilot study (see Figures
4.2.1.1. to 4.2.4.4.) and uses the benchmark evaluated in preceding sections (see Table 2.6) to highlight the
results based on the average load (W) per Person over time (h) and analyze the reduction rates by percentage
(%) using the Baseline as its comparative factor (see Figures 4.3.1.1. to 4.3.1.4). This is easier than
reviewing each data output of the set points that amounted to over 160,000+ for the analysis.
Average Watts/Person* (W)
Load User Profile
Type
Poor
(No Control)
Standard
(Baseline)
High
Performance
(Control/
Feedback)
Best
(Control/
Feedback)
Benchmark
190+
190
100
60
Heavy
176+
102
78
67
Medium
65+
38
37
34
Light
28+
27
22
16
Ultra Light
23+
13
12
11
* Load Factor is calculated based on values provided in Table 1.5. and is based on 40,000 ft
with 302 persons
Table 4.3.1.: Plug Load Factor based on W/Person
304

Figure 4.3.1.1 - Heavy Load Profile, Average Watt Hours/Person
Figure 4.3.1.2 - Medium Load Profile, Average Watt Hours/Person
305

Figure 4.3.1.3 - Light Load Profile, Average Watt Hours/Person
Figure 4.3.1.4 - Ultra Light Load Profile, Average Watt Hours/Person
306

5. Inferences from Data

This section analyzes the metered data taken from Section 4 to explore the following topics: 1) compare
the load profile developed from the measured data to the typical eQuest default load profile, 2) calculate the
percentage (%) deviation of PL factors for and compares the results to the eQuest load profile, and 3)
evaluates the results to current methods of estimating PL energy use.
Modeled (Estimate) PLs vs. Measured (Actual) PL Energy Use Overview
In Figure 5.1, two typical load profile data files from energy modeling software programs for
commercial buildings are presented and will be used as a baseline for the analysis presented in this Section.
These Load Profiles are used to determine the average Load Factors (LF) or Part Load Factor (PLF), which
are indicators of the variations in the electrical load versus time. Often, engineers will use this information
to assess electric energy use by multiplying the peak load value with the part-load factor.
In this section, the eQuest Load Profile is used to compare against the actual measured load profiles to
analyze any deviations that occur while assessing the peak demand or part load factor. Based on the
detailed data evaluated in Section 4, evidence shows that a substantial reduction can be seen in
implementing advanced controls and daily feedback in the Load Profiles to optimize energy use. In the
following figures (See figures 5.1.1.1 to 5.1.4.4), the measured results are further analyzed to study how the
implementation of these interventions currently compare against the computational modeled environments
using the typical Load Profile data file and is done so by overlapping day-by-day data in 15 minute intervals
(in comparison to the preceding section which presented data in week-by-week in 1 minute intervals). The
steps to arrive to the results shown in these figures can be found in the Appendix section of this thesis (see
figures A1 to A16).
307

Figure 5.1 -Typical Computational Load Profiles for Commercial Buildings

Heavy Load User Profile
We will begin the review with the output data from the Heavy Load Profile with how it compares to the
computational modeled environment. The default eQuest Load Profile data file has a Load Factor (LF) of
46% which will be considered as the baseline in this section. In addition, all measured data will use its peak
demand as its maximum LF percentage (%) for the analysis.
The LFs of the measured Heavy Load Profile per the study design are as follows: 1) No Control - 85%,
2) Baseline - 49%, 3) Control - 32%, and 4) Daily Feedback - 37%. As a result, the following are the
respective deviations from the baseline: 1) +39%, 2) +3%, 3) -14%, and 4) -9%. Review Figures 5.1.1.1 to
5.1.1.4 and Table 5.2 for further information on the results.
The deviation closest to the eQuest Load Profile is "Baseline" and furthest is "No Control" in the Heavy
Load Profile.
308

Figure 5.1.1.1 - Heavy Load Profile, No Control
Figure 5.1.1.2 - Heavy Load Profile, Baseline
309

Figure 5.1.1.3 - Heavy Load Profile, Load Sensing Control & Power Management
Figure 5.1.1.4 - Heavy Load Profile, Control with Daily Feedback
310

Medium Load User Profile

The next output data is from the Medium Load Profile with how it compares to the computational
modeled environment. The default eQuest Load Profile data file of has a Load Factor (LF) of 46% which
will be considered as the baseline in this section. In addition, all measured data will use its peak demand as
its maximum LF percentage (%) for the analysis.
The LFs of the measured Medium Load Profile per the study design are as follows: 1) No Control 91%, 2) Baseline - 52%, 3) Control - 40%, and 4) Daily Feedback - 29%. As a result, the following are the
respective deviations from the baseline: 1) +45%, 2) +6%, 3) -6%, and 4) -17%. Review Figures 5.1.2.1 to
The deviation closest to the eQuest Load Profile is "Baseline" and "Occupancy Sensor Control and
Power Management with the same deviation percentage (%) and furthest is "No Control" in the Medium
Load Profile.
Figure 5.1.2.1 - Medium Load Profile, No Control
311

Figure 5.1.2.2 - Medium Load Profile, Baseline
Figure 5.1.2.3 - Medium Load Profile, Occupancy Sensor Control & Power Management
312

Figure 5.1.2.4 - Medium Load Profile, Control with Daily Feedback

Light Load User Profile
The next output data is from the Light Load Profile with how it compares to the computational modeled
environment. The default eQuest Load Profile data file of has a Load Factor (LF) of 46% which will be
considered as the baseline in this section. In addition, all measured data will use its peak demand as its
maximum LF percentage (%) for the analysis.
The LFs of the measured Light Load Profile per the study design are as follows: 1) No Control - 19%,
2) Baseline - 17%, 3) Control - 11%, and 4) Daily Feedback - 14%. As a result, the following are the
respective deviations from the baseline: 1) -27%, 2) -29%, 3) -35%, and 4) -32%. Review Figures 5.1.3.1 to
The deviation closest to the eQuest Load Profile is "No Control and furthest is "Remote Switch Control
& Power Management" in the Medium Load Profile.
313

Figure 5.1.3.1 - Light Load Profile, No Control
Figure 5.1.3.2 - Light Load Profile, Baseline
314

Figure 5.1.3.3 - Light Load Profile, Remote Switch Control & Power Management
Figure 5.1.3.4 - Light Load Profile, Control with Daily Feedback
315

Ultra Light Load User Profile

The last output data is from the Ultra Light Load Profile with how it compares to the computational
modeled environment. The default eQuest Load Profile data file of has a Load Factor (LF) of 46% which
will be considered as the baseline in this section. In addition, all measured data will use its peak demand as
its maximum LF percentage (%) for the analysis.
The LFs of the measured Ultra Light Load Profile per the study design are as follows: 1) No Control 21%, 2) Baseline - 13%, 3) Control - 11%, and 4) Daily Feedback - 12%. As a result, the following are the
respective deviations from the baseline: 1) -25%, 2) -33%, 3) -45%, and 4) -34%. Review Figures 5.1.4.1 to
The deviation closest to the eQuest Load Profile is "No Control and furthest is "Timer Control &
Power Management" in the Ultra Light Load Profile.
Figure 5.1.4.1 Ultra Light Load Profile, No Control
316

Figure 5.1.4.2 Ultra Light Load Profile, Baseline
Figure 5.1.4.3 Ultra Light Load Profile, Timer Control & Power Management
317

Figure 5.1.4.4 Ultra Light Load Profile, Control with Daily Feedback
Modeled vs. Measured Comparative Analysis
Below is a table that summarizes the deviation by percentage using the eQuest load profile as the
baseline case based on the results from the pilot study:
Rank
Load Profile
Variable Type
Deviation (%)
1 (<10%)
Heavy
Baseline
+3%
2 (<10%)
Medium
Baseline
+6%
2 (<10%)
Medium
Control
-6%
3 (<10%)
Heavy
Daily Feedback
-9%
4 (<20%)
Heavy
Control
-14%
5 (<20%)
Medium
Daily Feedback
-17%
6 (>20%)
Ultra Light
No Control
-25%
7 (>20%)
Light
No Control
-27%
8 (>20%)
Light
Baseline
-29%
9 (>20%)
Light
Daily Feedback
-32%
10 (>20%)
Ultra Light
Baseline
-33%
11 (>20%)
Ultra Light
Daily Feedback
-34%
318

12 (>20%)
Light
Control
-35%
13 (>20%)
Ultra Light
Control
-35%
14 (>20%)
Heavy
No Control
+39%
15 (>20%)
Medium
No Control
Table 5.2 Comparative Analysis of Modeled vs. Measured Deviation
+45%
Summary of Analysis
Figure 5.3. Summary of Load Factor Deviation by percentage (%)
Based on the comparative analysis of the deviation of load factors, the results from the pilot study
indicates that the default load profile from eQuest closest reflects the load profile for desktop computing
equipment for Heavy and Medium load user profiles in commercial buildings with the baseline variable.
The analysis also indicates that Light and Ultra Light load user profiles are not accounted for in the
default load profiles since all the outputs resulted in a deviation greater than 25%. These findings leads to
the discussion that more research is needed to understand load factors for efficient equipment that integrates
advanced controls and feedback systems.
319

Figure 5.3.1. Heavy Load Profile, Measured vs. Modeled Analysis
Figure 5.3.2. Medium Load Profile, Measured vs. Modeled Analysis
320

Figure 5.3.3. Light Load Profile, Measured vs. Modeled Analysis
Figure 5.3.4. Ultra Light Load Profile, Measured vs. Modeled Analysis
321

Load Factor Analysis
Figure 5.4. Load Factor Analysis (Watts per Person)
Based on the results from the average load (W) per Person over time (h) from the preceding section (see
Table 4.3.1.), load factors for all variables were calculated by using the part-load factor evaluated (see
Figures 5.1.1. to 5.1.4.4.) and people density of 30 ft/person to compare against the commonly used 1.0
W/ft. Results from the comparison indicates that plug loads modeled estimates were in fact less than the
measured data. This outcome reconfirms that estimating PL energy use utilizing standardized load factors
assumptions W/ft with standardized load profiles result in inaccuracies of its actual measured consumption.
In order to better understand PL energy use in buildings and more importantly to reduce the load, it is
recommended that targeting a goal based on average load (W) per Person over time (h) can help architects
and engineers to set a baseline that is measurable and allows to then devise a plan that focus on PL reduction
strategies to optimize energy efficiency.
6. Conclusion
Plug Loads not only contribute to internal heat gain but also can be found in all building types. As
mentioned in the introduction of this thesis, as the dependency on the internet for information and data
322

transfer increases, the electricity demand will pose a challenge to design and operate Net Zero Energy
Buildings. This thesis investigates the reduction of PL energy use through the implementation of advanced
controls and studies behavioral changes by providing daily feedback. Inferences from the collected data
formulates methods of estimating PL energy using Watts Per Person while evaluating the findings to
improve computational energy modeling.
The key research findings covered in this thesis can be highlighted into three (3) points: 1) Watt Hour
(Wh)/Person Analysis - for every desktop computer replaced with a laptop there is a reduction of up to
150Wh/Person and the lower the people density, the higher the power density, 2) Comparative Analysis of
Modeled vs. Measured Data - current computational load profile standards are based on desktop computers
without advanced controls, and 3) Technology vs. Behavioral Intervention - implementation of APS
consistently resulted in reduction of PL energy use in comparison to daily feedback to influence behavior.
By implementing daily feedback response systems, the behavioral component of this thesis resulted in
measurable reduction compared to the baseline case for all load profiles. But based on the results, there is
no prescriptive method of calculating reduction measures for the behavior.
In conclusion, the discrepancy found between the measured (actual) and modeled (estimate) data of PL
energy use for the high performance commercial building discussed in the earlier sections can be attributed
to the following factors: 1) computing equipment not properly getting shut down when not in use, thereby
consuming power that was not accounted for, 2) miscellaneous equipment loads not properly accounted for
during unoccupied hours, 3) building operation hours not properly defined, 4) unanticipated power surge
that occur at 2am daily that ignites equipment from properly shutting down, and 5) power management
settings that are customized to perform less than network default baseline settings.
Key Findings
In the table below are implications that have been made based on results from this pilot study
summarized as key finding for stakeholders involved in building energy and life cycle assessment.
Stakeholder
Architects/
Key Findings
Use of Watts Per Person can help guide design teams to

understand plug load efficiency
Typical eQuest office equipment loads and profiles are

applicable for standard computer use without the
implementation of any controls
Rated power (or nameplate data) and peak power demands in

equipment are not necessarily similar values and there is no
real strong peak power ratio or correlation
Standard load profiles underestimates the energy demand/use

during unoccupied hours as findings indicate that many
computer equipment and appliances, imaging and audio visual
equipment are not shut down
Manufacturer provided equipment cut sheets have no
Designers
Engineers /
Energy Modelers
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consistency on reporting of power consumption to estimate

peak
-
Implementing a power management setting on computing

equipment to reduce energy can save up to 83% of power
consumption
Implementing APS on computing equipment to reduce energy

can save up to 37% of power consumption
Replacing desktop computer with laptops can reduce PL

energy consumption of up to 150W/person
Utility Companies
For incentives/rebates offerings, expand plug load controls

beyond occupancy sensor types and include other advanced
controls that result in higher percent energy use reduction
Researchers
To be consistent with how energy use is assessed with utility

companies, use average 15 minute intervals when metering
devices when measuring and verifying data
Refer to performance guidelines provided in the Appendix for

recommended protocols when measuring PLs for buildings
Not all APS are appropriate for all devices (assess the
operability of each equipment carefully and refer to Table 6.4.
for additional guidance)
Building Owners /
Tenants
All
Table 7.1 Pilot Study Implications Summary

References
7.1 Reference
ASHRAE 90.1, 2010. Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings I-P Edition, American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers Inc.
ASHRAE Handbook, 2009. Fundamentals I-P Edition. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers Inc.
California Energy Commission, 2008. 2008 Building Energy Efficiency Standards for Residential and Nonresidential
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324

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325

Intelligent RNN Controller for domestic (residential) heating system

Abbas Javed1, Hadi Larijani, Ali Ahmadinia, Rohinton Emmanuel
School of Engineering and Built Environment, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK.
abbas.javed@gcu.ac.uk, H.Larijani@gcu.ac.uk, Ali.Ahmadinia@gcu.ac.uk,
Rohinton.Emmanuel@gcu.ac.uk
Abstract
In this paper, we propose a novel variable setpoint RNN controller for maintaining comfortable indoor
environment in double storey residential building by controlling the motorised thermostatic radiator valves
(TRVs) mounted on radiators. In order to monitor the indoor environmental condition of the building the
sensor interface collects information from different sensors and sends this information to random neural
network (RNN) controller. The RNN controller ensures comfortable environment for occupants by
regulating the air temperature of the building according to the setpoint suggested by PMV index based
variable setpoint estimator. The proposed RNN controller is compared with ANN controller and it is found
that accuracy of RNN controller is 26% more than ANN controller and conserves 2.75% more energy than
ANN controller at PMV index based temperature setpoints. The RNN controller has the capability to adjust
the room temperature to lower setpoints (not included in the training data) while ANN controller failed to
maintain accurate comfortable environment for the operating points not covered in the training data. The
results show that the percentage of accurate air temperature regulation for RNN controller is 95.69% while
for ANN it is 2.22%.
Keywords: Random neural network, artificial neural network, Building Energy Management Systems,
PMV index based control scheme.
1. Introduction
Buildings currently consume 40% of the total energy in most developed countries. The International
Energy Agency (IEA) has set a target to reduce energy consumption in buildings by improving energy
efficiency. This will result in estimated energy saving of 1509 million tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe) by
2050 [1]. The energy efficiency policy of IEA will not only save energy but it will also reduce carbon
dioxide (CO2) emission from the building sector. According to Intelligent Energy Executive Agency (IEAE)
in European households, 68% of energy consumption is for space heating, 14% for water heating and 13%
for electric appliances [2]. The carbon emission reduction targets therefore will be impossible to achieve
without reducing CO2 emission in households. While many fabric-based and equipment-based interventions
are needed, controllers for residential heating systems could play a useful part without compromising the
occupants comfort.
According to [3], 95% of radiators were controlled using TRVs (thermostatic radiator valves). It was
found that majority of TRVs failed to reduce the heating output once the room temperature is greater than
the setpoint as a result energy was wasted. The survey further revealed that 32% of TRVs were positioned at
Max and more than 65% of TRVs were set for greater flowrates than required. If TRVs were kept within
2-3 settings (max 5), about 12.4% reduction of heat consumption could be gained compared with the
326

situation in which the TRVs were kept fully open [4]. In [5], PMV is defined in terms of easily measured
parameters. Authors proposed the PMV index based variable set point control scheme and compared the
results with fixed set point control scheme.
In this work, a novel intelligent control scheme using random neural networks which has been
developed and patented [6] is presented. The PMV index based variable set point estimator suggest the
setpoint for the air temperature of the rooms and intelligent RNN/ANN controller efficiently operates the
motorized TRV in order to control the heat emission from the radiators by taking in to account the ever
changing indoor and outdoor environmental variables.
The main contributions of this paper are:
The novel application of random neural networks for implementing the control scheme for HVAC
in residential building is introduced which is easy to implement, requires less computational power,
low memory cost and exhibits robustness properties.
The novel variable set point RNN and ANN controllers have been developed for optimization of
energy consumption by residential heating systems without compromising the thermal comfort of
the occupants. The gradient descent algorithm is used to train the RNN while Levenberg- Marquardt
training algorithm is used to train ANN controllers for predicting the optimized inflow of hot water
in to the radiator.
The model of double storey building with eight rooms is developed by using International Building
Physics Toolbox (IBPT). The building model with simple ON/OFF controller for controlling the
TRV is simulated for 30 days and training dataset is generated. The RNN and ANN controllers are
trained by using data from single room of this model and tested by applying intelligent controller in
all rooms of the building for 100 days.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Brief introduction to different control schemes applied for
building energy management and RNN model is presented in Section II. The implemented building model is
described in section III followed by description of intelligent heating control system in section IV. The
experimental results are provided in section V followed by the discussions and conclusions in section VI.
2. Related Work
The control objectives for HVAC controllers are to maintain high comfort levels and save energy. In
achieving these goals intelligent controllers should learn the comfort zone from the occupant's preference
and be able to adapt to the changes accordingly.
In [7], the authors classify the control functions for HVAC in to two categories i.e. Local control and
supervisory control. For local control, ON/OFF and proportional-integral derivative control schemes are
normally used. The control settings of these local controllers might be optimal and energy efficient for
certain subsystem however they may not be energy efficient for overall system as these control schemes are
unable to maintain indoor comfort of the building by taking in to the account the ever changing indoor and
outdoor environmental variables. PID control has the advantage of minimizing the errors in heat
adjustments but its performance is very poor under varying load conditions and changes in gain can make
the system unstable.
Supervisory control techniques are used for maintaining comfortable indoor environment by considering
indoor and outdoor environment variables. Supervisory control techniques can be implemented by using
physical model based techniques and black box techniques. In [8], authors classified the control system for
HVAC system in to five types i.e. classical control, hard control, soft control, hybrid control and other
control techniques. Authors compared the performance of MPC with other control techniques and explained
327

that MPC provide superior performance in terms of robustness, lower energy consumption and consistent
performance under varying conditions. In [9], authors compared the performance of PID, PID with
combination of Model Predictive Control (PID-MPC) and PID with fuzzy logic controllers (PID-FLC). PIDMPC is the most efficient but very hard to develop while PID-FLC is easy to implement and gives good
compromised performance. Physical model-based techniques require physical model of the building to
predict energy/cost of the concerned system which is computationally expensive and requires lot of
memory. Therefore detailed physical model-based control strategies might not be suitable for practical
applications.
Black box techniques are normally implemented by artificial neural networks (ANN) and random neural
network models. ANN models are developed on empirical model of the system and are capable to
mathematically relate the input and output variables of the system. ANN models are computationally less
expensive than physical model based techniques but requires extensive training data to achieve accuracy.
ANN have been used in different applications for BEMS such as modeling the thermal dynamics of building
space, estimation of heating loads of buildings, control of HVAC, prediction of energy consumption in
buildings, and solar radiation predictions for non-domestic buildings.
In [10], authors used the ANN to predict the future room temperature of the building for predictive
control of AC. Similarly in [11], author used the ANN to predict the future room temperature by using solar
radiations, heating system control signal, outside temperature, indoor temperature.
In [12] author proposed an ANN based predictive control model. The results of their work showed that
the performance of proposed predictive control is better than that of the current 2-position ON/OFF control.
Authors in [13], enhanced the work of Lee et al [12] and proposed ANN based models that takes into
account not only indoor air temperature but also Predictive Mean Vote (PMV) as a control variable in order
to reduce overshoots and undershoots of the temperature which resulted in energy conservation. Neural
network heating controllers developed in [14] can not only predict the energy demands but can also forecast
the weather conditions. This controller is of modular structure which consists of metrological module,
outdoor temperature forecasting, solar irradiance forecasting, heating energy switch predictor module, and
indoor temperature predicting module.
General regression neural networks (GRNNs) are used to optimize air conditioning setback scheduling
in public buildings. The aim of this research is to foresee the time of the end of thermostat setback (EoS) in
order to restore the required room temperature in the building at the start of working hours [15]. Similarly in
[16], authors developed an optimized ANN model to predict the start time for building heating systems.
In [17], authors used adaptive neuro-fuzzy based inferential sensor model (ANFIS) for estimating the air
temperature of the zone. Inputs for ANFIS are: Solar radiation, external temperature and the control signal
for the boiler that is used to calculate the power consumption.
Many authors have used ANN in synergy with other techniques. In [18], authors used ANN to model
building behavior and later on used this ANN model with multiobjective genetic algorithm (NSGA-ii) for
optimization of parameters to reduce energy consumption in residential buildings. TRNSYS simulation
software is used to generate the training data for ANN and later on ANN is validated by measured data
generated from TRNSYS. In [19], authors combined ANN model with fuzzy model for indoor temperature
regulation of office building. The fuzzy logic control unit is used to regulate the inlet air speed and ON/OFF
switching of HVAC by using the indoor temperature forecast from an auto-regressive neural network.
In [20], authors designed the direct NN controller based on back-propagation algorithm to overcome the
nonlinear feature of PMV calculation and enhance control performance. Generally the ANN models are
simple as they do not require detailed physical knowledge of the building but they are reliable only for
operating points covered in the training data therefore to achieve high performance, extensive training data
328

are required. The need of the hour is to develop control methods that can be applicable to wide range of
building and are easy to implement, requires less computation cost and memory and at the same time able to
achieve control accuracy and robustness.
In [21-22], author proposed the new class of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) as Random Neural
Network (RNN) in which signals are either +1 or -1 due to which it is an excellent modeling tool. RNN can
give more detailed system state description because the potential of neuron is represented by integer rather
than binary value [23]. RNN is easy to implement on hardware as its neurons can be represented by simple
counters [24-25]. Abdelbaki in [26], compared the performance of the RNN with ANN for unseen patterns
not covered in the training data and found that RNN accurately measured the output while ANN failed to
predict accurate output.
Applications of RNN have been reported for modeling, pattern recognition, image processing,
classification, and communication systems [23][27]. However no such application has been reported so far
in implementing control scheme for HVAC in residential/commercial buildings.
2.1. Random Neural Networks
In RNN, shown in Figure 1, signal travels in the form of impulse between the neurons. If the receiving
signal has positive potential (+1) it represents excitation, and if the potential of the input signal is negative (1) it represents inhibition to the receiving neuron. Each neuron i in the random neural network has a state
ki(t) which represents the potential at time t. This potential ki(t) is represented by non-negative integer. If
ki(t)>0 then neuron i is in excited state and if ki(t)=0 then neuron i is in idle state.
When neuron i is in excited state it transmits impulse according to the poisson rate ri. The transmitted
signal can reach neuron j as excitation signal with probability p+(i,j) or as inhibitory signal with probability
p-(i,j), or can leave the network with probability d(i) such that
()
)
)
(
(
)
)
(1)
where
(
(
(2)
(3)
combining (1)-(3)
(
( ))
(4)
( )
( ) As w matrices
The firing rate between the neuron is represented by
are the product of firing rate and probabilities, therefore these matrices always hold non-negative values.
External positive or negative signal can also reach neuron i at poisson rate i and i respectively. When
positive signal is received at neuron i its potential ki(t) will increase to +1. If neuron i is in excitation state
and it receives negative signal the potential of neuron i will decrease to zero. Arrival of negative signal will
have no effect on neuron i if its potential is already 0. The description of symbols used is given in Table 1.
Consider the vector K(t)= (k1(t),..kn(t )) where ki(t) is the potential of neuron i and n is the total
number of neurons in the network. Let K is continuous time Markov process. The stationary distribution
of K is represented as:
( )) (
)
( ( ) ( ( )
(5)
For each node i
(6)
329

Figure- 1 Random Neural Network
Symbol
qi
Table 19: RNN Symbols

RNN Symbol
Description
Probability neuron i excited at time t
p+(i, j)
Probability neuron j receives positive signal from neuron i
p (i, j)
Probability neuron j receives negative signal from neuron i
ri
Firing rate of neuron i
Arrival rate of external positive signals
Arrival rate of external negative signals
d(i)
Probability a signal from neuron departs from the network
ki(t)
Potential of neuron i at time t
Where
(7)
(8)
For three layer network, qi for each layer is calculated as

(9)
)
(
(10)
)
)
(11)
3. Implementation of model in Matlab

Thermal analysis of the buildings can be done by performing simulations in Matlab/Simulink. Simulink
which is the part of Matlab has a high degree of flexibility, modular structure and easy to use.
Matlab/Simulink has already been used for building thermal analysis [28-29]. SIMBAD [30], International
Building Physics Toolbox (IBPT) [31] are examples of Matlab/Simulink based dedicated building and
330

HVAC toolboxes. Apart from IBPT, the most of the Simulink based toolboxes are neither open source, nor
free of cost or have not been directly applicable to building physics modeling [31].
Models can be built through direct development in Simulink or by making use of Matlab and Simulink
S-functions. The available modeling approaches have made it possible to implement any physical model in
Simulink. A large degree of integration using the Matlab packages can be achieved and as a result it is
possible to use techniques of automatic control in the regulation of thermal zone temperature and humidity.
In this work, a double storey residential building which consists of four rooms and a lobby on each floor
is modeled in Matlab/Simulink using International Building Physics Toolbox (IBPT). The radiator and TRV
are also modeled in Simulink.
3.1. Target Building
A double storey building having eight rooms and two corridors is considered as target building. The area
of the house is 13.57 x 13.57 m2. The rooms of the building are labeled as Room1- Room8, and Corridor1,2.
Each room is fitted with radiator and motorized TRV is mounted on the radiator to control the flow of hot
water to the radiator. The building is made of three layered walls/roof. Concrete blocks are used for exterior
and interior leaf of walls/roof while mineral wool is used for insulation between exterior and interior leaf of
walls. Thickness of material used for exterior, insulation and interior layer of walls are 0.15m, 0.25m and
0.19m as shown in Figure 2. Areas of the uncoated double-glazed windows of rooms are 4 m2 while the area
of the windows for corridor is 2m2.
The Room5 has a window in south and west wall, while a door in east wall for entrance from corridor.
The north wall of Room5 is sandwich wall between Room5 and Room6 while the east wall of the Room5 is
sandwich wall between Room5 and corridor so there is no effect of meteorological parameters on Room5
through these walls. The roofs of the rooms on ground floor are the floors of the rooms on first floor.
Similar to the sandwich walls, the roofs of the rooms on ground floor are not affected by weather
parameters. The area of the rooms is 36m2 while the area of corridors is 30m2. The east and west walls of
lobby are sandwich walls between lobby and all four rooms. There is a window in north wall of corridor and
a window in south wall above the main entrance door of the house.
In the simulation, heat gains from lights, occupants and equipment are ignored. External parameters that
affect the building environment such as ambient temperature, dewpoint temperature, global irradiation,
diffuse horizontal irradiation, direct normal irradiation, longwave sky radiation, global luminance, diffuse
horizontal illuminance, direct normal illuminance, wind direction, and wind speed are included in the
weather data file supplied by IBPT toolbox. The building model considers the effect of meteorological
parameters and heat emitted from radiator inside the room.
331

Figure 2: Building Floors Plan
332

3.2. Thermostatic radiator valve

The TRV used in this model is 15mm valve whose flow rate Kv varies between 0 to 0.32 m3/hr at
differential pressure of 0.1 bar. The flowrate through the valve is represented by equation 12.
(12)
3
Q = the flow rate in m /hr

P = differential pressure of 0.6 bar.
3.3. Radiator Model
The heat transfer from radiator to surrounding can be represented by the equation 13. At low mass flow
rate the radiator exhaust temperature is nearly equal to room temperature and heat emission from the
radiator is linear function of mass flow rate.
(
)
(13)
Where
q = heat flux W
m = fluid mass flowrate Kg/s
cp = specific heat capacity of fluid J/Kg-K
Tsu = radiator supply temperature oC
Ten = environment temperature oC
4. Intelligent Heating Control System

The objective of intelligent heating control system is to reduce energy consumption without
compromising the occupant's comfort. The block diagram of control scheme is shown in Figure 3. The PMV
based setpoint estimator estimates the setpoint (Tset) for indoor air temperature in order to maintain PMV of
-0.3. The intelligent controller takes the difference (Tdiff) between the Tset and Tair , indoor air temperature
(Tair) , outside temperature (Tout) and global solar radiations (Qsol) as inputs and controls the heat emission
from the radiator by changing the flowrate (m) through TRV mounted on the radiator. Two types of
intelligent controllers are investigated in this study i.e. ANN and RNN controller.
4.1. PMV based Setpoint Estimator
The Institute for Environmental Research at the Kansas State University conducted the research study
under the contract of ASHRAE and defined PMV in terms of easily measured parameters represented by
equation 14 [6].
(14)
Where a, b, c are constants defined in Kansas State university research, pv is partial vapor
pressure and t is temperature. By setting the required PMV (in this work between -0.3 and +0.3) and using
the constants (a=0.220, b=0.233, c=5.673) heating set point for room temperature varies between 22.58 oC
and 23.77 oC. Inputs for the PMV based setpoint estimator are air temperature (Tair) and room humidity
(RH). By using Tair, saturated vapour pressure is calculated and partial vapor pressure is calculated by taking
product of saturated vapor pressure and RH.
4.2. Training data
The training data were generated by simulating the building model with simple ON/OFF controller to
333

maintain PMV based setpoint for indoor air temperature. During this simulation, the air temperature of
Room1, the flow rate of hot water through TRV of Room1, outside temperature, global solar radiations
effecting the building, PMV based setpoints for Room5 were recorded after every 10 minutes. The outside
temperature varied between -20.89 oC to 10.2 oC while global solar radiation varied between 0 and 261.04
W/m2 as shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5 respectively.
Tout - Outside Temperature

Tdiff - Difference between Tset and Tair
Tair Indoor air temperature
Qsol Solar Radiations
RH- Room Humidity
Figure 3: Control Scheme
4.3. Neural Network Controller

Building dynamics are slow and to overcome the time delay and non-linearity in the system a multilayer
perceptron artificial neural network was developed using Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) algorithm. It is used
as standard technique for nonlinear optimizing problems. Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm combines simple
gradient descent and Guass Newton iteration in its update rule. The convergence of LM algorithm is faster
than simple gradient descent and other conjugate gradient methods [32].
The proposed 3 layered NN controller has 4 input neurons, 16 hidden neurons and 1 output neuron.
Inputs for the network are outside temperature (Tout), room air temperature (Tair), temperature difference
(Tdiff), i.e. the difference between the room temperature and PMV based set point and global solar radiations
(Qsol). Output of the neural network is the optimized flow rate m of the hot water entering in to the radiator
from TRV. The ANN controller is trained with the data collected from Room5 of the building. The
activation function for hidden layer is log sigmoid function while for output layer purelin activation function
is used. The regression value for testing phase is 0.999. Mean square error (MSE) for the output of neural
network is 1.855e-09 at epoch 439.
334

Figure 4: Outside temperature during training
Figure 5: Solar radiations affecting the building during training

4.4. Random Neural Network Controller
Similar to ANN controller the proposed RNN controller is three layer random neural networks and
trained with data of 30 days collected from Room5 of the building using RNNSIM v.2 [24]. The
implemented RNN controller is three layered network with four neurons in input layer, sixteen neurons in
hidden layer and 1 neuron in output layer as shown in Figure 6. The random neural network is trained with
RNN gradient descent algorithm [33][34] and the output of RNN controller has MSE of 1.69e-09 after 290
iterations. The input data is scaled down between -1 to 1 by dividing the input data with scalar value of
1000. In order to prove the robustness of RNN controller, the RNN controller has to be tested for the unseen
data for which minimum and maximum value are unknown in real environment therefore scaling down of
data is preferred over normalization.
335

MSE= 1.62 e-9 after

290 iterations
5
+ w-
w-
4,5
+w- w -
3,
5
2,
5
w+
4 ,5
w+
w+
- 5 ,2
+ w 3,1
w-
3,11
Flowrate
11
21
- , 20
1
+w
- 3 ,2
4 ,2
+w-
+ ,20
1
4,2
2 ,2
+ 3 ,2
w+
20
, 21
+w
w+
+ ,20
2
Qsol
+w-
20
, 21
4,
1
w+
4,
11
1
- 1 ,1
Tair
3
w+11,21 + w-11,21
2,11
1
+ 1,1
w +2,1
Tdiff
2
+ 5,2
1
2
2,
+ w 1,5
1,5
5
3,
Tout
20
Input Layer
Hidden layer
Output layer
Tout - Outside Temperature, Tdiff - Difference between Tset and Tair,

Tair Indoor air temperature, Qsol Solar Radiations,
(
)- product of firing rates and probabilities
Figure 6: Random Neural Network Controller
5. Results and Discussion

5.1. Comparison of Performance of RNN and ANN controller
The RNN and ANN controller are tested in all eight rooms of the building for 100 days. The initial
temperature of the building is set to 14 oC and during this period the PMV based set point varied between
22.58 oC and 23.77 oC in all eight rooms. The outside temperature (Tout) varied between -20.89 oC and 14 oC
while global solar radiations varied between 0 and 688.89 W/m2 during simulation of 100 days.
The performance of RNN/ANN controller is evaluated by categorizing the air temperature (Tair) of all
rooms in six different regions. The air temperature regulation is considered as accurate if the difference
between the Tset and Tair is between -0.15 oC and 0.05oC. The undershoots in the Tair are categorized in two
regions i.e. undershoots between the range of -3 oC to -0.5oC and the undershoots between the range of 0.5oC and -0.15oC. Similarly the overshoots in the Tair are categorized in three regions i.e. overshoots
between the range of 0.05oC and 0.5oC, the overshoots between the range of 0.5oC and 1.5oC and the
overshoots between the range of 1.5oC and 4.5oC. The Tair of each room is recorded after every 10 minutes.
For 100 days simulation, 14400 samples for each room are recorded. First 100 samples are ignored in order
336

to give enough time to heating system to maintain stable air temperature in rooms as suggested by PMV
based set point estimator. The percentages of overshoots, undershoots and accurate temperature are
calculated to compare the performance of controllers.
Both RNN and ANN controllers are trained for maintaining PMV based setpoints. The RNN/ANN
controllers are tested for maintaining Tair according to PMV based set points and the robustness of RNN and
ANN controller is evaluated by testing them for setpoints not covered in the training data i.e. Tset = 19 oC, 21
o
C . As shown in Figure 7 the percentage of accurate Tair regulation with RNN controller is greater than
ANN controller for the PMV based setpoints and for the setpoints which were not included in the training
data. The ANN controller was unable to maintain accurate air temperature in the rooms for Tset = 19 oC, 21
o
C and the percentage of accurate Tair was only between 2.21% and 2.75% in all eight rooms. The RNN
controller exhibits robustness to the operating points not covered in the training data and the percentages of
accurate Tair regulation were within 76.39% to 99.20%.
Figure 7: Percentage of accurate air temperature with RNN/ANN controller
The percentage of undershoots in air temperature of rooms controlled with ANN controller are very high
as compared to RNN controller. In Figure 8, the percentage of undershoots in Tair between the range of -0.5
o
C to -3.0 oC for all eight rooms is represented by bar chart. The percentages of undershoots in Tair with NN
controller varied between 59.23% and 73.53% for setpoints not covered in training data. This shows that NN
controller was not able to heat up the room to required temperature. Figure 9 represents the percentage of
undershoots in Tair between the range of -0.15 oC and -0.5 oC for all eight rooms. The percentage of
undershoots in Tair with RNN controller is less than ANN controller for PMV based set points and for Tset =
19 oC, 21 oC. Figure 10-12 represents the percentages of overshoots in Tair. In Room2, Room4, Room6 and
Room8 the effect of solar radiations are more than other rooms. For RNN controller as majority of air
temperature samples are within the accurate temperature range therefore due to effect of solar radiations the
percentage of overshoots between 0.05 oC and 1.5 oC are more than ANN controller. The ANN controller
was unable to heat up the room to required Tset therefore due to effect of solar gain the air temperature of
rooms shifted from undershoot category to accurate temperature category.
337

Figure 8: Percentage of Undershoots in air temperature between -0.5 oC and -3.0 oC
Figure 9: Percentage of Undershoots between -0.15 oC and -0.5 oC
The RNN controller regulated the air temperature of all rooms according to the suggested set point Tset by
PMV based setpoint estimator. The overshoots shown in Figure 10-12 are due to the effect of solar
radiations on building envelope and due to the solar radiation affecting the room through windows. The
overshoots in the Tair of Room6 are analyzed to show the accuracy of RNN controller. The influences of
solar radiations are more on rooms which have windows in the north wall as compared to other rooms.
Figure 13 shows the Tair of Room6 with heat emission from the radiator of Room6. The heat emission from
the radiator varied between 0 to 4000 watts but for clear depiction of accuracy, the heat emission from the
radiator is normalized between 22.6 and 26 where 22.6 represents 0 watts and 26 represents 4000 watts. As
338

shown from Figure 13 when overshoots occurred in air temperature the heat emission from the radiator was
0 watts.
Figure 10: Percentage of overshoots between 0.05 oC and 0.5 oC
Figure 11 Percentage of overshoots between 0.5 oC and 1.5 oC
339

Figure 12 Percentage of overshoots between 1.5 oC and 4.5 oC
Figure 13: air temperature of Room6 and normalized heat emission from radiator
The RNN controller also showed the capability of detecting the solar radiations and it reduced the flow
rate of hot water through the TRV for maximum utilization of solar gains. Figure 14 shows the air
temperature of Room1 and normalized global solar radiations. The solar radiations (0-689 W/m2) are
normalized between 22.0 and 22.4 in order to show the air temperature regulation of RNN controller when
solar radiations were detected. The building dynamics are slow and due to which the effect of solar
radiations on the air temperature of the building is visible after some delay. The RNN controller shut off the
heating when solar radiations were detected and as a result the air temperatures of the rooms were slightly
decreased but due to this early stopping the amplitudes of the overshoots were decreased. In Figure 14 it is
visible that in Room1 whenever solar radiations were detected the RNN controller immediately stopped the
heating.
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Figure 14: Air temperature of Room1 and normalized global solar radiations
5.2. Comparison of Energy consumption with RNN and ANN controller

The performance of RNN and ANN controllers is compared in terms of heat energy supplied to the room
through radiators and for accuracy of controllers for maintaining comfortable air temperature of the rooms.
Table 2 shows the heat supplied to the eight rooms with RNN and ANN controller. It is clearly shown that
RNN controller conserves more energy than ANN controller for PMV based set points. But for T set = 19 oC,
21 oC the energy consumption by ANN controller is less than RNN controller because ANN controller failed
to heat up the room to the required setpoint. For most of the time during 100 days simulation, the air
temperature remained below the setpoint by 0.5 oC to 3 oC as a result it consumed less energy. This error for
ANN controller has also been highlighted in [8] and [26].
Table 20: Comparison of heat supplied to rooms with RNN and ANN controllers
Rooms
Room1
Room2
Heat
Supplied for
maintaining
PMV based
setpoint with
RNN
controller
(MWh)
894.42
837.44
Heat
Supplied for
maintaining
PMV based
setpoint with
ANN
controller
(MWh)
896.09
838.35
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
Supplied
Supplied
Supplied
Supplied
for
for
for
for
maintaining maintaining maintaining maintaining
Tset = 19 oC Tset = 19 oC Tset = 21 oC Tset = 21 oC
with RNN
with ANN
with RNN
with ANN
controller
controller
controller
controller
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
(MWh)
678.38
646.03
792.34
769.07
568.29
528.56
709.56
680.30
Room3
Room4
Room5
899.62
844.74
635.22
899.98
844.72
652.70
681.35
571.42
490.75
649.70
532.47
496.02
796.91
715.51
566.71
771.88
684.82
568.96
Room6
Room7
Room8
684.30
709.36
677.36
701.93
726.93
695.78
495.17
554.33
480.75
477.47
553.16
474.44
593.35
635.41
582.89
588.51
636.15
581.54
341

6. Conclusion
In this paper, a novel RNN building energy controller was explained in detail. Initially the model
developed and the training method was presented, and results from the simulation based on IBPT toolbox
were subsequently presented. The performance of RNN and ANN controllers were compared for
maintaining Tset = PMV based set point and for the setpoints not included in the training data. To check the
robustness of the controllers both RNN and ANN controllers were tested in eight rooms of the building for
100 days. The accuracy of both controllers were compared by dividing the air temperature in six categories
and it is found that RNN controller maintains accurate air temperature of the building according to the Tset
while ANN controller produced more overshoots and undershoots in air temperature at PMV based
setpoints. At lower setpoints (not covered in training data) ANN controller failed to maintain accurate air
temperature and most of the time air temperature (Tair) remains 0.5 oC to 3.0 oC below the setpoint. The
results show that ANN controller can work only for the operating conditions covered in the training phase
while RNN controller showed consistent performance for the operating conditions not covered in the
training data. The energy consumption by RNN and ANN controllers is also compared and it is found that
RNN controller consumes less energy than ANN controller at PMV based setpoint. The learning speed of
LM algorithm for ANN is faster than gradient descent algorithm for RNN. But for direct artificial
intelligence controllers the learning speed is not an issue. The important issue is the robustness of trained
network to the patterns which have not been used before. The learning speed of RNN training algorithm can
be improved by training the RNN with Levenberg Marquardt algorithm [34].
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343

Multimodal Sensing of Thermal Discomfort for Adaptive Energy Saving in

Buildings
Mihai Burzo1, Cakra Wicaksono2, Mohamed Abouelenien1,
Vero nica Perez-Rosas2, Rada Mihalcea1, Yong Tao2
1
University of Michigan, {mburzo,zmohamed,mihalcea@umich.edu}

University of North Texas, {CakraWicaksono@my.unt.edu,
VeronicaPerezeRosas@my.unt.edu,Yong.Tao@unt.edu}
2
Abstract
The paper describes our explorations in automatic human comfort prediction using physiological signals
directly collected from a building inhabitants. Using a number of sensors, including a thermal camera and
several bio-sensors (galvanic skin response, hear rate tracker, respiration rate tracker), we record a
buildings inhabitants under various thermal conditions (hot, cold, neutral), and consequently build a
multimodal model that can automatically detect thermal discomfort.
The paper makes two important contributions. First, we introduce a novel dataset, consisting of
sensorial measurements of human behavior under varied comfort/discomfort conditions. The change in
physiological signals of the human body is monitored for several subjects, for different comfort levels in an
indoor environment. Second, using the dataset obtained in the first step, we build a model that identifies
the relationship between human factors and environmental conditions related to discomfort, with the final
goal of automatically predicting the level of discomfort of a building inhabitant without any explicit input
from the user. We measure the correlation between sensorial measurements collected from the user and
self-reported levels of discomfort, and hence identify the sensorial measurements that are predictive of
human discomfort.
This human-centered discomfort prediction model is expected to enable innovative adaptive control
scenarios for a built environment in real time, as well as a significant reduction in building energy usage
directly related to human occupancy and their desired comfort levels.
Keywords: thermal discomfort, multimodal sensors, PMV model, thermal imaging
Introduction
Recent statistics indicate that over 41% of the U.S. primary energy is consumed by the buildings sector
[1], with resident buildings accounting for 54% of this energy consumption, and the remaining 46% for
commercial buildings. Effective energy management in the buildings is one of the key factors impacting
the overall energy consumption, and thus has important consequences on climate and the environment.
In the last few decades we have seen an increasing interest in the construction of energy-efficient
buildings, which aim not only to optimize energy consumption but also to protect human health and
provide comfort to their occupants. An important goal during the construction of energy-efficient
buildings is controlling the thermal conditions in order to ensure a proper thermal comfort level for their
occupants. Otherwise, occupants can seek other means to restore comfort, such as adjustment of air
344

conditioners and fans or adding space heaters, which will further increase energy consumption. The
reduction in energy consumption would have useful consequences on the climate and the environment.
Human behavior studies have shown that individuals spent more than 90 % of their time indoors as
compared to 10% of their time outdoors during the summer, and 4% during the winter [2]. Hence, energy
consumption of buildings can be potentially reduced if thermal discomfort is detected early and comfort
sensation is automatically restored.
This has motivated researchers to propose effective energy management strategies that can be used to
design energy-efficient buildings and furthermore impact the overall energy consumption. Following this
this line of research, this paper proposes a new methodology for detecting thermal discomfort, which can
potentially reduce the building energy usage while improving the comfort of its inhabitants. In particular
we focus on automatically detecting human discomfort by using physiological signals directly collected
from buildings inhabitants.
The paper makes two main contributions: a novel dataset consisting of sensorial measurements of the
human body and a multimodal model to automatically detect discomfort. The data were collected using a
thermal camera that records thermal videos of facial features, and several bio-sensors including galvanic
skin response, heart rate tracker, and respiration rate tracker. The physiological measurements were
collected from the occupants at different levels of comfort.
To identify the relationship between the measurements obtained (including the physiological signals
and the environment conditions) with the thermal discomfort, we introduce a multimodal system that
automatically predicts the level of discomfort of the buildings occupants without any explicit action
from the user. The system integrates the data collected from the multiple sensors and the thermal camera,
and measures the relationship between these measurements and self-reported levels of discomfort
obtained using the Pre- dicted Mean Vote (PMV) model. An important application for this system is the
automated restoration of thermal comfort for the building occupants that prevent them from seeking
manual actions, which in turn can reduce the buildings energy consumption.
2 Related Work
Thermal comfort can be defined from psychological, thermo-physiological, and heat-balance perspectives [3]. According to the psychological definition, thermal comfort is That condition of mind which
expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment [4]. From the thermo-physiological perspective,
thermal comfort is the minimum rate of nervous signals from the thermal receptors in the skin [5].
According to the heat-balance definition, thermal comfort is reached when the heat flow from and to the
skin due to metabolism is balanced [6].
Measuring thermal comfort is challenging due to the subjective assessment and the psychological
aspects [7, 8]. Additionally, the rate of metabolism differs from one individual to the other. The ASHRAE
55-2010 standard explains metabolic rate as the rate of transformation of chemical energy into thermal
energy and mechanical work due to metabolic activities.
In general, there are six main factors that indicate thermal comfort. They can be divided into personal
and environmental factors. Personal factors include metabolic rate and clothing insulation. In this paper,
we limit the effect of personal factors by controlling the activity rate and clothing. The environmental
factors include air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air velocity, and relative humidity. Air
temperature is measured from the surrounding environments of the occupants. Mean radiant temperature
expresses the effect of the temperature of the surrounding objects on the thermal comfort of the occupants
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[9]. Air velocity describes the rate of air movement across the occupant and has an important contribution
to the (convective) heat transfer from the body. Relative humidity is the ratio between the actual water
vapor present in the air to the maximum amount of water vapor needed for saturation at a given
temperature.
Experiments have been conducted to analyze the thermal comfort of individuals considering both environmental and personal factors in indoor environments. Haldi and Robinson [10] applied probabilistic
modeling using logistic regression to study the action of occupants sensing thermal discomfort in an
indoor environment. Huizenga et al. [11] surveyed over 30,000 occupants in 215 buildings and concluded
that high rates of thermal discomfort occurred in most buildings. Fang et al. [12] analyzed the effect of air
temperature, humidity, and ventilation on the thermal comfort of office workers. Balaras et al. [13]
investigated hospital operation rooms in order to achieve energy conservation without sacrificing the
thermal comfort and the quality of services provided for patients. Ye et al. [14] investigated the thermal
sensation of occupants in naturally ventilated buildings, where they applied the adaptive comfort model.
Bessoudo [15] studied the impact of climate, glazing type, and shading properties on thermal comfort in
an office environment in order to design energy-efficient buildings. Homod et al. [16] used PMV/PPD to
detect thermal discomfort and combined a fuzzy model with a Gauss-Newton method for nonlinear
regression algorithm in order to effectively control indoor thermal comfort. Hamdy et al. [17] studied the
energy usage as well as the size of the cooling equipment required to achieve thermal comfort in an office
building.
The effect of thermal comfort on individuals in an outdoor environment was evaluated for applications
such as pedestrian comfort. Stathopoulos et al. [18] analyzed the integrated effect of air temperature, air
velocity, relative humidity, and solar radiation on the human thermal comfort in an urban environment.
Zhang and He [19] suggested strategies such as usage of solar shading in order to improve the thermal
sensation of pedestrians in streets. Toudert and Mayer [20] conducted thermal experiments to show the
effect of shading and surrounding surfaces on reducing thermal stress on individuals in an outdoor
environment.
Multiple measurements are often taken to be able to accurately determine the main contributors to the
sensation of discomfort. Ismail et al. [21] used thermal comfort multi-station to measure air temperature,
air speed, relative humidity, illumination, and metabolism of students in a lab and determined that
humidity and indoor air speed have the largest effect on sensing discomfort.
Physiological measurements can be also used to analyze the human body in order to determine how it
is affected by thermal discomfort. It has been shown that temperature and skin conductance are important
indicators of human thermal response [22]. Other measurements such as blood flow plays also a critical
role in heat transfer between the body core and the skin. In hot weather, vasoconstriction occurs, which
results in reduction of peripheral blood flow in the body. On the other hand, in cold weather, vasodilation
occurs, which results in an increased peripheral blood flow. Accordingly, adapting thermally to hot
weather is faster than cold weather [3]. Therefore, physiological measurements are fundamental to detect
thermal discomfort.
Multimodal environmental sensors have been recently used to detect discomfort. Dang et al. [23, 24]
constructed pedestrian navigation systems that choose passes to reduce thermal discomfort for pedestrians.
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The research organized the massive data generated by the sensors using a multi-factor cost model and a
data fuser in order to integrate multimodal data together in terms of thermal discomfort cost. Thermal
imaging was used as a mean to detect discomfort of human owing to its advantage as a contact free
method [25]. Based on a study on infrared thermography in humans [26], Oliveira et al. [27] used infrared
thermal imaging to extract thermal regions of interest from the faces and applied fast Fourier transform to
analyze these regions to assess thermal discomfort.
3 Experimental Discussion
3.1 Experimental Setup
Experiments were conducted in the living room area of the Zero Energy Laboratory shown in Figure
1, located at University of North Texas. Thirteen (13) graduate students from the Mechanical Engineering
department participated in the experiments. The sample consisted of 3 female and 10 male participants
with ages ranging between 22 and 35 years.
Figure 1: Zero Energy Building, where the experiments took place.
Physiological and environmental measurements in addition to thermal videos were collected for all
participants. An overview of our system can be seen in the diagram shown in Figure 2. Physiological
measurements were collected using four Thought Technologys FlexComp Infiniti sensors that were
attached to the non-dominant hand of the participants. Two skin conductance electrodes were placed
on the second and third fingers whereas the skin temperature and blood volume blood volume sensors
were placed at the thumb and index fingers respectively. Measurements included: blood volume
pressure (BVP), skin temperature (ST), respiration rate (R), and skin conductance (SC). The output of
each sensor was obtained from a multimodal encoder connected to the main computer using an USB
interface device. We recorded the combined output with the Biograph Infinity Physiology suite, which
allowed us to visualize and control the data acquisition process. All measurements were taken at a rate
of 2048/sec.
Environmental measurements were collected using HOBO Data Loggers sensors and included the
buildings air temperature and relative humidity. The wall temperature was also recorded using
Newport True RMS super meter and the air speed inside the room was measured using an Omega
HHF1000 sensor according to ASHRAE standard 55. The air and wall temperatures were recorded to
make sure that they are in a fixed range of 73 F to 76 F during the experiments. Relative humidity
was in the percentage range of
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Figure 2: An overall view of our multimodal system, which includes the collection of physiological and
environmental measurements in addition to thermal imaging of facial features and a thermal sensation
survey.
lower to higher 50s. An electric fan was used in one stage of the experiments as explained below. The air
speed was in the range of 0.8m/s to 3m/s for all the subjects. Additionally, clothing for all the subjects
was limited to 0.57 Clo and the metabolic rate was controlled by specific metabolic activities. These
settings were designed to eliminate external factors on the process of detecting discomfort.
The thermal videos were recorded using a Flir Thermovision A40 thermal camera. The features were
extracted from the thermal videos using Flirs tools software and include the maximum, minimum,
average, and max-min range temperatures of each frame at a rate of 60 frames per second. The max-min
range refers to the temperature range between the maximum and minimum temperatures. Examples of
thermal frames can be seen in Figure 3, where different ranges of colors indicate different temperatures
(higher temperatures are shown as lighter colors).
Figure 3: Examples of thermal frames.
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3.2
Experimental Stages and Data Collection

The experiment was divided into three stages, which required a total time of 30 minutes for each
subject (occupant). In the first stage, the individuals performed a 10 minutes workout on an air
resistance elliptical machine inside the Zero Energy building. A metronome was provided to make sure
that the exercise technique of all the human subjects was uniform, such that approximately 2.8
metabolic rate was performed by each subject during this activity. The activity was designed to produce
an increase in the heat level of the human body and to observe its effect on thermal comfort level. After
the activity, each occupant is asked to immediately sit on a chair where the four physiological
measurements, in addition to the thermal videos, were recorded for five minutes. Note however that
only the first recorded minute was used for our analysis.
In the second stage, the same measurements and recordings were collected for four additional
minutes following the end of stage one. For this stage the last minute of the four minutes was used for
data analysis. This stage simulates the adaptation of the human body to the surroundings and the
relaxation back to a condition of no effort or activity.
In the third stage, an electric fan creates an air flow in front of each occupant for a period of 10
minutes. The physiological measurements and video recordings were collected for minute 10 of this
period. This stage identifies the effect of air movement across the occupants body without activity
after relaxation and determines its effect on the thermal discomfort level. The continued airflow targets
a constant cooling discomfort sensation by the occupants.
3.3
Comfort Level Survey

In order to evaluate the experienced comfort level we use the Predicted Mean Vote/Predicted
Percentage of Dissatisfied or PMV/PPD model developed by Fanger [6, 28], which assumes steady
state conditions in an indoor environment. The PMV rates thermal sensation of the subjects on a scale
of (-3) for cold to (3) for hot. The surveyed individuals choose a value on the thermal scale to express
their thermal sensation. PPD can be determined from PMV following that PPD increases when PMV
shifts away in both directions from neutral, which is represented as (0) on the thermal scale.
We controlled the clothing and metabolic rate as described in section 3.1. Participants were
surveyed one time for each of the three stages of the experiments on their thermal comfort sensation
following the PMV scale. The scale ranged from (3) for hot in decrements of one down to (-3) for cold.
Neutral is represented on the scale with (0). The first survey was taken right after the 10 minutes period
of activity during the first stage. The second survey was conducted after the end of the four minutes
taken to collect the measurements of the second stage. The third survey was conducted at the end of the
third stage, after the fan operated for 10 minutes. The answers to the survey questions were collected in
order to investigate the relationship between the reported levels of thermal comfort/discomfort and the
physiological measurements, and thermal video recordings in order to automatically detect discomfort.
3.4
Method
In order to identify the relationship between physiological measurements and thermal responses
(represented by the PMV scale) we opted for performing a correlation analysis. Pearsons correlation
coefficients supported with the P value were calculated. The coefficients specify the strength of the
relation between two measurements and whether this relation is directly or inversely proportional. We
used this analysis to gain insight into the underlying relations between the studied physiological
responses and the reported thermal comfort.
349

Our next step consisted of applying a machine learning approaches by using a decision tree classifier.
The data set was divided into training and test sets. The thermal features synchronized with the
physiological measurements were used as input to a learning system that creates decision trees learned
from the training data. The system creates a model, which automatically classifies untrained test data as
indicators of a state of thermal comfort/discomfort.
3.5 Experimental Results
3.5.1 Correlation Statistics
Each of the 13 occupants reported a single thermal score for each of the three stages. Therefore, we have
a total of 39 collected scores. Using a total of eight physiological and thermal measurements, we
measured the correlation statistics using three different ways. First, the collected measurements were
averaged for each occupant during each stage to get a single averaged value for each of the eight
measurements. The correlation coefficients were calculated to identify the relation between the averaged
measurements and the thermal score reported by each occupant using the PMV model. The results
showed that the correlation coefficients of the thermal score with BVP physiological measurement,
maximum thermal temperature, and max-min range are 0.56, 0.56, and 0.33, respectively. These results
were supported with a P value that is less than 0.0001. The correlation coefficients of all other
measurements were not statistically significant. This indicates that the three measurements are directly
proportional to the PMV thermal scale.
Second, the occupants were divided into two groups to present the three stages of experiments. For these
results, the differences between each occupants measurements for the three stages were considered. In
particular, the first group includes the measurements of the first stage subtracted from those of the
second stage in order to measure the difference in the occupants collected measurements in the
transition from heat discomfort to comfort. The second group includes the measurements of the second
stage subtracted from those of the third stage to measure the difference in the collected measurements in
the transition from comfort to cold discomfort. The differences in the thermal scale scores reported by
the occupants were calculated accordingly. The correlation coefficients were measured as before,
however, separately for each group. The coefficients are shown in Table1.
Table 1: Correlation coefficients of the differences in the thermal score in relation to the eight
physiological and thermal measurements. Statistically significant results are in bold with P < 0.0001.
(blood volume pressure (BVP), skin temperature (ST), respiration rate (R), skin conductance (SC))
Group
BVP
First group
0.19
Second group 0.33
ST
0.31
-0.08
R
0.43
-0.06
SC
0.35
-0.10
Max
-0.16
0.42
Min
0.13
0.08
Avg.
0.43
-0.02
Max-Min
-0.16
0.19
The results indicate a significant relationship between skin temperature, respiration rate, skin conductance, and average thermal temperature on one side and the differences in the thermal scale for the first
group representing the transit from hot discomfort to neutral on the other side. Moreover, a significant
relationship was observed between BVP and the maximum thermal temperature with the thermal scale
for group two in the transit from comfort to cold discomfort. This indicates that specific measurements
can indicate the state of transition from discomfort to comfort and vice versa.
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Third, the collected measurements were divided into three groups based on the occupants reported
thermal scale score. Hence, one group represents the measurements of those who reported (0) as an
indication of thermal comfort, the second group represents those who reported a score above (0) as an
indication of hot discomfort, and the third group represents those who reported a score below (0) as an
indication of cold discomfort.
Given that each occupant reported three scores for each stage of the experiments to form a total of
39 samples, the first, second, and third group consisted of measurements of 9, 16, and 14 samples,
respectively. The physiological and thermal measurements were averaged for each second, which gives
a total of 60 values for each of the eight measurements for each sample. The correlation coefficients
were calculated to identify the relation between the eight measurements with each other for each group.
This results in an 8 8 symmetric correlation matrix for each group. The idea is to identify the relation
between specific measurements for each of the three states of comfort, hot discomfort, and cold
discomfort. However, the correlation coefficients between the maximum and minimum thermal
measurements with the average and max-min thermal range were ignored due to the dependency
between them. Table 2 presents the statistically significant correlation coefficients between different
measurements if they exist for at least one of the groups. In addition, the coefficients must be
significantly different from one group to the other in order to be present in the table. Other statistically
insignificant results were not reported. Note that some measurements are not reported in the table, as
they did not exhibit a significant correlation with other measurements.
Table 2: Correlation coefficients between the eight measurements with each other for each group. Statistically significant results are reported. N/A indicates a correlation of a measurement with itself and
() indicates a coefficient that is not statistically significant or not different from one group to the other.
Group
Measurement
ST
R
Comfort
SC
ST
Hot Discomfort
R
SC
ST
Cold Discomfort
R
SC
R
-0.51
N/A
-0.14
N/A
0.13
N/A
SC
0.52
N/A
0.44
N/A
0.29
N/A
Max
-0.38
-0.01
-0.04
Min
0.40
-0.54
0.01
-0.20
-0.02
-0.36
Avg. Max-Min
-0.58
-0.63
0.47
-0.09
-0.13
0.14
-0.31
-0.39
0.25
It is interesting to observe that the state of comfort exhibited the highest correlation coefficients
whether they were directly or inversely proportional. It can be noted that the significance of these
relations were reduced with the state of both hot and cold discomfort. For instance, in the state of
thermal comfort, the coefficient between the respiration rate (R) and the skin temperature (ST) was
0.51. This changed to 0.14 with hot discomfort and 0.12 with cold discomfort. Additionally, it can be
noted that the measurements for cold discomfort are statistically more significant than those of hot
discomfort and are closer to those of the comfort state. This indicates that the thermal and physiological
measurements of the cold discomfort and comfort states are more related compared to hot discomfort.
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The correlation between these specific measurements can be used as indicators of the state of thermal
comfort/discomfort.
3.5.2 Automatic Classification of Human Discomfort
To further investigate and analyze the collected measurements and their ability to automatically
detect discomfort, a learning system was created using a decision tree classifier. Using a set of 39
reported thermal scores as samples, a dataset was created with three classes; comfort, hot discomfort,
and cold discomfort. Given the low number of samples we had, a leave-one-out cross validation scheme
was used for training and the average results were reported. Two approaches were followed to
automatically detect discomfort. First, the thermal and physiological measurements were averaged per
second to have a matrix size of 60 8 which is transformed into a feature vector for each sample.
Second, all the measurements were averaged to get a single value for each measurement, i.e., a vector of
size 1 8 to represent each sample. For both approaches, feature selection was used to determine which
features/combination of features exhibited the highest discomfort prediction capability.
Figure 4: Per-class accuracy for the first approach using all features (baseline), individual features, and
best feature combination, respectively.
Using the first approach, Figure 4 shows the accuracy per class using all features together, each
feature individually, and the combination of features that achieved the highest average accuracy. On
average, the performance using all features was 53.8%, which represents better performance than the
individual features. However, the combination of BVP and the maximum thermal temperature achieved
the highest overall accuracy of 61.5%. This agrees with the correlation statistics that indicated that these
two measurements along with the max-min range are the best predictors of the state of thermal
comfort/discomfort. Moreover, it can be noted that the hot discomfort class had the highest accuracy out
of the three classes with six out of eight results for the individual features. However, the cold discomfort
class achieved the highest accuracy with the BVP/Max feature combination.
Figure 5 shows that in general the second approach yields higher accuracies compared to the first
approach. As observed earlier, none of the individual features achieved higher overall accuracy than
that of the baseline of 64.1%. Moreover, five out of eight results of training individual features indicated
a higher capability of predicting hot discomfort. The other three features had higher prediction
capability for cold discomfort. The combination of BVP with max-min range thermal measurement
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achieved the highest overall accuracy of 74.4%. This as well agrees with the correlation statistics
observed earlier.
Figure 5: Per-class accuracy for the second approach using all features (baseline), individual features,
and best feature combination, respectively.
4 Conclusion
Designing energy-efficient building coupled with effective energy management are key factors
impacting the overall energy consumption in U.S., and ultimately has important consequences on the
global climate and the environment. To achieve that, the thermal discomfort of buildings occupants
needs to be well understood and if possible automatically detected. A model could then be built to
identify the relationship between human factors and environmental conditions related to comfort, and to
automatically predict the level of comfort of a building inhabitant without any explicit input from the
user. This human-centered comfort prediction model can enable real time and more effective control of
the environmental conditions, maximizing both human comfort and energy savings. In this paper, we
presented our initial experiments in the process of automatically detecting thermal discomfort. Our
research contributes a novel dataset and a multimodal system that detects discomfort. The dataset was
collected from a number of occupants of a building using a total of eight physiological and thermal
measurements. Moreover, the occupants reported a score of their thermal sensation following the PMV
static model. Other environmental factors as well as metabolic rate and clothing were measured and
controlled to fairly assess the thermal discomfort sensation.
Multiple correlation statistics and machine learning approaches were conducted to identify the relationship between the collected measurements and the state of comfort/discomfort reported by the
occupants. Experimental results showed that the correlation statistics and learning approaches agreed on
three measurements that had the highest capability of predicting thermal discomfort of occupants,
namely blood volume pressure, maximum thermal temperature, and max-min thermal range.
Additionally, it was concluded that specific measurements had statistically significant correlation with
each other in the state of comfort. When the comfort sensation transform to hot or cold discomfort,
these correlations are significantly reduced.
In the near future, we are planning to collect more data from a large number of occupants under
multiple states of comfort/discomfort, which is likely to result in improvements in the accuracy of
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our multimodal discomfort prediction system. Additionally, more physiological and thermal
measurements parameters will be collected to allow for further data analysis. The improvement
expected with larger data can exert higher prediction capability of thermal discomfort and can
contribute to reduced energy consumption and more effective design guidelines for energy-efficient
buildings.
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355

Toward a 3D Heat Transfer Analysis in Dynamic-BIM Workbench

Ravi Srinivasan1, Siddharth Thakur2, Manor Parmar2, Ishfak Ahmed2
1
M.E. Rinker, Sr. School of Construction Management

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA
sravi@ufl.edu, sst@ufl.edu, mparmar@ufl.edu, ishahav@ufl.edu
2
Abstract
Energy efficient building design demands a complete understanding of building envelope heat
transfer along with airflow behavior. Although existing building energy modeling tools provide 2D heat
transfer analysis, they fail to execute full-scale 3D heat transfer analysis and lack proper integration with
BIM tools. This paper addresses these issues first by developing a BIM-integrated plugin tool to extract
building geometry and material information from a 3D building model and then demonstrating a complete
3D heat transfer analysis along with grid generation. This paper discusses the preliminary research work
towards the implementation of a 3D heat transfer in Dynamic-BIM Workbench, an integrative,
collaborative, and extensible environment. This Workbench enables integration of domain modeling,
simulation, and visualization. In this environment, users can perform fly-through or walk into rooms
and perform multiple tasks related to energy and environmental assessments. The expected outcome will
have a global outreach for project design teams to conduct early design decision-making, and to operate
and maintain low / net zero energy buildings and campuses.
Keywords: Dynamic-BIM Workbench, BIM, 3D Heat Transfer, Net Zero Energy
1. Introduction
Integration of Building Information Modeling (BIM) and building simulation tools is a new field of
exploration in building science research domain. Although existing BIM tools allow simple energy,
daylighting, and airflow analysis, they are not comparable to the typical, full-scale simulations conducted
using standalone analysis tools. Currently, auxiliary programs are used to perform such micro-analysis.
Moreover, for complete understanding of indoor airflow behavior in conjunction with envelope heat
transfer, a robust tool that is seamlessly integrated with BIM is required. This is particularly important for
window-wall interfaces and other intersections of envelope components that develop thermal bridges and
double-skin faade assessment. While modeling the real world effects of envelope heat transfer and their
effect on indoor airflow behavior is one aspect, co-simulation within BIM is another crucial step as
several organizations has directed the use of BIM for new and existing buildings.
Despite several research efforts, current BIM and building performance tools integration are at a
level that are particularly nascent and do not contribute to the larger goal of designing low / net zero
energy buildings. Two dimensional heat transfer modeling is possible using software such as THERM
(2012), but they lack seamless integration with BIM tools. Although research work is in progress to
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improve the integration of the simulation software with BIM, existing simulation is limited to twodimensional models. The recently developed Dynamic-BIM Workbench is a unified, interdependent, and
interoperable domain that uses Open Graphics Rendering Engine (OGRE) for domain modeling,
simulation, and visualization for energy and environmental assessments of buildings (Srinivasan et al.,
2012, 2013, 2014), figures 1 and 2. Using the dynamic linkages available in this Workbench, simulation
tools can be linked such that users can perform analyses from within this Workbench. Among others, one
of the goals is to develop an integrated tool that can extract all the necessary building information,
execute heat transfer analysis, and visualize the results with the provision of flexibility and minimal user
effort. This paper discusses the preliminary research in the implementation of a 3D heat transfer analysis
from BIM, which will, then, be extended in the Dynamic-BIM Workbench.
Figure 1. Dynamic-BIM Workbench showing UF Campus.
Figure 2. Dynamic-BIM Workbench showing Pugh Hall geometry extracted from Revit.
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2. BIM- Integrated 3D Heat Transfer Analysis Implementation

This implementation comprises of three modules namely, (i) data extraction, (ii) automatic 3D mesh
generation, and (iii) 3D heat transfer. In order to model complex envelope configuration (i.e., intersection
of envelope components that develop thermal bridges at the interfaces of wall with floors, roofs, exterior
projections, windows, and other anomalies) and interior spaces, geometry data are captured using a plugin
tool. As a preliminary research, this project focuses on extracting geometry information from Autodesk
Revit 2013 software (Revit, 2013) because of its widespread use in architectural and engineering
applications. The building data of the 3D model is stored in a .rvt file readable by Revit. Geometry data
extracted from .rvt file includes all tessellated surface meshes for solid elements which is followed by
automatic 3D meshing using an unstructured 3D mesh algorithm. Finite Volume Method (FVM) is used
to solve the heat transfer equations modeling the envelope heat transfer. Simulation is carried out using
Loci framework (Luke and George, 2005) that enables efficient parallel processing, thereby, increasing
simulation speed manifold as compared to conventional algorithms used for building performance
applications. Currently, the resultant data is visualized using Tecplot (Tecplot, 2013). This will be
extended in the Dynamic-BIM Workbench for integrated assessments. Long term expected outcome of
the research would have a global outreach for project design teams to conduct early design decisionmaking, and to operate and maintain low/NZE buildings and their environment. This paper is organized in
a manner reflecting the flow of data from the BIM environment to the simulation result visualization
stage. It starts with an elaborate sketch of the geometry and material information extraction procedure
from Revit, proceeds to mesh generation, explains heat transfer simulation using Loci-STREAM (Thakur
and Wright, 2012) and finally concludes by presenting the visualization of the simulation results, figure 3.
As a preliminary work, a sample building model with single layered components was used.
.rvt File
Revit Plugin
TetGen
Loci-STREAM
Tecplot
Figure 3. Data Flow Overview.

2.1.
Extraction of Building Data

The objective of this step is to extract the required data needed for construction of 3D volume mesh
and to generate inputs used by heat transfer analysis software. Revit provides a powerful Application
Programing Interface (API) for integrating applications. This API is accessible by any .NET compliant
programming language. For this project, a plugin was developed using C# programming language for
extracting geometry information from Revit.
2.1.1. Revit Building Information Layout
According to Revit API Guide (2012), a single building or drawing component is considered as an
Element; which might be a door, window or a wall, etc. In addition, an Element might also be a type of
these components. In Revit, Elements are classified in six groups: Model, Sketch, View, Group,
Annotation, and Information. Model Elements represent physical items that exist in building project. The
geometry information is obtained from these elements. Elements are also classified as Category, Family,
Symbol, and Instance. Figure 4 shows further classification of Family Elements.
Geometry information is extracted from these two family elements. As a first step, the elements are
retrieved from Revit. This can be done in a number of ways: by Element ID, Element Filtering and
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Iterating, Element Selection or by accessing a specific element. Among these options, Element Filtering
and Element Selection methods are suitable for geometry information extraction because of versatility
and flexibility in operation. This project followed Element Selection method by using the
UIDocument.Selection.Elements property to select elements from the current active document. The
selected objects are in an ElementSet in Revit. From ElementSet, all selected elements were retrieved. The
selection object can also be used to change the current selection programmatically. Figure 5 shows
element selection in Revit user interface.
FAMILIES
SYSTEM
FAMILIES
COMPONENT
FAMILIES
Figure 4. Family Element Classification
Figure 5. A Selected Roof.
Selected elements were placed in an ElementSet Array Class. Operation on each element was done by
iterating ElementSet class. After elements are selected and each element is accessed for manipulation;
next step is to convert the element to GeometryElement. Autodesk.Revit.DB namespace contains many
classes related to geometry and graphic-related types used to describe the graphical representation in the
API. The geometry-related classes include GeometryObject Classes, Geometry Helper Classes, Geometry
Utility Classes and Collection Classes. GeometryElement Class is an API Geometry Class, which is a
geometric representation of the element. Geometric conversion was done by using the
Element.Get_Geometry() method; which essentially pulls any geometry information from any 3D model
element. This applies both to system family instances such as walls, floors and roofs, and also to family
instances of many categories, e.g. doors, windows, furniture, or masses. The extracted geometry is
returned as GeometryElement; which can also be considered as a collection of geometry objects which
describes the geometry of the element. Typically, the objects returned at the top level of the extracted
geometry will be one of solids, curves, meshes, points, polylines or geometry instances. Figure 6
illustrates the hierarchy of objects found by geometry extraction.
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GEOMETRY
ELEMENT
SOLIDS
FACES
MESHES
GEOMETRY
INSTANCES
NESTED SOLIDS
EDGES
CURVES
POINTS
POLYLINES
NESTED
GEOMETRY
INSTANCES
MORE NESTING
Figure 6. Hierarchy of Objects in GeometryElement.

2.1.2. System Family Objects
System Family Elements are those whose properties and geometric representations are predefined in
Revit, e.g. walls, roofs, floors, etc. Their properties and related data are not available for loading and all
the information are stored in Revit project file. The geometry element corresponding to a system family
consists of one or more items at the top level depicted in figure 6, except geometry instance. In most
common cases, this geometry element is a collection of solids only. A solid is a 3D geometry object
bounded by a number of surfaces, i.e., Faces in Revit API. A Face in Revit is defined by a number of edge
loops. Revit uses a variety of curve types to represent face geometry in a document, table 1.
Table 1. Face Representation in Revit (API Guide, 2012).
FACE TYPE
Plane
Cone
Cylinder
Revolved Surface
Ruled Surface
REVIT API CLASS

PlanarFace
ConicalFace
CylindricalFace
RevolvedFace
RuledFace
To get access to the Face information of a solid; first the geometry element is iterated to get all the
geometry objects in it. Each of the geometry objects are analyzed and if it is a solid, then appended to a
solid array. The solid array is then iterated to get each solid. Once a solid has been retrieved, it is then
iterated to get all the faces bounding this solid and inserted into a face array. Finally, this face array is
iterated to get access to each face object in it. Now, the bottom level geometry information from a face is
obtained either by edge tessellation or surface triangulation. In Revit, a face is defined by its closed edge
loops. The Face.EdgeLoops property returns all the bounding loops of a face in EdgeArrayArray class.
Edge loops are always counter-clockwise. Each of the edge loops can be accessed by iterating this array.
Further iteration will give each of the edges. The Edge.Tessellate() method gives a polyline
approximation of each edges with an accuracy of about one by sixteenth inch. Once the polyline
approximation is obtained, geometry extraction is complete. Figure 7 shows the overall geometry
extraction from a solid in edge tessellation approach. However, this approach is only suitable for planar
surfaces having no holes in it. Since, only corner point information is not sufficient for curved surfaces;
surface triangulation method was followed in this project for geometry extraction. It is possible to
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triangulate a curved surface or a surface having more than one edge loops using surface triangulation
method. Revit platform API provides surface triangulation feature through Face.Triangulate() method.
This method has an argument of type double to set the mesh sizing. Its value ranges from 0 for a coarse
mesh to 1 for a fine mesh. This method returns an array of meshes in the class Mesh. A mesh is a
collection of triangular boundaries; which collectively forms a 3D shape. Meshes are typically
encountered inside Revit element geometry if those elements were created from certain import operations
and are also used in some native Revit elements such as TopographySurface. Each triangle in Mesh is a
MeshTriangle object represented by its vertices. Mesh is iterated to get all the triangular facets of a face
and each mesh triangle is further iterated to get the vertices of each triangle. Flow chart in figure 8
represents the data extraction flow in face triangulation method. Figure 9 shows a curved wall in TetView
(TetView, 2011) window after surface triangulation. TetView is used to visualize the data readable by
TetGen.
SOLID
SOLID
FACE
FACE
EDGE LOOP
MESH
EDGE
MESH TRIANGLE
POLYLINE
APPROXIMATION
VERTEX
Figure 7. Edge Tessellation Method.
Figure 8. Surface Triangulation.
Figure 9. Triangulated Wall Surface in TetView.
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2.1.3. Component Family Objects

Component Families represent classes of Family Elements, which are available for loading in project
and the properties and geometric representation of which are not predefined in Revit. In the Revit
Platform API, both the Family class and FamilyInstance belong to the Component Family. Families in
the Revit Platform API are represented by three objects: Family, FamilySymbol and FamilyInstance.
Families can be considered as templates of various objects in the design. For example, window is a
family. There might be various design templates of windows. Each of the templates is FamilySymbol
with specific sets of design settings. When a family symbol is loaded, there are options to choose from
various sizes of it. Each size represents an instance of that symbol, called Family Instance. While
extracting the geometry information, only information from the family instance is required. Geometry
extraction procedure for a family instance is similar to the procedure followed for a system family object.
First, it was converted to a geometry object and then first tyre geometric objects were pulled out as
depicted in figure 10. However, for a family instance, geometry element might have a number of nested
geometric instances in it. A GeometryInstance represents a set of geometry objects stored by Revit in a
default configuration, and then transformed into the proper location because of the properties of the
element. It might contain a number of geometry objects including solids, curves, geometry instances etc.
If it contains another geometry instance; then it needs to be further iterated to obtain all the geometry
objects in it until core level geometry objects are retrieved. These geometry components represent all the
subcomponents of the parent family instance. This is to mention that, unlike the system family objects;
the coordinate system of a geometry instance is different from the project coordinate system. Therefore,
coordinate system of the geometry instance was transformed to the project files coordinate system go get
the actual coordinates of the family instance. This was done by using
GeometryInstance.GetInstanceGeometry() method which returns the transformed geometry instance.
After that, similar procedure was followed as explained earlier for system family objects to get the
geometry information from solids and faces. Figure 8 shows the geometric representation of a window
through the plugin. A detailed view of a window-wall intersection is shown in figure 11.
Figure 10. Window Geometry in TetView.
Figure 11. Detailed Window-Wall Interface in TetView.
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2.1.4. Resolving Boundary Conditions

Although mesh triangles can fully represent a surface geometry, they cannot distinguish surface
regions, which are in contact with different solid boundaries. For example, Figure 12 shows two solid
objects adjacent to each other.
Figure 12. A Wall-Roof Intersection.

Built-in Revit feature cannot identify the region in the bottom surface of the roof, which is in touch
with the top surface of the wall. To carry out heat transfer analysis, it is necessary to assign separate
boundary conditions for these two regions of the bottom face of the roof. Again, the region of this surface
adjacent to the wall must have the same boundary condition as the top surface of the wall has. To resolve
this issue, it is needed to refine the mesh triangles of each face and identify which sub triangle is adjacent
to which surface; and finally assign proper boundary marker on it. Therefore, instead of assigning
boundary condition on Face level it is required to assign boundary condition on refined triangle level.
This was done by recursively breaking up each mesh triangle into smaller ones until the area of the
minute triangles reach a set value. The set value plays an important role in resolving the surface adjacency
issue. Figures 13 and 14 display a progressive improvement on the edge regions of two meshing surfaces
by changing the set value of Area Tolerance from 0.5 to 0.25.
Figure 13. Using Area Tolerance 0.50.
Figure 14. Using Area Tolerance 0.25.
Thin and long triangles were avoided by bisecting the largest side of the parent triangle to generate
two new triangles and the same was carried out recursively. Once the sub triangles are obtained, they
were checked for adjacency to each face. This was done by first calculating the centroid of each triangle
and then creating a projection on each surface in the project file to measure the distance of that point from
every face. If the distance was found to be zero then that triangle was considered to be in contact with the
face concerned. Face.project() method allows us to make the projection; the return of which is a class
called IntersectionResult. The return is null if the point of projection lies outside the surface or the
projection fails. For a successful projection with the point of projection lying on the surface concerned,
the distance property of the intersection result class returns the distance of the original point i.e. the
centroid from the point of projection. If this value is zero then the centroid essentially lies on that face.
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Otherwise, the triangle concerned is either a part of an interior surface of the room or an outside one. For
the latter two cases, it is need to find out which one is true for the triangular surface concerned.
FindReferenceWithContextByDirection(); a built-in method in API provides a way to throw an
imaginary ray in some predefined direction and obtain reference of the object that it intersects on its path
from the rays origin to the end point. To determine if a point on the surface lies on the inside surface of a
room or outside surface; it can be considered to be lying at the centre of an imaginary cube. Then using
the above feature it is possible to throw rays towards each corner point and face centres of the cube and
collect the references to the objects of the intersection. If any of the results returned is null; it indicates
that there is no object to intersect the ray along that direction and the triangle containing the point lies on
an outside surface of the building. Otherwise, that surface belongs to an interior surface of a room. Now
that it is known whether a triangle is located on an interior or an exterior surface of the room; suitable
marker can be assigned to distinguish that surface. The same procedure was iterated for all other triangles.
2.1.5. Material Data
Computational heat transfer analysis on the model requires thermal properties (i.e. density, thermal
conductivity, and specific heat capacity) of the element material along with geometry information. In
Revit model, one element can have several elements and components. For example, FamilyInstance has
SubComponents and Wall has CompoundStructure which may contain several
CompoundStructureLayers.
Revit Platform API, provides following guidelines for retrieving element material information:
If the element contains multiple elements, materials are obtained separately
If the element contains components, materials for each component are extracted from the parameters
or in a specific way
If the component's material returns null, material is acquired from the corresponding
Element.Category sub Category
According to the above guidelines: an element with multiple layers is split into multiple solid objects
until each solid is consists of a single material. Then each single solid is accessed to get material
information. This project considered only single layered elements for simplicity. Future work may
involve multilayer elements and development of a material library for seamless computation.
2.2.
Automated 3D Volume Mesh Generation

The geometry data of the three-dimensional model thus obtained is now passed to the volume mesh
generator. In this project, TetGen (TetGen, 2011) was used for generating volume mesh. TetGen is a
program to generate tetrahedral meshes of any 3D polyhedral domains. TetGen generates exact
constrained Delaunay tetrahedralizations, boundary conforming Delaunay meshes, and Voronoi
partitions. It provides various features to generate good quality and adaptive tetrahedral meshes suitable
for numerical methods, such as finite element or finite volume methods. TetGen supports various input
file format. For this project .poly file format was used. A poly file represents a piecewise linear complex
(PLC) as well as some additional information. A PLC is a set of vertices, segments and facets as shown in
figure 15.
364

Figure 15. Piecewise Linear Complex or PLC (TetGen, 2011).

Each facet is a polygonal region; it may have any number of sides and may be non-convex, possibly
with holes, segments and vertices in it. A facet can represent any planar straight-line graph (PSLG),
which is a popular input model used by many two-dimensional mesh algorithms. Poly file consists of four
parts: a list of points, a list of facets, a list of (volume) hole points and a list of region attributes. The first
three parts are mandatory, but the fourth part is optional. Figure 16 shows a sample poly file format for
volume mesh generation.
# Part 1 - node list

#node count, 3D, no attribute, no boundary marker
8 3 0 0
#node index, node coordinates
1 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 1.0 0.0 0.0
3 1.0 1.0 0.0
4 0.0 1.0 0.0
5 0.0 0.0 1.0
6 1.0 0.0 1.0
7 1.0 1.0 1.0
8 0.0 1.0 1.0
# Part 2 - facet list
# facet count, no boundary marker
6 0
# facets
1
# 1 polygon, no hole, no boundary marker
4 1 2 3 4 # front
1
4 5 6 7 8 # back
1
4 1 2 6 5 # bottom
1
4 2 3 7 6 # right
1
4 3 4 8 7 # top
1
4 4 1 5 8 # left
0
# Part 3 - hole list
0
# Part 4 - region list
Figure 16. Poly File Format (TetGen, 2011).

The nodes are the vertices of the sub triangles created during geometry extraction and the facets are
the sub triangles. Taking the poly file as input, TetGen refines the surface mesh and generates the volume
mesh, which is used later for computational heat transfer analysis. Figure 17 shows the geometric
representation of a model exported to TetGen in poly file format and viewed in TetView.
365

Figure 17. Whole Room Geometry in TetView.

2.3.
3D Heat Transfer Simulation

Volume mesh data thus generated by TetGen is saved as a volume grid file; which is then converted
into a format readable by heat transfer analysis tool. Next step is to run a solver on the data to carry out
simulation to obtain final results. This work employs Loci-STREAM (Thakur and Wright, 2012), an
evolving Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) tool software based on Loci framework. Loci-STREAM
utilizes finite volume method to carry out 3D heat transfer analysis, etc.
Loci is a framework for application development, which is designed to reduce the complexity of
assembling large-scale finite-volume applications as well as the integration of multiple applications in a
multidisciplinary environment. Unlike traditional procedural programming systems (C, FORTRAN) in
which one writes code with subroutines, or object-oriented systems (C++, Java), Loci uses a rule-based
framework for application design. Users of Loci write applications using a collection of rules and provide
an implementation for each of the rules in the form of a C++ class. In addition, the user must create a
database of facts representing particular known information of the problem, such as boundary conditions.
Once the rules and facts are provided, a query is made to have the system construct a solution. One of the
most interesting features of Loci is its ability to automatically determine the scheduling of events of the
program to produce the answer to the desired query, as well as to test the consistency of the input to
determine whether a solution is possible given the specified information. The other major advantage of
Loci to the application developer is its automatic handling of domain decomposition and distribution of
the problem to multiple processors. Once the results from TetGen were processed, an input was created
containing details of material properties, boundary condition and solver related parameters in the
simulation package environment. At this stage, the solver was built and it was finally applied on the data.
The simulation was carried out in finite volume method and three dimensional heat transfer was
considered without including airflow analysis. Simulation result was exported in a portable file format
readable by a suitable visualization software. In this project, the data set was visualized by using Tecplot.
Figures 18 and 19 show partial view of the temperature distribution of a room boundary at inside surface
and outside surface level respectively in Tecplot window.
366

Figure 18. Partial View of Temperature Distribution

of a Room Boundary (inside surface).
Figure 19. Partial View of Temperature Distribution

of a Room Boundary (outside surface).
3. Conclusion and Future Work

This paper discussed the preliminary research in Dynamic-BIM integrated 3D heat transfer analysis
on building models. It introduced a new way to extract building information from a BIM tool for indepth
and seamless analysis purpose. Immediate extension of this project involves including multilayer building
elements into consideration, developing an efficient code and material property library for extracting
material information from the model. Future work may include conjugate 3D heat transfer analysis with
moisture and air transfer and above all, seamless integration of all the steps and visualizing the results in
OGRE platform for a Dynamic-BIM experience.
4. References
[1]Autodesk Revit 2013, 2012. Accessed July 18, 2012. http://usa.autodesk.com/revit
[2]Autodesk Revit API Guide, 2012. Accessed July 19, 2012.
http://wikihelp.autodesk.com/Revit/enu/2013/Help/00006-API_Developer%27s_Guide
[3]Luke E., George T., 2005. "Loci: A Rule-Based Framework for Parallel Multidisciplinary Simulation Synthesis,"
Journal of Functional Programming, Volume 15, Issue 03, pp. 477-502, Cambridge University Press.
[4]Srinivasan R., Bhandari M., Ahmed I., 2013. Window-Wall Interface Correction Factors for Thermal Modeling
of Fenestration Systems: Implementation In Energyplus , submitted to Buildings XII Conference to be held
in Florida, USA.
[5]Srinivasan, R.S., Kibert, C.J., Fishwick, P., Ezzell, Z., Thakur, S., Ahmed, I., Lakshmanan, J. Preliminary
Researches in Dynamic-BIM (D-BIM) Workbench Development, In Proceedings of Winter Simulation
Conference, Berlin, Germany, 2012.
[6]Srinivasan, R.S., Kibert, C., Fishwick, P., Thakur, S., Lakshmanan, J., Ezzell, Z., Parmar, M., Ahmed, I.
Dynamic-BIM (D-BIM) Workbench for Integrated Building Performance Assessments, In Proceedings of the
Advances in Building Sciences Conference, Madras, India, 2013.
[7]Srinivasan, R.S., Kibert, C., Fishwick, P., Thakur, S, Lakshmanan, J., Ezzell, Z., Parmar, M., Ahmed, I.,
Dynamic-Building Information Modeling (Dynamic-BIM) Workbench for Low / Net Zero Energy Buildings,
submitted to Buildings and Environment Journal, 2014.
[8]Tecplot, 2013. Accessed February 2, 2013. www.tecplot.com
[9]TetGen, 2011. Accessed August 23, 2012. http://tetgen.berlios.de
[10]THERM, 2012. Accessed January 17, 2013. http://windows.lbl.gov/software/therm/therm.html
[11]Thakur S., Wright J., 2012. An All-Speed Solver for Unsteady Reacting and Non-Reacting Flows Using a RuleBased Framework, 42nd AIAA Fluid Dynamics Conference, #AIAA-2012-3254.
[12]TetView, 2011. Accessed November 15, 2012. http://tetgen.berlios.de/tetview.html
367

Track IV (Impacts/ Assessment Methods)
368

Comparative Study of Environmental Performance of Primary Strength

Grades of Ready-mixed Concretes
Xiaodong Lia,* Kwan Hang Chowa , Fan Yanga, Shuai Wanga
a
Department of Construction Management, School of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University,

Beijing, China
Abstract:
Commercial concrete is the most widely used material in construction industry in China, playing an
important role on realizing the strategic goal of a sustainable industry for the country. In this paper, the
environmental performances of the six different strength grades of often used commercial concrete (C30,
C40, C50, C60, C80, C100) as well as the reinforced concrete framework were examined. The basic data
of energy and resource consumed across the phases of concrete production and construction was collected
to establish the environmental profile of the concretes. Then, an LCA-based hybrid environmental
impacts assessment (EIA) model, combined with BEPAS (Building Environmental Performance Analysis
System) and BHIAS (Building Health Impact Assessment System), covering the safeguard subjects of
ecosystem, resource and human health was employed to perform the quantitative assessment and
comparison of environmental performance among different strength of concrete and six simulation
reinforced concrete frameworks. The results indicated that the environmental impact value of singleness
concrete material with strength increase, however, using high-strength concrete (C40, C50 and C60) for
reinforced concrete framework would better reflect the value on both environmental performance and
economic effectiveness. This paper aims at giving a clear understanding of the environmental benefits and
limitations of the major commercial concretes in China; as well as provides useful information for
stakeholders involved in the concrete production and use.
Keywords: ready-mixed concrete; reinforced concrete framework; environmental impact (EI); life
cycle assessment (LCA)
1. Introduction
Concrete is widely used in construction industry, the high strength and relatively low prices making it
the first-choice material in the market. In 2011, nearly 2000 million tons of cement which is the main
component of concrete was used in China and is occupying more than 55% of global cement consumption
[1]. Beside the huge volume used, the environmental impact of using concrete always draws concerns [2].
The current environmental impact (EI) studies of concrete concentrate on the energy consumption and
pollution emissions analysis during the production, construction and demolition stages of a concrete
building based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) theory [3] [4]. The studies on other factors affecting
LCA like transportation and disposal method are less considered and the comparison between different
strength of concrete have not yet been available. Moreover, the LCA of concrete varies largely in different
parts of the world and heavily depends on the local production, construction and recycled method
adopted. Currently there are no similar comparable studies in China [5]. Furthermore, it has been rare to
consider environmental impact of the reinforced concrete framework when using different strength of
369

concrete.
In this paper, two LCA-based systems -Building Environmental Performance Analysis System
(BEPAS) and Health Impact Performance Analysis System (HIPAS) are integrated to perform a
comparison of lifecycle EI for the six strength grades of often used ready-mixed concrete (C30, C40, C50,
C60, C80, C100). Moreover, six simulated concrete frameworks are developed to analyze the real
environmental performance on the composition of ready-mixed concretes of different grades and
reinforced bars. This paper is to help the stakeholders involved in the manufacture ,use and disposal of
ready-mixed concretes to identify the main impacts of the major ready-mixed concretes and allow the
trade-offs between various concrete framework options that are informed by environmental and financial
considerations in China.
2. Hybrid LCA-based EI assessment model

With attaching great importance to the EI of building and construction in China in recent decades,
there are many assessment methods based on life cycle theory to evaluate the EI of the buildings
developed. LCA is a well-known analytical framework for assessing the EI of a product from the
acquisition of raw materials to the final disposal of products. However, the models and systems for
assessing EI in China such as the Evaluation Standards for Green Building (ESGB) [6], Evaluation
Standard for Green Construction of Buildings (ESGCB) [7] and the Green Olympic Buildings Assessment
System (GOBAS) [8] are mostly based on qualitative scoring methods which are subjective and difficult
to provide comparable and in-depth results [9]. Comparing to the disadvantages of using qualitative-based
LCA, quantitative-based LCA which belongs to another entirely different group of EI assessment tools is
introduced and adopted in this study [10]. LCA-based quantitative assessment model are based on
objective and quantitative data from life cycle inventories, production data of materials to energy flow to
analyze the building EI. Besides, the diverse EI using LCA methodology can be combined into a single
scoring system.
2.1
Formation of hybrid model

There are a few quantitative-based LCA tools available in China and the Building Environmental
Performance Analysis System (BEPAS) is the premium one [11][12]. The EIs of BEPAS are sorted into
two categories: ecosystems and natural resources. To determine the level of health damage, another LCAbased model -Building Health Impact Assessment System (BHIAS) is developed. BHIAS following the
environmental priority strategies (EPS) approach [13] is a reference model. BHIAS classifies the health
damage of pollutants into four categories: climate related diseases, carcinogenesis, respiratory effects and
circulatory effects, in which the causal link between emission and the consequent potential damage is
established through a 3-step procedure including fate analysis, effect analysis and damage analysis [14].
With purpose to evaluate the impacts on both nature and human by construction works, a hybrid EI
assessment model combined with BEPAS and BHIAS was established as shown in Figure 1. BEPAS and
BHIAS are both LCA-based EI assessment approach with adherence to the common causal chains
analytical pathway. Besides, the same weighting methodology based on the concept of social willingnessto-pay (WTP) is used in these two systems to evaluate the relative severity across the different EI,
providing a basis for aggregating the evaluation results expressed in different units from BEPAS or
BHIAS into single economic value expressed in monetary term.
370

Evaluation system
Production stage
Concrete
CO2
Ecosystem damage:
Steel
CH4
Global warming
Glass
CO
Ozone layer depletion

Acidification
PVC
SO2
Wood
NO2
Formwork
CO2
Eutrophication
Construction stage
Scaffold
CH4
Water
CO
Gasoline
SO2
Diesel
NO2
Electricity
Benzene
Adhesives
Formald
ehyde
Wallpaper
Water
CO2
Electricity
CH4
Coal
CO
Demolition stage
Greening
SO2
Airborne suspended
particles
Valuation
Solid wastes
Photochemical smog
Waterborne toxicities
WTP value
Waterborne suspended
substances
Resource depletion:
Water resources
Health damage:
Climate related diseases
Carcinogenesis
Valuation
Respiratory effect
Scope
Inventory analysis
Classification, characterization and

valuation
Figure 1. The comprehensive environmental assessment model
2.2
Assessment steps
As shown in Figure 1, the proposed model is divided into Inventory analysis and Impact analysis.
Inventory analysis is the process to quantify the input and output of the physical materials and energy
flows in different stages of the products life cycle. In our previous research, a database containing the life
cycle environmental profile of the often used building materials, components and various types of energy
was conducted [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20]. With the database, the amount of pollutant discharged or
natural resource consumed related to each type of material or energy used in each work item can be
worked out easily. Impact analysis transfers the quantitative inventory results into environmental loads. It
is divided into three sub-steps: Classification, Characterization and Valuation (Weighting).
371

Classification is to put connection between the input-output data of each unit process and
environmental impact categories. There are three impact categories which are ecosystem damage,
resource depletion from BEPAS and human health damage from BHIAS as shown in Figure 1.
Characterization is to assess the contributions of each input and output to its assigned impact categories.
The data of characterization in this model come from the previous studies [11] [21] [14].
The weighting system used to determine the weight of the environmental impact factors in the hybrid
model is willingness-to-pay (WTP), which is the maximum amount the society is willing to pay to reduce
environmental pollution to a certain level, usually reflected in the exploitation of resources for
environmental polluters and environmental taxes levied[22]. Both BEPAS and BHIAS use the WTP
weighting approach to measure the damage. For BEPAS, our previous research has proposed a set of
monetary weighting factors according to the recent green tax rates or the unit costs of dispose of
pollutants and the details please see [23].
Human health impact is sorted into four categories in BHIAS, namely climate warming related
diseases, carcinogenesis, respiratory effect and circulatory effect. With the damage analysis on the basis
of environmental toxicology and epidemiologic studies, the incidence cases in each category can be
transformed into damage indicator. Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) is a premium index among
many damage indicators developed by the World Development Report [24][25].
Complying with BEPAS, the conception of value of ones statistical life year (VSLY) [26] is selected
to transform damage indicator DALY into damage value in terms of VLSY on a monetary basis. Visusi
and Aldy [27] published the value of an Americans statistical life and are widely accepted to estimate the
value of a statistical life (VSL) of some countries [26] [28]. Based on this study, adjustments are made to
reflect the social and economic differences between China and the United States. With respect to VSLY
and pervious study [21], the medians of U.S. $43.1 thousand and U.S. $124.4 thousand as the weighing
factors for China average and Beijing average are adopted respectively, in which the VSLY is regarded as
an annuity [29]. With VSLY, the damage value caused by pollutant per year can be calculated , and the
WTP value of health damage caused by the pollutants therefore can be calculated as long as we know the
inventory of each pollutant during the life cycle of the building.
3. Lifecycle EI assessment for single ready-mixed concrete

3.1 Scope definition
The life cycle of ready-mixed concrete is divided into three stages: production, construction and
demolition Figure 2. To facilitate the comparison, the unit of the object studied is defined per m3 of
concrete.
With respect to the production stage, the extraction and production of raw materials(cement,
aggregate) and final product, i.e. ready-mixed concrete, including their transport is described.
Construction or implemetation stage begins with the ready-mixed concrete enters into the construction
site and finish with the completion of concrete works , where the energy consumption of construction
machinery and wastage of concrete, rebars and ancillary materials are taken into account. At the end of
life, the amount and the reuse rate of solid waste is the key point of environmental assessment.
372

Life-cycle environmental impact assessment of ready-mixed concrete
Health damage:
Climate related
diseases,
Carcinogenesis,
Respiratory effect,
Circulatory effect
cement
plant
cement
products
concrete
batching plant
Ecosystem damage:
Global warming,
Acidification, Suspended
particles,
Solid waste, Water toxicity,
Eutrophication
water admixtures
concrete
agitator
Cement products and

Mineral admixture
aggregate
products
formwork
wastage
commercial
concrete
stone
conveyor belt
vibrating screen
aggregate quarry
kibbler
mineral stone
platen machines
diesel
consumption
electric
consumption
construction
site
Production stage
concrete
wastage
ancillary construction material

works
machinery
depletion
mould
wastage
sand ratio
sand
Resource depletion:
water resources, fossil
energy sources and etc.
construction stage
rebar
wastage
recycle
depletion
solid
waste
demolition
sites
depletion stage
Figure 2. Life-cycle assessment scope of ready-mixed concrete

3.2 Inventory analysis
To provide a basis to obtain the enviromental profiles of ready-mixed concretean investigaion on
two representive concrete producers located in the suburbs of Beiijng was conducted in advance to
determine the average mixed proportion and amout of each of each compont for making per m3 of readymixed conretes (Table 1.
The energy input to the concrete and aggregate production stage maily comes from the tools or
equipments for processing and mixing raw materials for ready-mixed concrete, extracting, cleaning and
sieveing aggregates. The quantity of energy consumption is estimated to be the running time of the tools
or equipment mutiplied by the average consumption of electricty and/or fuel per unit of time by a survey
to the aforementioned concrete producers as well as three aggregate producers in Beiing and Tianjin with
emphasis on the types, power, output capacity and running time of the major tools and/or equipments. In
addtion, energy consumed by the trasportation of cement, aggregates and concrete is also take into
account, which can be determined based on the average diesel consumption per 100km of vehicle travel
and the distance traveled by a vehicle. The distances are about 50km for cement from the producer to the
ready-mixed concrete plant, 150km for aggregate from quarry to ready-mixed concrete plant, and 30km
for ready-mixed concrete to construction site respectively.
Concrete
Water
Cement
C30
C40
C50
C60
C80
C100
185
180
175
170
165
155
230.0
260.0
290.0
350.0
450.0
500.0
Fly
ash
53.1
56.0
78.4
72.5
55.7
69.6
Mineral
powder
79.6
84.0
117.7
108.8
83.6
104.3
Aggregate
Admixture
1849.0
1815.6
1732.1
1689.2
1632.8
1554.2
3.3
4.4
6.8
9.6
13.0
16.8
Table 1. Mixed proportion of ready-mixed concrete (kgm-3)

373

The energy and resource used for producing tap-water and cement can be obtained by referring to our
previous studies [17] [19]. The fly ash and the mineral powder usually come from the recycling of solid
waste and hence play an active role in saving cement and reducing the hydration heat, which can be
regarded as the offset to the solid waste. Considering that small amount of usage of admixture, only
accounting for 0.13% to 0.67% of per m3 of concretes of six grades as shown in Table 3, the energy and
resource for admixture production is excluded in this study.
For construction stage, three typical concrete componenents (concret beam, column and slab)
construction process are slected to perform the enviornmental impacts analysis. As thhe exsiting statistics
data for equipment energy consumption are not avaliabe, the required data had to be collected from
construction site survey. With the type, power, output capacity of the tools for pumping and vibrating,
processing rebar and formwork and vertical transportation equipments etc., the total energy consumption
can be determined by summing the consumption of all tools and equipments used in concrete work. In
general, there are four types of materials and components invlovled in concrete work: ready-mixed
concrete, rebar, water used for curing concrete and steel formwork materials used as a part of physical
concrete component and ancillary materials used in "supportive items". Because the EI of concrete has
been taken into account in the production stage, the EI assessment for construction is limited to the other
materials. The consumption of rebar is determined by its average usage amount and depletion rate in the
beams, columns and slabs. The waste rate of ready-mixed concrete is set to the empirical value of 2%.
Combined steel formwork is selected in the construction stage. The consumption of formwork, bracing
system, and maintenance used water can be obtained through the auxiliary material norm calculation
reference table and combined steel formwork scale table of concrete work [30]. In addition, it should be
noted that the formwork may be re-used in different projects. In this study, turnover rate is considered as
50 times. Consquently, the total amount of polluntant discharge and natural resource consumtion from
manufacturing should be distributted to each concrete work in accordance with the number of reuses. The
material and energy consumption of 1 m3 beams, columns and slabs are shown in Table 2.
Auxiliary material
Material consumption Energy consumption
Steel
Iron
Water
Steel
Concrete Electric
diesel oil
Type
(kg)
nail(kg) (m3)
(kg)
(m3)
(kwh)
(L)
3
2.11
1.31
2.38
0.020
18.09
0.33
Column(1m 17.85
16.62
3.31
0.87
2.32
0.020
17.81
0.33
1m3 Beam
18.22
1.29
2.11
1.54
0.020
14.08
0.33
1m3 Slab
Table 2. Material and energy consumption in concrete construction
The EI in the demolition stage is mainly from the waste concrete block. Moreover, considering the
low reuse rate of waste concrete in China, the impacts from solid of the end-of-life is only linked to the
disposal to landfilling. Here, given the physical property of concrete, 1 m3 of ready-mixed concrete
generate is assumed to generate equal 1 m3 of e solid waste for further assessement.
Once materials and energy through the life cycle of concrete are determined, a list of einvironmental
profiles including the amount of pollutant discharge or natural resource consumption can be summarized
by referring to the database of basic enviromnental profiles retrievable accoring to per unit of energy or
per unit of material [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] (table 3).
Pollutants Discharge
C30
C40
C50
C60
C80
C100
CO2
SO2
361.6
1.4
388.8
1.4
415.4
1.4
512.6
1.4
616.1
1.4
667.3
1.4
NOX
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.8
2.0
2.0
CO
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.1
374

COD
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
SS
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
PM10
3.2
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.8
3.9
Solid waste
2488.0
2503.0
2523.0
2543.0
2558.0
2558.0
CH4
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
Resource Consumption
C30
C40
C50
C60
C80
C100
Standard coal(MJ)
3
Water(m )
1941.4
1.3
2054.1
1.3
2164.1
1.3
2585.7
1.3
3019.9
1.3
3234.3
1.3
Crude oil(MJ)
915.9
916.0
915.8
916.0
916.6
916.6
Limestone
261.6
293.8
326.0
445.2
568.2
629.8
Iron ore
67.8
68.6
69.5
72.7
76.0
77.6
Mineral stone
2.2
2.2
2.1
2.0
2.0
1.9
Manganese ore
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
Dolomite
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.7
The units is kg if not noted.

Table 3. Life cycle input and output inventory of 1m3 of ready-mixed concrete
3.3 Assessment result and analysis
The environmental impact on three safeguard subjects of natural resources, ecosystems and human
health is present in figure 3. It can be seen that the WTP increases with the concretes strength. C100
concrete (149.8yuan/m3) has the highest WTP ,which is 1.21 times higher than the value of C30 concrete
has the lowest (123.4yuan/m3). Moreover, the assessment result shows that ecosystem damage for all six
types of ready-mixed concrete account for above 80% of the total environmental impact. Therefore,
enhancing the collection and management of pollutants may be the crucial direction of mitigating the
environmental impact. The health damage occupies averagely about 12% of the total life-cycle WTP,
which is less than the ecosystem, but far beyond the resource depletion, justifying the necessity of
conducting health assessment. A close look at the variation trend of health damage reveals that there is an
significant rise of the health damage value between C60 and C80, implying that the high strength concrete
may cause more damages on the human.
160
WTP(yuan/m3)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
C30
C40
C50
C60
C80
C100
Ecosystem damage
99.6
Resource depletion
8.9
8.9
8.9
9.2
9.4
9.5
Health damage
15.1
15.2
15.4
15.9
17.0
17.3
total
123.6 126.0 128.3 136.6 145.9 149.9
101.9 104.0 111.5 119.5 123.1
Figure 3. Classification environmental impact the WTP value of 1m3 concrete.
375

Figure 4 shows the WTP value distribution of each type of ready-mixed concrete by lifecycle phases.
There are slight differences of environmental impact between each grade in construction stage and
demolition stage, while the WTP of per unit of concrete in production phase is distinctly different. The
value of the WTP of C100 concrete (59.7yuan/m3) is 1.71 times of that of C30 concrete (34.8yuan/m3) in
production stage, meaning that the production stage is the main period affecting the environmental impact
of different grade ready-mixed concrete. Moreover, since cement production contributes the greatest
portion of the environmental impact. Thus, Keeping the strength and property of ready-mixed concrete,
cutting down the cement usage and applying or improving new admixture may result in a considerable
decrease in lifecycle environmental impact.
160
140
WTP(yuan/m3)
120
41.7
41.9
42.3
42.6
42.9
42.9
47.3
47.3
100
80
47.3
47.3
47.3
47.3
36.8
38.7
46.7
55.7
59.7
34.6
C30
C40
C50
C60
C80
C100
demolishment
41.7
41.9
42.3
42.6
42.9
42.9
construction
47.3
47.3
47.3
47.3
47.3
47.3
production
34.6
36.8
38.7
46.7
55.7
59.7
60
40
20
0
Figure 4. WTP distribution of each type of ready-mixed concrete by lifecycle phases
4. EI Assessment for simulation reinforced concrete frame structure

In practice, the difference in grades of concrete in reinforced concrete frame structure may incur the
different amounts of materials and energy consumed and pollutants discharged. To explore this
relationship, six simulated reinforced ready-mixed concrete frame structures with different strength
grades are developed to examine the real environmental performance on the composition of ready-mixed
concretes of different grades and reinforced bars. Each simulation case is set to be a building frame
structure with 6 floors and the gross area is 3963 m2. In order to ensure the comparability of the
evaluation, the six simulation cases adopt the same design parameters, i.e. the same structure (frame
structure), space arrangement plan, loading, seismic levels and grade C30 concrete used in all slabs ,
while beams and columns are using different grade of concrete.
4.2 Quantities of concrete and steel used under the different strucures
The quantity of concrete used can be easily calculated by the sofeware of PKPM. As shown in Table
4. It can be found the amount of concrete needed is decreased by average 5% with every with every level
of increase in strength grade between C30 and C80. However, the same trend does not apply to the
concrete between C80 and C100. Since the concrete slabs are all set to be constructed with C30, concrete
slabs should be excluded. In this way, when the strength grade is increased by one level, the concrete
consumed for column and the beam can be decreased from 9% up to 22%.
376

The cooperative work between concrete and rebar is the biggeset advantage of reinforced concrete
structure. The quantity of rebar used in each reinforcement members with different grade concrete is
shown in Table 5. The amount of steel used shows a decreasing trend with the increasing of the concrete
strength. The highest consumption of steel in reinforced concrete comes from the beams, occupying more
than 50%, followed by columns, more than 40% and slabs at least, the proportion is less than 3 %.
Concrete consumption
C30
C40
C50
C60
C80
C100
Columns /m3
131.3
106.3
84.0
64.3
57.2
53.8
Beams /m3
248.8
229.0
216.0
181.1
159.8
145.4
Slabs /m3
381.0
381.0
381.0
381.0
381.0
381.0
Total/m3
761.1
716.3
681
626.4
598
580.2
Total (without Slabs)/m3
380.1
335.3
300
245.4
217
199.2
Table 4. The concrete consumption of each reinforcement members with different grade concrete
Rebar consumption
C30
C40
C50
C60
C80
C100
Columns /m3
14036.3
11457.9
10298.9
11769.4
11772.4
12187.6
Beams /m3
15622.8
15677.3
15611.2
14404.7
13838.1
13234.9
Slabs /m3
721.8
721.8
721.8
721.8
721.8
721.8
Total/m3
30380.9
27857
26631.9
26895.9
26332.3
26144.3
Table 5. The rebar consumption of each reinforcement members with different grade concrete
4.3 Result and Analysis
The environmental impacts of six cases in terms of WTP are shown in Table 6, which reveals that the
ecosystem damage occupies an absolute majority of the total enviromental impact. Hereinto health
damage becomes the second largest impact in material production stage, which nearly accounts for 20%
of the total.
Ecosystem damage/Yuan
Global warming
Acidification
Eutrophication
Total Suspended Particle
Solid waste
Water Toxicity
Water suspended solid
Resources consumption/Yuan
Standard coal
Water
Crude oil
Limestone
Iiron ore
C30
57923
43890
1469
3752
1149
2577
1251
3835
5805
277
292
15
392
1496
C40
55135
42028
1369
3540
1068
2363
1252
3516
5429
268
269
14
415
1384
C50
53747
41251
1318
3426
1032
2258
1099
3362
5094
266
249
13
438
1332
C60
56869
44128
1349
3537
1067
2281
1111
3396
4965
295
223
13
554
1371
C80
59684
46957
1360
3637
1079
2234
1091
3325
4907
322
208
13
676
1372
C100
60777
48057
1363
3668
1086
2218
1085
3301
4780
333
191
12
728
1375
377

Mineral stone
Manganese ore
Dolomite
Health damage/Yuan
Total CO2
Total SO2
Total NO2
Total CO
Total PM10
Total CH4
Total WTP
3311
3060
2775
3
3
3
18
17
16
17757
16462
15858
2
2
2
7716
7112
6820
1014
958
928
0
0
0
9024
8389
8107
1
1
1
81484
77026
74698
Table 6. WTP of material in each case
2490
3
16
16277
2
6929
960
0
8384
1
78111
2297
3
16
16327
3
6856
991
0
8477
1
80917
2122
3
16
16368
3
6836
1000
0
8529
1
81925
The integrated WTP of every stage for reinforced concrete frameworks is shown in Figure 5. It can be
seen that the point-to-point line of lifecycle EI of six reinforced concrete framework presents a slightly U
shape, far different from the monotonous increases with the strength increase of six single ready-mixed
concrete. A drop in the curve between C30 and C50 along with the slight rising between C50 and C100
indicates that C40 or higher grade of concretes are more environmentally friendly. This trend can be
explained by the trends of three point-to-point lines of EI of materials production, construction and
demolition. The EI curve of production presents a typical U trend with minimum at C50, while for the EI
curves of construction and demolition, the WTP values see a monotonous decrease with the concretes
strength increase, cooperatively resulting in a particular changing tendency of lifecycle EI of six concrete
framework.
In addtion, the markt price of C80 and C100 ready-mixed concrete is about 600-800 Yuan/m3 which
is much higher than that of C30 to C60 concrete (270-400 Yuan/m3). Taking the project cost into
consideration as well, the C40, C50 and C60 OF ready-mixed concrete maybe the most environmentally
friendly and economically feasible choice.
160000
160000
140000
140000
120000
120000
100000
100000
80000
80000
60000
60000
40000
40000
20000
20000
demolishment/yuan
construction/yuan
production/yuan
0
C30
C40
C50
C60
C80 C100
378

Figure 5. EI values for reinforced concrete frameworks
5. Conclusion
In this study, combined with BEPAS and BHIAS, an LCA-based hybrid environmental impacts
assessment model is employed to perform the quantitative assessment and comparison of environmental
performance among different strength of concrete and six simulation reinforced concrete frameworks.
(1) The analysis of the unit volume of single ready-mixed concrete shows the value of WTP increases
monotonically with the grade of the concrete, where the WTP value oC80 concrete is 1.21 times higher
than that for C30 concrete. The Health damage contributes about 12% of the total life-cycle WTP for six
grades of ready-mixed concretes, and there is an significant rise of the health damage value between C60
and C80. The analysis of the WTP value distribution of each type of ready-mixed concrete by lifecycle
phases shows that small differences of environmental impact between each grade lie in construction stage
and demolition stage, while the WTP in production phase is distinctly different.
(2) the point-to-point curve of lifecycle EI of six reinforced concrete framework indicates that C40 or
higher grade of concrete frameworks are more environmentally friendly. If the concrete market price is
taken into account, the C40, C50 and C60 of ready-mixed concrete maybe the most environmentally
friendly and economically feasible choice.
Acknowledgements
The work was financially supported by the National Science Foundation of China (No. 51378297 and
No. 51078200).
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380

Ecological Advantageousness of Net-Zero-Energy Buildings: Assessment

Methods
Thomas Ltzkendorf1, Maria Balouktsi1 and Holger Knig2
1
Chair of Sustainable Management of Housing and Real Estate, Karlsruhe Institute of

Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany, Kaiserstrae 12, 76131
1
thomas.luetzkendorf@kit.edu and maria.balouktsi@kit.edu
2
Ascona GbR, Grbenzell, Germany, Eschenriederstr. 65, 82194
2
holger.ascona@t-online.de
Abstract
The implementation of sustainable development principles requires that buildings are designed,
constructed and operated to minimize both use of resources and adverse effects on the environment. In
this context, the consumption of non-renewable energy resources needs to be reduced. The development
of design methods and the provision of modern building products have made it technically possible to
design and construct buildings with a net-zero or even positive energy or emission balance. However, so
far the balancing of the accounts has only been applied to the operational energy processes. Now it is a
matter of question whether the energy consumed for the manufacturing and maintenance of Net-ZeroEnergy Buildings (nZEB) should be considered.
To answer this question, appropriate methods and data need to be available. The embodied energy
consumption for the production, construction and maintenance of buildings has been calculated since the
early eighties. This issue feeds among others into the Life Cycle Analysis. Nowadays, there are clearly
improved data and tools available that allow the analysis of embodied energy as part of the design process
of a building.
This paper publishes some first results of the theoretical part of the international project IEA EBC
Annex 57 Evaluation of Embodied Energy & Embodied GHG Emissions for Building Construction that
were worked out by the authors as a contribution to the overall work of the project.
This paper also shows that the further development of evaluation methods, as well as transparency
and traceability of results is a prerequisite for proving the ecological advantageousness of nZEB concept.
A concrete case study of a German school building showed some results and conclusions related to the
ecological advantageousness of these building concepts over conventional ones.
Key words: net-zero-energy building, embodied energy, design process, assessment method,
environmental performance
1. Introduction and objective

Buildings are seen as a key contributor to the implementation of sustainable development principles.
This derives from the fact that the building sector is a major energy consumer. This is translated into a
depletion of fossil fuel resources and generation of energy related greenhouse gas emissions affecting the
381

phenomenon of climate change. In this context, the reduction of the consumption of non-renewable
energy resources has attained great interest and at the same time, many questions among stakeholders
worldwide.
A radical strategy for minimizing the energy demand of building sector is the concept of net zero
energy building (nZEB). At the moment, there are different net zero approaches and activities that
embrace different aspects and indicators (usually energy, carbon emissions, water or waste). However,
this paper focuses only on the aspects of energy and emissions.
Conceptually, an nZEB is a building with greatly reduced energy demand that allows the energy
demand to be balanced by an equivalent generation of electricity (or other energy carriers) from
renewable sources [1]. The wording net emphasizes the fact that there is a balance between energy
delivered from and feed in to the grid over a specific period of time, normally a year. Only grid-connected
buildings will be investigated here.
However, in literature there is a plurality of existing and proposed definitions of net zero concept
[1-5]. Fundamental differences among definitions concerns the metric used for balance (e.g. final energy,
primary energy, CO2 emissions, cost, etc.), or even the target they adopt (e.g. neutral, zero, positive,
autarkic, etc.) [6]. Additional variations are caused by the difficulties in setting system boundaries. For
example, net zero energy (or net zero emissions) concept typically considers in the balance only the
energy use (or greenhouse-gas emissions) for the operation of a building without taking into account other
energy inputs related to building construction, maintenance or even disposal processes. Thus, it is a
matter of question whether the energy (or greenhouse-gas emissions) balance can be achieved, when
taking into account the full life cycle of the building.
After decades of research and development of integrated design processes, as well as modern building
technologies and products, it is now technically feasible to design and construct net zero energy or
emissions buildings. There are already existing international examples of such building concepts [5, 714]. However, having already proved their technical feasibility, it now remains to be demonstrated
whether these building concepts are advantageous from an environmental point of view.
The term ecological advantageousness is used here to express that a building has achieved the same
or higher benefits (e.g. thermal comfort) compared to a base-case building with low impacts. The
considered impacts as well as the system boundaries taken into account in terms of the included building
components and life cycle stages differ from study to study. In this paper, the indicators of Primary
Energy Consumption and Global Warming Potential are used for the assessment of the ecological
advantageousness of net zero impact buildings. Furthermore, the case of an extended definition for
energy and emissions balance is examined, where also considerations of embodied impacts caused in the
materials production and transport, as well as building construction, maintenance, and possibly end of life
are included.
This paper aims at addressing the issue of assessment of the ecological advantageousness of such
building concepts by presenting the fundamental principles and application methods, and consequently at
contributing to the existing discussion driven mostly by the technical effectiveness of such concepts.
Without appropriate assessment indicators and system boundaries the difficulties in defining what net
zero entails will continue to exist. In this sense, the need for clarity, accuracy and transparency is
highlighted.
One of the main objectives of the paper is to analyze the embodied energy and emissions where the
focus is on the total life cycle energy consumption of net zero impact buildings and to highlight
important parameters that the authors believe should be addressed in the context of a life cycle analysis.
382

Thus, an extended methodological framework of nZEB is examined by integrating the life cycle
perspective into the energy or emissions balance. In this regard, the content of the paper is partially based
on the preparatory work of the international project IEA EBC Annex 57 Evaluation of embodied energy
and greenhouse gas emissions for building construction. The authors participate actively in this project
and they coordinate the theoretical part of the work.
2. Assessment of the ecological advantageousness from a theoretical point of view

2.1. Existing perspectives
The development of the concept of net zero impact building is a result of an attempt to go beyond just
less bad buildings towards a situation where buildings with no net negative contribution or even a
positive contribution are constructed [4]. When designing and implementing a net zero impact building,
it should be ensured that certain goods and goals are protected within the framework of sustainable
development. These are the so called areas of protection in the context of life cycle analysis. Four areas
of protection were identified by Udo de Haes in 1999 [15]: Human health, man-made environment,
natural environment, and natural resources. In this sense, the questions to be dealt with when assessing
the ecological advantageousness can be deduced from the areas of protection of natural resources,
defined here in terms of concern over depletion of non-renewable energy resources, and natural
environment, defined here in terms of concern over climate change. In this case, the impact is measured
based on energy use or greenhouse gas emissions.
Regarding the concept net-zero energy, there have been various definitions. A revision of all the
definitions found in literature has already been conducted under the project of the International Energy
Agency (IEA) Annex 52: Towards Net Zero Energy Solar Buildings [16]. Typically, net zero energy
or emissions definitions deal with energy (and associated emissions) only during operation, neglecting the
total life cycle with some exceptions [3, 17]. Specifically, energy for construction, maintenance and
demolition, the so-called embodied energy, is not typically considered part of the balance [18]. Across the
total life cycle of the building, however, the percentage of this type of energy increases as the operational
energy demand decreases. For energy efficient buildings, where also the replacements that take place
throughout the use stage of buildings are taken into account, embodied energy accounts for 20-40% of the
total primary energy consumption, when considering a reference study period of 60 years [13]. Embodied
energy values are highly influenced by the selection of construction materials and building specific
features. Thus, when the goal is net zero increased consumption of embodied energy may result from
increased insulation and installation of photovoltaic systems.
The recognition of embodied energy as an important environmental parameter is not new; instead the
debate on issues of embodied energy in the construction sector dates far back into the past. For instance,
in Germany, already in the twenties there were requirements for new buildings in terms of selecting
building materials on the basis of how much energy is required for their production [19].
Then, in the 70s the scientific interest in looking at life cycle aspects of products and materials started
to grow again, reaching its boom in the 80s, when due to the oil prices the issue of energy conservation
became a hot topic in developed nations. Here, it was particularly a question of the tradeoff between, on
the one hand, the energy consumption for heating and lighting of buildings and, on the other hand, the
energy consumption for the manufacture and construction of the buildings [20, 21]. This is also when the
first studies looking at life cycle aspects of products and materials focusing on issues such as energy
efficiency and raw materials consumption started. It was not until mid-80s early 90s that a real wave of
383

interest in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) swept over a much broader range of industries, design
establishments and retailers [22] The indicators Primary Energy Consumption and Global Warming
Potential were and still is part of this.
Even though the number of applications of LCA increases in the construction sector, the criterion of
"Primary Energy Consumption" in its individual application is the focus of many stakeholders.
Embodied energy" is part of the cumulative consumption of primary energy over the full life cycle of a
building and it typically represents the consumption of energy resources or energy carriers due to energy
and non-energy related use of energy carriers for the construction and maintenance related processes of
the building and its components.
However, in addition to the current issue of the conservation of resources, also the issue of climate
change mitigation has become an essential part of the environmental discussion. In this regard, the
importance of the criterion "Global Warming Potential", usually expressed as GWP 100 (typical LCA
impact category) looms increasingly large. In addition, in some cases the consideration of life cycle
greenhouse gas emissions as a single indicator for buildings under the term carbon footprint has started
becoming popular. In the same way as embodied energy, an embodied GWP can be assigned to the
embodied greenhouse gas emissions resulting from construction and maintenance related processes of the
building. As it represents a partial size of the life-cycle GWP, it can also be considered as a partial
carbon footprint.
It is now possible to assess the environmental advantageousness of net-zero impact buildings in the
context of an extended energy and emission balance based on the indicators of "Primary Energy
Consumption" and "Global Warming Potential". Compared to the past, the applicability of this evaluation
method has been improved considerably both in the research and real practice, since
the international standardization activities have made a significant progress [23, 24],
manufacturers increasingly provide data in the form of environmental product declarations
EPDs [25],
data collections and databases have been developed, and some of them are even publicly
accessible (e.g. kobau.dat [26]).
Thus, it remains to be examined, whether and to what extent, the assessment criteria of "Primary
Energy Consumption" and "Global Warming Potential" are suitable to be applied in their extended
definition to net-zero concepts and under what parameters need to be clarified in order to lead to useful
results and conclusions.
2.2. Application method
As previously mentioned, the paper focuses solely on the metrics Primary Energy Consumption" and
"GHG emissions". Here, Primary Energy Consumption is closely associated with the LCA impact
category of Abiotic Resource depletion-fossil energy, and GHG emissions with the LCA impact
category of Global Warming Potential. Other LCA indicators or other sustainability criteria are out of
the context of this study.
The main parameter to be defined in an assessment of the ecological advantageousness of net zero
impact buildings is the life cycle boundary which parts of a building life cycle are included in the
energy or emission balance. The existing definitions vary:
on the first level, in terms of the approach they follow - they focus either solely on the operational
stage of the building or they follow a life cycle approach including also the construction,
maintenance and disposal related stages), and
384

on a more detailed level, in terms of the type and scope of energy uses they consider e.g. in the
case of operational related processes, these are usually distinguished between building-related and
user-related, with the latter often being ignored.
Thus, it can be said that mainly two distinctive cases of balance can be identified: a) only the
operating energy use (or emissions) is included in the balance identified here as Case 1, b) the life cycle
energy use (or emissions) is included in the balance identified here as Case 2
In Case 1 the energy or emissions balance focuses exclusively on the operational processes of the
building. In some cases the net balance can be even positive. The energy uses included in balance can
vary; a detailed list of the possible included energy uses is worked out currently by the ongoing
standardization of ISO TC 59 SC 17 and will be published under the standard ISO 16745:2013
Environmental Performance of Buildings Carbon Metric of a Building Use Stage. The most
common distinction of the type of operational energy uses is between the energy consumed due to the
building itself (building-related energy operations, e.g. heating, cooling, lighting, etc.) and energy
consumed due to activity-related equipment (user related operations, e.g. appliances). Here, embodied
energy consumed during the operation stage, embodied energy in construction products, as well as
embodied energy consumed during the end of life stage are not part of the balance. However, these types
of energy should not be neglected. Especially, for net zero concepts there is an interest in evaluating
their embodied impacts, as the building integrated energy systems leading to lower operational energy
consumption are usually associated with high embodied energy for their production.
Therefore, the questions that need to be addressed, when assessing the ecological advantageousness
of a net zero building belonging to Case 1, are:
The payback period for the additional embodied energy or emissions load compared to a base
case building due to the primary energy consumption and resulting emissions for the production
and installation of photovoltaic cells (if applicable)
The trade-off between the embodied energy consumption/emissions and the operational energy
consumption emissions
The difference between a net zero energy approach and a net zero emission approach.
In Case 2, the balance includes as a whole the renewable energy production, the operational energy
consumption and additionally the embodied energy consumption for the production of building materials
and installations, as well as for building construction, maintenance, renovation and possibly demolition
and disposal. A comprehensive building life cycle model including all the processes that can occur
throughout the entire life cycle of the building is described in the international standard ISO 21931
1:2010 [24] and the respective European standard EN 15643 -1:2010 [27]. Also, the inclusion of different
types of embodied energy uses can vary. The differences in definitions can be on a general level in terms
of the determination of the system boundaries (which life cycle stages are included in the balance) or on a
more detailed level (which processes/modules of each life cycle stage are included in the balance).
In this case, the questions that need to be addressed are:
The environmental advantageousness of these concepts when their primary energy consumption
and resulting emissions are compared to conventional base cases over the entire life cycle or a
selected reference study period.
The optimization potential in the design and construction of net zero buildings on the basis of
advanced building integrated technologies, as well as construction methods and products.
385

2.3. Indicators
Possibly, the most critical issue on the agenda of net zero impact buildings is the metric of the
balance. In case the balance is expressed in energy terms, there are two options for the selection of an
indicator; the primary energy and the delivered energy. According to [28] primary energy can be defined
as the energy required from nature (for example, coal) embodied in the energy consumed by the
purchaser (for example, electricity) and delivered energy as the energy used by the consumer. Based
on this, the most suitable indicator for assessing the use/depletion of energy resources is Primary Energy
Consumption, as it is measured at the natural resource level, while delivered energy is measured at the
final use level.
As mentioned in the previous chapter the system boundaries of the balance should be stated in a
transparent way. This applies also to the conditions and assumptions under which the building and its life
cycle is described. In the same way, it is also important to define precisely the indicators used for the
calculation in order to produce interpretable and comparable results. In the case of Primary Energy
Consumption, it should be specified at the minimum level what types of primary energy from the list
below are represented by the indicator:
primary energy, as a result of energy-related use of fossil fuels
primary energy, as a result of non-energy-related use of fossil fuels (feedstock energy)
primary energy, non -renewable (fossil fuels and others)
primary energy, renewable
On the other hand, for assessing of the impacts on the environment in terms of the contribution to
climate change, the indicator Global Warming Potential (GWP 100) is commonly used. Here, it must be
clearly stated whether the values represent:
emissions of CO2 only,
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) as defined in the Kyoto Protocol [29],
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) according to Montreal Protocol [30],
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) according to IPCC report of 2007 [31] or the
version of 2013 [32].
The calculation of both indicators can be done by combining product data with quantities of building
materials and dimensions of the building taking into account assumptions related to its lifecycle. In
addition, the primary energy factors, in order to convert the final (delivered) energy into primary units, as
well as the CO2 emission factors need to be known. Key standards that can assist in the process of
describing and calculating the indicators are the ISO 21931-1:2010 [24] and EN 15978:2011 [23]
covering the building level, while ISO 21930:2007 [33] and EN 15804:2012 [25] cover the building
product level.
Especially, for the balance on the basis of greenhouse-gas emissions allocation problems exist in
relation to the avoided emissions from a third party. These can be assigned as additional information to
the assessed building, but cannot directly be subtracted from the balance as this might lead to doublecounting of savings. An international agreement on this issue has yet to be established.
Finally, it can be said that "Primary energy consumption" and "Global warming potential (GWP) are
the more appropriate indicators for assessing the environmental advantageousness of nZEB. However, it
should be noted here that in the context of a holistic environmental impact assessment, also other
indicators have to be taken into account. A complete list of indicators is provided here [25].
386

2.4. Availability of data and tools

In the past, it was difficult for designers to perform life cycle assessments, as they had to deal with
unavailable or inaccessible data, in addition to the problems related to the methodology. Also it was given
the impression from the various published guidelines that a full LCA must be undertaken in line with ISO
14040 [34].
The availability of environmental product declarations (EPDs) for construction products, as well as
the provision of accessible databases and tools has changed the picture. For example, within Europe, there
are several databases, with the most extensively used being Ecoinvent [35], ICE [36] and kobau.dat
[26]. In addition, there are various tools available assisting in the calculation of global warming potential,
embodied energy and other materials and component-related environmental impacts and parameters [3739]. The analysis and evaluation of all these important issues are part of the IEA EBC Annex 57.
One of the most significant parameters causing variations in the data derived from different databases
is the electricity mixed considered for the calculation. Thus, it is of great importance when estimating the
embodied energy and GWP of nZEB buildings to state clearly which electricity mix was used for the
production of each building material and component. Usually, data can be based either on an electricity
mix specific to the country of origin or an average one. However, whether the production-related data are
taken from existing databases (or EPDs), or are based on personal estimations, information related to the
electricity mix should be transparently reported.
Primary energy and carbon emission factors are not physical constants; instead they may develop
with time, creating uncertainties about assumptions for the future. As changes may occur in electricity
mix during the service life of a building, it is considered important the development of the grids to be
reflected into the calculations. This can happen by analysing different scenarios on the possible evolution
of electricity grid in different regions [40]. However, due to the complexity of the grid infrastructure, it is
only possible to estimate average values for a period of time [41]. In addition, there is no international
consensus on how to deal with the different scenarios in relation to this subject. In this sense, the static
accounting for the net zero energy (or emissions) balance is considered more feasible and preferable in
order to avoid unnecessary uncertainty in the assumptions on future patterns in electricity mix.
Currently, in everyday design practice, there exists, amongst others, two trends, which can be
combined with each other, on the one hand, the implementation of net-zero and net-positive concepts and
on the other hand, the significantly improved methods and databases for the assessment of the
environmental performance or of the sustainability. Thus, the appropriate framework should be in place to
combine these two trends in the design process.
2.5. Case study
The aim of the case study was to investigate whether the net zero building concept is
environmentally advantageous compared to a typical building, when considering the full life cycle and to
point out the importance of embodied energy and emissions in net zero concepts. However, in Germany
already the net positive concept exists in the form of Effizienzhaus-plus [42]. In this sense, the
analysis went a step further and examined a plus-energy building. Specifically, a comparison took place
in terms of both the indicator of non-renewable primary energy demand expressed in MJ/annum and the
indicator of Global Warming Potential expressed in kgCO2/equivalent.
2.5.1. Short Description: The case study is a German primary school located in Hohen Neuendorf, in
the district area of Berlin, which was designed to be a plus energy building. To this aim, a photovoltaic
387

system of 337,5 m2 was installed with a calculated performance of 59.013 kWh/a. The selected reference
study period was 50 years. The heating system used was a wood pellet boiler. On the other hand, the
different parameters of the typical building were calculated according to the multi-zone model of the
German standard EnEV DIN 18599. In this case, a different heating system was used, being an oil
condensing boiler. In both cases, for the calculation of operational energy demand the user related energy
demand (electricity for computers and kitchen) was not taken into account, while for the calculation of
embodied energy demand the life cycle stages of production, maintenance and disposal of the building
were considered. The data for the life cycle analysis were taken from the German national database
kobau.dat. (2009).
2.5.2. Analysis: In relation to primary energy - Results given in this section are based on an analysis
of non-renewable primary energy demand. The figure 1 shows the differences between embodied,
operational and total energy impacts between the plus energy building and a standard structure. At first,
it can be observed that the embodied energy demand for production, construction, maintenance and
disposal of plus energy building is much higher than the one of the standard building (around 30% more).
This largely results from the installation of different structures, thicker insulation, triple glazed windows,
more HVAC systems and the PV system etc. In addition, the triple glazed windows and the HVAC
systems were expanded and upgraded within the 50 years time period. However, all these energy efficient
design and integrated features reduce dramatically the operational energy demand for plus energy
building, which in comparison to standard building is almost zero. Looking at the magnitude of the
overall primary energy savings, these account for 82%.
Thus, although for the plus energy case the reduction of the operational energy demand involved an
increase in embodied energy of the building due to energy intensive materials and technical equipment, in
terms of the total life cycle energy demand this type of building is much more advantageous in energy
terms compared to the standard structure.
Comparison of a "plu-energy" school with a standard school in terms of PE demand

300.000.000
250.000.000
MJ/a
200.000.000
150.000.000
100.000.000
50.000.000
Embodied non-renewable PE (MJ/a)
Operational non-renewable PE (MJ/a)
Plus-energy school
43.255.386
696.875
Total non-renewable PE (MJ/a)
43.952.261
Standard case
32.355.176
216.829.379
249.184.555
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Figure 1: Comparison of a plus energy school building with a standard case to identify the differences
in terms of the indicator non-renewable primary energy demand.
In relation to GWP - When using the GHG emissions as the metric of the balance, the differences that
occur in GWP rates through a comparison of the plus energy building and the standard case are not the
same as in the case of primary energy examination. Here, the embodied GWP of the net plus case is
24% higher than the embodied GWP of the standard case. Here the plus energy design accounts for
approximately 78% of total emissions savings over 50 years service life. The negative net balance for the
operation of the building means that the building through its current energy production can contribute to
the environmental relief.
Comparison of a "plus energy" school with a standard school in terms of GWP

18.000.000
16.000.000
14.000.000
kgCO2/eq.
12.000.000
10.000.000
8.000.000
6.000.000
4.000.000
2.000.000
0
-2.000.000
Embodied GWP (kgCO2/eq.)
Operational GWP (kgCO2/eq.)
Total GWP (kgCO2/eq.)
Plus-energy school
3.788.234
-24.238
3.763.996
Standard case
3.046.607
13.908.428
16.955.035
Figure 2. Comparison of a plus energy school building with a standard case to identify the differences
in terms of the indicator Global Warming Potential.
In overall, it is clear that in the case where the full-life cycle is taken into account, a school designed
based on the plus-energy concept is environmental advantageous.
3. Conclusions
It is now possible from a technical point of view to design and construct buildings that can achieve a
net zero or even a net positive balance in their operation. However, in addition to this also their
environmental advantageousness needs to be proved and demonstrated, in order for these concepts to be
publicly accepted as reliable. This presupposes the inclusion in the balance of the processes related to the
389

production, construction, maintenance, and possibly the end of life stage of the building. Thus, the
primary energy consumption and the resulting GHG emissions must be determined and evaluated also for
these stages.
The current availability of appropriate databases, tools, and standards makes this possible for
architects. However, these are not always clear and thus, they offer a broad scope for interpretation. In
addition, there are still many unresolved methodological issues such as the allocation of avoided GHG
emissions from the energy produced by PVs. In this regard, architects need further guidance to implement
the life cycle net zero concept in everyday design practice.
The analysis of a German case study showed that embodied energy increases importantly when taking
the step towards plus energy balance, but in the final analysis when considering the energy
consumption and resulting emissions for the entire life cycle, these building concepts prove their
environmental advantageousness over conventional buildings.
Finally, it can be said that there is a need to develop recommendations targeted to selected group of
actors on how to include this considerations into the design and decision-making processes. This task is
part of the currently ongoing project IEA EBC Annex 57 with the participation of some of the authors. In
this regard, it is recognized that there is a demand for more EPDs or freely accessible databases, clear
guidance on how to define system boundaries and methods for the description of the assumptions related
to the building and its life cycle. In addition, there is a public interest in combining assessment
approaches of net zero energy buildings with the current trend towards publishing building certificates,
or performing complete sustainability assessments including also social and economical criteria.
For future activities in this field, it is recommended the topic of net zero concept to be integrated
into the general discussion on sustainable buildings as a possible solution towards more sustainable
development.
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bil_en_aufl1.pdf?__blob=publicationFile
392

Closing Construction Materials Loops: A Case Study of Compressed

Stabilized Earth Blocks as a Locally Available Low Embodied Energy
Walling Material
Peter Donkor1 and Esther Obonyo2
1
Doctoral Student, M.E. Rinker Sr., School of Building Construction, University of Florida, P.O
Box 115703, Gainesville, FL 32611; PH: (352)273-1149; email: donpiero@ufl.edu
2
Associate Professor, M.E. Rinker Sr., School of Building Construction, University of Florida,
P.O Box 115703, Gainesville, FL 32611; PH: (352)273-1161; Fax: (352)392-6808; email:
obonyo@ufl.edu
Abstract
The use of construction materials that can be recovered from buildings and cycled through a closedloop system with the goal of zero-waste is an effective way of reducing the environmental impacts
associated with materials used in the built environment. Closed-loop systems are therefore an ideal way of
managing the entire life cycle of construction materials by reducing the waste associated with building
demolition and renovation. This paper discusses the use of compressed stabilized earth blocks (CSEBs); a
relatively modern form of earthen masonry as walling material for building envelopes. CSEB use is
limited due to concerns of structural and physical deficiencies as well as code restrictions. As is the case
with other earthen masonry materials, CSEBs are generally brittle, weak and poor in damage resilience
compared to mainstream walling materials. There is historic precedence of the use of natural fibers and
horsehair as reinforcement in earthen masonry to prevent desiccation cracks and to improve tensile related
properties. This paper presents the results of a study carried out to assess the influence of engineered
polypropylene (PP) fibers on the flexural performance of CSEBs in an effort to improve the damage
resilience of the material. The test results showed that the fibers had a positive influence on the flexural
performance of the blocks by providing some post-crack strength. The fibers effectively altered the failure
mode of matrices by preventing catastrophic failure during testing.
Key words: Compressed stabilized earth blocks; embodied energy; whole-building design; closed
materials loops; flexural performance
1. Introduction
Globally, about a third of the human population resides in earthen shelters. In developing the number
is estimated to be as high as 50% (Minke, 2009).The use of locally available materials is highly
encouraged by proponents of the green building movement. It is generally accepted that earthen masonry
is a green material considering that at it uses indigenous soils thus reducing the use of manufactured
materials (UN-Habitat, 2009). Some of the advantages of earthen masonry systems is that they are
naturally abundant, non-toxic, effective for passive solar design, and have a lower embodied energy
compared to mainstream masonry systems. At the end of their service life, earthen building materials
naturally breakdown and do not need to be disposed of in a landfill. On the other hand some
393

disadvantages of earthen masonry systems include poor seismic performance if not properly designed and
constructed, code restrictions on building height and width, and durability issues associated prolonged
moisture exposure (Kestner et al. 2010).
Some of these concerns are being addressed by exploring the use of compressed stabilized earth
blocks (CSEBs), which are stronger and more dimensionally stable than their unstabilized counterparts
(Morel et al, 2007). CSEBs are produced by mixing soil with a stabilizer, slightly moistening the mixture,
and compressing the mixture either manually or mechanically in a mold usually made of steel. The types
of stabilizing agents used in CSEB production include OPC, lime, pozzolanas, bitumen, gypsum, etc.
Compacting moist soil mixed with between 4-10% of OPC as a stabilizing agent can result in a significant
increase in compressive strength, water resistance, and dimensional stability of the blocks compared to
traditional adobe. Such enhancements can promote the use of CSEBs in applications where the acceptable
masonry options have been previously limited to fired clay and concrete masonry units (CMUs) (Morel et
al, 2007).
Despite the strength improvement achieved through using CSEBs, they are still brittle and considered
weak and poor in damage resilience compared to mainstream walling materials such as CMUs and fired
clay bricks. Within the hurricane-prone Florida context, there is a further need to quantify the adequacy of
earthen masonry with respect to resistance to high wind loads. This paper looks at the benefits of CSEBs,
its structural limitations, and proposes the use of polypropylene (PP) fibers as secondary reinforcement to
improve the flexural performance of CSEBs. Material properties of PP fiber reinforced composites are
affected by fiber volume, fiber geometry and length (aspect ratio), fiber surface conditions, method of
production, and composition of matrix (Banthia and Gupta, 2006; ACI 544.1R, 2010). The initial set of
experiments presented in this paper focuses on the influence of fiber length on the flexural performance of
CSEBs. There is growing interest in the use of recycled plastics as reinforcement for CSEB production.
The findings of this research would help identify desirable geometric attributes of fibers, which can be
used to inform the recycling of plastic waste as reinforcing fibers for CSEB production.
1.1 Earthen Masonry as a Sustainable Material Choice

Typically, the materials required to produce the compressed and CSEBs can be obtained locally, if
not directly from building sites, reducing transportation costs and associated emissions (Minke, 2009).
Locally manufactured CSEBs are also an effective strategy for generating positive local economies
(Murphy & Taub, 2010). Due to the wide range of soils that can be used for CSEB production
environmentally unsustainable practices such as dredging river sand to get particular types of soils as is at
times the case with CMU production is avoided. CSEB use also eliminates the need for wood fuel
resources, a major advantage over fired bricks (Agevi, 1999; Mbumbia et al., 2000; Kerali, 2001;
Montgomery, 2002). Some other benefits of using CSEBs include lower embodied energy levels
compared to alternative materials (Mesbah et al. 2004; Minke, 2009; Kestner et al. 2010). For example,
compared to a ton of fired clay bricks, a ton of 12% ordinary Portland cement (OPC) stabilized CSEBs
use only 42% of the energy input needed for the fired bricks and generate 62% of the equivalent CO2
emissions generateed by the fired bricks (Oti & Kinuthia 2012). The embodied energy of CSEBs largely
depends on the type and quantity of chemical stabilizers and the type of presses used. CSEBs produced
with hydraulic presses typically have higher levels of embodied energy compared to those produced with
hand operated presses (Morton, 2008). The large-scale deployment would therefore make both ecological
and economic sense.
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Masonry systems made up of walls of earth reduce the use of construction materials with high
embodied energy, reduce construction waste, and conserves energy associated with building operation.
The energy conservation achieved during building operation is the result of the heat storage capacity
associated with the thermal mass of earthen structures. When the principles of passive solar design are
used in design and construction of earthen structures, buildings can gain heat from the winter sun, store
that heat in the wall mass to be released during night-time when temperatures drop. On the other hand
during the summer, walls can absorb excess heat from the living spaces thus helping to maintain cool
indoor temperatures (Elizabeth & Adams, 2005).
In a study involving measuring the indoor temperatures of CMU and CSEB building modules in
Texas during a heat wave, the CSEB module recorded an interior temperature 16 degrees below ambient
and 20 degrees below that recorded in the CMU module. The temperature difference was attributed to
CSEBs being phase-change materials; they either gain or lose heat due to the latent heat phenomena
depending on local atmospheric conditions. This is a major difference between CSEBs and other
conventional building materials (Morony, 2004). With a comfortable indoor temperature, CSEB
structures have the potential of lowering heating and cooling loads thus reducing the carbon footprint and
running cost of CSEB structures compared to other conventional masonry structures. Performance would
however vary from climate to climate. In some regions, energy savings of as much as 80 percent over
conventionally built and insulated frame houses have been reported (Elizabeth & Adams, 2005). The use
of CSEBs has been a success story in some sustainable construction efforts in developing countries.
CSEBs are attracting attention from sustainable building movements within developed countries in an
attempt to find more natural, ecologically friendly building materials and methods (Kibert, 2003). An
example is the use of CSEBs to provide energy efficient affordable housing to inhabitants of the Crowe
reservation in Southern Montana under the Good Earth Lodges program. The use of construction
materials such as CSEBs would be critical to successfully closing materials loops in the construction
industry.
1.2 Structural Considerations/Limitations

The effects of climate change has brought to the fore the need to incorporate resilient design features
in earthen masonry design and construction. Long-term durability and resilience are important attributes
that cannot be decoupled from sustainability in the built environment. Although earth has been used in
construction for centuries, there are still concerns over its structural adequacy. These concerns can be
attributed to inadequate body of technical data on the strength and performance of earth walls and
misinformation (Elizabeth & Adams, 2005). The lack of adequate test data to allow for the accurate
prediction of structural performance of earthen masonry has not helped with the structural advancement
of earthen masonry use (Morton, 2008). The situation is however improving because of an increasing
number of rammed earth, soil blocks, mud bricks, and adobe being constructed the colder climates of
Europe, North America, China and Japan (Minke, 2009).
Earthen structural systems typically rely on the compressive strength of the material (Kestner et al.
2010). For CSEBs, compressive strength is a basic measure of quality and an important parameter for
load bearing masonry for residential construction (Morel et al., 2007; Jayasinghe & Mallawaarachchi,
2009).The strength of both historic and most modern earthen structures rely on massive thickness of walls
due to the inherent weakness of the material (Elizabeth & Adams, 2005). For example, during strong
seismic events, poorly designed earthen structures often fail catastrophically, even though some have
shown good strength and ductility. Due to the many earthquake induced structural failures of earthen
395

buildings and the resulting loss of life, modern earthen structures in seismic risk areas rely either on
between 5 to 10 percent OPC stabilization, with steel, bamboo, or plastic mesh reinforcement. Thick or
curved walls are also effective in minimizing failures during strong seismic events. Reinforced concrete
bond beams above and below windows and at the lintel level, roof to wall connections, and other
established guidelines for unreinforced masonry practice such as limits on size and proportions of
openings and height to width ratios are all helpful in designing earthen masonry systems for high seismic
risk regions (Elizabeth & Adams, 2005; Kestner et al. 2010).
As a result of climate change, the frequency and intensity of category 4 and 5 hurricanes for instance
is expected to increase by 80% by the year 2080. This means severe hurricane risks and associated
damages are projected to increase. Historically category 4 and 5 hurricanes have caused the most recorded
hurricane damages, even though they represent about 30% of hurricanes in the United States (Repetto,
2012). When exposed to such lateral loads, stabilized adobe are still brittle and weaker than mainstream
walling materials such as CMUs and fired clay bricks. Within the hurricane-prone Florida context, there
is a further need to quantify the adequacy of earthen masonry with respect to resistance to high wind
loads. The flexural strength of alternative materials such as CSEBs is critical to evaluating performance
when subjected to lateral loads due to wind, floods or other loads that can result in out-of-plane bending
in a wall (Jayasinghe & Mallawaarachchi, 2009).
The subsequent sections of this paper details the findings of a study to evaluate the technical
feasibility of incorporating PP fibers into CSEBs to enhance post-cracking damage resiliency, which is a
key attribute in structures that are required to resist high wind loads. The work builds on the historic
precedence of natural fibers being used as reinforcement in earthen masonry. Specific examples include
the use of straw to reinforce sunbaked bricks, and horsehair to reinforce masonry mortar and plaster (ACI
544.1R, 1996). In modern applications, synthetic fibers are being incorporated in brittle, cementitious
materials exhibiting low tensile strength and strain capacities to improve properties such as plastic
shrinkage cracking, impact resistance, and toughness or ductility (Mesbah et al, 2004; Mohr et al, 2004;
ACI 544.1R, 2010). When used in CSEBs, fibers create a network with the matrices that reduces
shrinkage and improves tensile and shearing strengths (Rigassi, 1995; Namango, 2006; Morton, 2008).
On the basis of ecological metrics, natural fibers are preferable for CSEB reinforcement because of their
being derived from renewable resources that are generally readily available at affordable costs. However
when untreated, the fibers may have a negative impact on the mechanical properties of matrices (Elenga
et al. 2011). The highly alkaline environment created through OPC hydration degrades untreated fibers,
which negatively affects the durability of concrete (ACI 544.1R, 1996). This has resulted in a growing
interest in the use of synthetic fibers. For this reason, alkali resistant PP fibers were selected for the study.
The influence of the PP fibers on the flexural performance of the CSEBs was evaluated by measuring
flexural toughness and flexural strength. Toughness is a measure of the energy absorption capacity of a
material; an important parameter in characterizing the materials resistance to fracture when subjected to
dynamic or impact loads (ACI 544.1R, 1996). Toughness is important in practical applications such as
structures subjected to earthquakes or explosive blasts (ACI 544.3R, 2008).
Structural design is based on known values and anticipated conditions. The performance of buildings
when subjected to earthquakes, hurricanes, or typhoon must be predictable. Such predictability can only
be enhanced with the accumulation of test values on earthen materials allowing engineers and inspectors
to gain the needed confidence (Elizabeth & Adams, 2005). The findings of this paper adds to the pool of
data available to help with the performance prediction of earthen masonry systems.
396

2. Materials and experimental program

2.1 Materials
The materials used included local soil (from Gainesville/Newberry, Florida), commonly available
Type I ordinary Portland cement, and; commercially available MasterFiber MAC Matrix macro
synthetic PP fibers obtained from BASF Corporation. The fiber is stick-like with an embossed surface
to create deformations that provide mechanical anchorage. The fibers were used as both the commercially
available length of 54 mm fibers and lengths of 27 mm cut from full-length fibers (Prochazka et al.,
2010). The physical properties of the soil is presented in Table 1. The PP fibers used had a specific
gravity of 0.91, tensile strength of 584 MPa and melting point of 160 C.
2.2. Tests
Flexural strength testing was done using ASTM C293/C293M-10. A total of 4 samples were tested
for each mix design. A Tinius Olsen compression machine with a maximum load capacity of 400 kN was
used. The machine was set up with a mounting jig (yoke) to record mid-span deflection. Two linear
variable displacement transducers (LVDTs) with a stroke of 17.8 mm were mounted on either side of the
centerline of samples to record mid-span deflection (see Figure 1). The rate of compression was set at 267
N/min until failure for the un-reinforced samples, and until a displacement of 10 mm was reached for the
fiber-reinforced samples. The values for flexural strength were computed using the equation (1);
Table 1: Physical properties of soil
Property
Liquid Limit (%)
Plastic Limit (%)
Plasticity Index (%)
Sand (%)
Clay (%)
Silt (%)
Optimum Moisture Content
Maximum Dry Density
Composition
33%
- (non-plastic)
87.3%
12.2%
1.5%
9%
1784.5 kg/m3
Table 2: Matrix Mix Proportions
Mix Type
OPC Content
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
PP Fiber Content (Weight Fraction % )

54 mm
27 mm
0.2%
0.2%
0.14%
0.06%
0.06%
0.14%
397

(a)
(b)
Figure 1. Flexural strength test setup (a) Photograph (b) Schematic drawing
Eq. (1)
Where;
R = modulus of rupture, [N/mm]; P = maximum applied load indicated by the testing machine, [N]; L =
span length, [305 mm]; b = average width of specimen at the fracture [mm]; d = average depth of
specimen at the fracture [mm].
Flexural toughness was analyzed using the post-crack strength (PCS) procedure (Banthia and Trottier,
1995). Although the tests were conducted per ASTM C293/C293M-10, the load-deflection curves were
analyzed using the PCS procedure. The PCS method converts loaddisplacement curves into flexural
strength curves using a simple energy equivalence. The results generated using the PCS method can be
used in analysis, comparative assessment and in design (Banthia and Sappakittipakorn, 2007). In the case
of this study, the results are for a comparative analysis of the two different fiber lengths used. As depicted
in Figure 2 the area under the curve is divided into pre-peak energy and post-peak energy regions for PCS
computation.
Figure 2. PCS analysis on a fiber reinforced beam (Banthia and Sappakittipakorn, 2007)
398

In the post-peak region; the region of interest in this study, points used in PCS computation
correspond to deflections coinciding with various fractions of the span, L/m (where L is the span, and
m has different values from 150 to 3000) (Banthia and Sappakittipakorn, 2007). The equivalent mean
post-cracking strength (PCSm) was computed using the following equation (Banthia and Trottier, 1995):
(
(
)
)
Eq. (2)
Where;
Epost, m = post-peak energy at a deflection of L/m, L = span under test (305 mm in this study) peak =
deflection of the peak [mm]; b = specimen thickness [mm]; and d = specimen depth [mm].
Nine deflection points (0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, and 2 mm) were used for PCS calculations
in this study. A starting deflection of 0.4 mm was used because deflection at peak load for the fiberreinforced matrices was always less than 0.4 mm. The PCS values at peak load were replaced by the
MOR values by substituting the term (Epost,m) / (L/mpeak) in Eq. (2) with recorded peak loads during
testing (Banthia and Sappakittipakorn, 2007). Using the MOR values in calculating the PCS ensured that
Eq. (1) was consistently used in deriving both sets of values.
Micrographs of the fractured surfaces of specimens broken during flexural strength testing were
captured using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). This was to evaluate the failure mode of fibers, an
important parameter for the evaluation of energy absorption (Atahan et al. 2013).
3. Results and discussion

3.1 Flexural performance
The effect of fiber inclusion on flexural toughness and flexural strength was investigated as a function
of fiber length (54 mm and 27 mm). Flexural toughness results are presented in Table 3 and Figure 3.
During flexural testing of the fiber reinforced specimens, the fibers acted as crack arrestors thus resulting
in increased toughness after initial crack. The results provide the equivalent strength of the different
matrices beyond cracking. This helps to identify matrices that may perform better from a serviceability
perspective (Banthia and Sappakittipakorn, 2007). The PCS results can be used as a measure to determine
the effectiveness of the fibers in bridging cracks and enhancing energy absorption after loading. The PCS
curves indicate that Mix # 2 (54 mm PP fibers) performed better up to a deflection of 2 mm. This was
followed by Mixes #5, #3, and #4 respectively.
Each tested sample exhibited linear elastic characteristics prior to initial crack, which occurred at
peak load. The load-deflection responses of the fiber-reinforced samples were different from the
unreinforced ones. In general, the fiber-reinforced matrices performed better in post crack behavior
compared to the plain matrix. The findings also suggest that the fibers affect the brittle behavior of the
matrices. The unreinforced samples exhibited catastrophic failure in all instances. None of the fiberreinforced matrices underwent complete failure even at 10 mm deflection. There was an observation of
the fibers bridging the cracks (see Figure 4) explaining why there was not catastrophic failure.
399

Table 3. PCS results
Mix
Type
PP fiber content
(Weight fraction %)
54 mm
#2
#3
#4
#5
Peak load
(kN)
Deflection at
peak load (mm)
Post crack Strength

at L/m = 2 mm
(MPa)
2.37
1.65
1.44
1.92
0.20
0.09
0.09
0.12
0.57
0.28
0.16
0.37
27 mm
0.2
0.14
0.06
0.2
0.06
0.14
1.2
Mix # 2 [0.2% 54mm PP fibers]
Post-Crack Strength (PCSm, Mpa)
Mix # 3 [0.2% 27mm PP fibers]

1
Mix # 4 [0.14% 54mm; 0.06% 27mm PP fibers]

Mix # 5 [0.06% 54mm; 0.14% 27mm PP fibers]
0.8
Post crack region for PCS (0.4mm- 2mm)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Deflection (L/m, mm)
1.4
1.6
1.8
Figure 3. Post-crack strength of PP fiber-reinforced matrices (average of four specimens)
400

Figure 4: Fibers bridging crack

The increase in peak load recorded for the specimens reinforced with the 54 mm fibers compared to
the unreinforced specimens can be attributed to the fibers contributing to the bonding of particles
surrounding individual fibers. This opposes particle movement and delays crack formation (Namango,
2006; Tang et al. 2007; Elenga et al. 2011). Similar to the observations made in this study, Bagherzadeh
et al. (2012) reported a flexural strength increase in PP fiber reinforced lightweight cement composites
compared to the unreinforced composites. They also observed longer PP fibers (12 mm) to perform better
in flexural strength compared to shorter fibers (6 mm). The bers at the crack zone bear the tensile stress
transferred from the fracture section (Zhang et al. 2010). Kaufmann et al. (2004) and Bagherzadeh et al.
(2011) established a relationship between increased aspect ratio of PP fibers and the ability of fibers to
bridge micro cracks. In sandy soils as is the case in this study (87.3% sand), the primary reinforcing
mechanism is load transfer from soil to fiber through interface friction. Increasing fiber length or aspect
ratio therefore results in higher surface area, thus providing greater interface frictional resistance between
fiber and soil (Maher and Ho, 1994). In this study, the 54 mm (aspect ratio 50) fibers had a higher aspect
ratio and performed better in MOR compared to the 27 mm fibers (aspect ratio 25). The results of mixes #
4 and 5 (different proportions of both 54 and 27 mm fibers) varied. Composites with fiber lengths shorter
than the critical length fail without fiber fracture, since the fibers are not long enough to generate fracture.
Failure in such cases is governed by fiber pullout followed by matrix fracture. On the other hand, failure
of composites with fiber length longer than the critical length is governed by fiber fracture (Akkaya et al.
2000). This explains the varying results obtained for mixes with different proportions of both long and
short fibers compared to mixes produced with fibers of the same length.
Extensible PP fibers do not totally pull out of matrices when composites reach peak strength. Gradual
fiber slipping and stretching results in a high post-peak strength even at high deformation levels (Consoli,
et al. 2009). Comparing the results from the different matrices in this study, matrices with different
proportions of the shorter fibers (27 mm) did not sustain as much fiber slippage as matrices with only 54
mm fibers. The subsequent more gradual failure after initial crack of all the fiber-reinforced matrices
suggested an improved performance in ductility that can be attributed to the fibers. In this study, the main
contributor to fiber-matrix bonding was the embossed PP fiber surface and cross linked nature of the
fibers (fibrillation) providing frictional bond between fiber and matrix. The frictional bond was further
enhanced by matrix compaction. Some PP fiber reinforced specimens were tested to complete failure to
401

investigate fiber matrix interaction at failure surfaces. Both fiber pullout and fracture were observed (see
Figure 5).
Fiber fracture
Fiber pull-out
Figure 5. SEM micrograph of fractured surfaces showing fiber fracture and pull-out
4. Conclusions
The interest in earthen masonry in modern construction was initially by economic reasons in the late
1970s and 1980s. For the next decades or so, the green building movement gave the material second life
through their campaigns for more ecological materials particularly ones limiting the use of cement and
cement-based products. In recent times, there is an additional performance target of hazard resilience.
Within the Florida context, it is important to investigate the feasibility of using engineered fibers to
enhance CSEBs resistance to local failure when subjected to high wind loads necessitating the need to
evaluate the flexural performance at both unit and system levels. This paper presented the findings of
experimental work undertaken to evaluate the influence of PP fibers on the flexural performance of
CSEBs at the block level. Subsequent experimental work will focus on mortar and block compatibility
and bond strength. It must be noted that an understanding of specific soil type, engineering principles, and
adherence to applicable building codes is required to ensure safe, durable, and resilient CSEB structures.
Aside improving the flexural performance of CSEBs, the inclusion of PP fibers makes the material a
composite one and brings into question the need for a reevaluation of the end of service life options of the
material. The end of service life options is critical to having a closed loop material system. Worth
considering is the concept of down cycling and upcycling proposed by McDonough & Braungart (2002).
A potential use of the material after its useful life would be as fill material for foundations and
embankments.
Based on the results of the experimental work, the following conclusions were drawn:
1.
Flexural toughness of the CSEB matrices was enhanced using PP fiber reinforcement. The
incorporation of PP fibers into the matrices enhanced the general flexural performance of the
matrices as seen from the load-deflection response after peak load. Load-carrying capacity after
first crack was also enhanced based on the values of PCS for the matrices. PP fiber reinforcement
changed the brittle nature of the CSEB matrices to a more ductile one.
402

2.
The use of engineered PP fibers validated the desirable impact of specific geometric attributes
such as surface embossment and cross-linking or fibrillation, which can be used to inform the
recycling of plastic waste as reinforcing fibers.
5. Acknowledgement
Funding provided by the National Science Foundation (Award: CMMI 1131175). The authors also
acknowledge the contribution of members of staff of the FDOT Materials Testing Lab, Gainesville,
Florida.
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404

Urban Performance Simulations A Review

Dong-Soo, KIM1, Ravi Srinivasan1
1
M.E. Rinker, Sr. School of Construction Management,

University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-5703 USA
1
dongsoo0209@ufl.edu and sravi@ufl.edu
Abstract
An individual buildings energy or water use and their environmental impacts are widely discussed
topics. However, there are only a few research studies targeting urban-scale modeling of groups of
buildings energy, water, wastewater, and materials; such studies are designed to assess their
environmental impacts on the surroundings such as ecological toxicity, biodiversity, human health,
ecosystem services, etc. More importantly, the science that combines several fields of study offers huge
potential for a sustainable urban environment. These fields include: (i) urban design and planning; (ii)
building design, construction, operation, and deconstruction/demolition; and (iii) performance modeling
of energy use, water, wastewater, and materials including life cycle approaches to cost and environmental
impacts. This paper reviews literature related to urban performance simulations, particularly research in
the three domains discussed above. The goal is to identify critical research gaps.
Keywords: Urban Planning and Design, Building Energy Management, Energy Simulation, Life
Cycle Assessments.
1. Introduction
Energy estimation of individual buildings is a widely discussed theme. However, there are only a few
studies that have analyzed energy use by building clusters (Pereira & Assis, 2013a). Cities and energy are
linked, and half of energy use in urban areas is used by buildings, which also emit 35% of the greenhouse
gas (GHG) in the world (Miller, 2013). Reducing building energy use has been considered a critical
strategy for sustainable urban development (Davila & Reinhart, 2013).
In other words, building energy management, LCA, and urban-scale energy management have been
studied and analyzed separately. But these topics must be considered collectively to establish net-zero
cities. An analysis of individual buildings and their life cycles is difficult to expand to an urban scale.
Therefore, it is important to analyze relationships of three parts which are (i) urban design and planning;
(ii) building design, construction, operation, and deconstruction/demolition; and (iii) performance
modeling of energy use, water, wastewater, and materials including life cycle approaches to cost and
environmental impacts. Such analysis offers huge potential for a sustainable urban environment.
In searching the existing literature through keywords, we can develop a Venn diagram with the three
categories described above. The problem revealed by this Venn diagram is lack of intersection of these
three categories. There are only intersections of (i) and (ii), of (ii) and (iii), and of (i) and (ii). Lack of
research into urban performance simulations with energy use and life cycle assessments has led to
difficulties in managing building energy on an urban scale. For example, existing buildings are monitored
405

individually, not as part of a group. The critical problem is that building energy management should be
done with a long-term perspective and comprehensive view of the cities. Energy management of
individual buildings does not make a huge impact on the total energy management. As seen above, studies
on the integrated systems have not been carried out. Therefore, this paper will survey trends of each of the
three parts and analyze their relationships.
2. Literature review
2.1 Categories and Keyword
To address the issue of rapid simulation and assessment of buildings environmental impacts on an
urban scale, three distinct fields of research are discussed here. They are (i) urban design and planning;
(ii) building design, construction, operation, and deconstruction/demolition; and (iii) performance
modeling of energy use, water, wastewater, and materials including life cycle approaches to cost and
environmental impacts. Urban design has been defined as the process of giving physical design
direction to urban growth, conservation and change (Batty, Dodge, Jiang, & Hudson-Smith, 1998).11
Urban design includes both architecture and planning. Also, urban planning and building design are
related to huge resource consumption, and urban areas are liable for global energy, water, and food
consumption, as well as sewage and organic waste productions (Schuetze, Lee, & Lee, 2013).
The building construction process is an important part of urban energy performance because
construction makes a significant amount of emissions which need to be controlled as part of a strategy of
implementing sustainable development principles in the built environment (ODonnell, Keane, Morrissey,
& Bazjanac, 2013).
The Energy Information Administration of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), in the 2008 annual
energy review presents the following energy distribution for End-User Sectors: transportation 28%,
industry 31%, commercial 19%, and residential 22%. Buildings, both commercial and residential,
comprise 41% of the total energy consumption. As shown by these proportions, individual building
energy use or energy performance is important, but building energy consumption is hard to analyze
because it needs detailed information on buildings, HVAC systems, and surroundings including life cycle
information (ODonnell, Corry, Hasan, Keane, & Curry, 2013).
2.2 Paper Information
Papers are investigated focusing mainly on the latest (2012-2013) research, and according to their
relevance to the topic of interest, i.e., urban performance simulations. A total of 32 papers were reviewed
in this research. A configuration of papers
investigated is shown below in Figure 1.
2.3 Venn Diagram
Through the focus on keywords and methodologies
of literature, a Venn diagram is constructed. As
shown in Figure 1, there is no common topic of all
three sections. Also, the intersection (b) contains only
one paper, entitled Effects of Natural Environmental
11
Batty, M., et al. (1998). "GIS and urban design."
406
Figure 36 Venn diagram

on Urban Household Energy Usage Carbon Emissions. This study analyzes the relationship between
urban residential energy usage, carbon emission, and the natural environment in Xiamen, southeast China,
using residential data from survey questionnaires, remote sensing, and GIS techniques (Ye, Qiu, Zhang,
Lin, & Li, 2013a).
Most literature concerning section (A) Urban Design and Planning or Urban Design intersect with
section (B) Building Construction. Also there are eleven papers in common between section (B) Building
Construction and section (C) Energy Use and Life Cycle.
3. Urban Performance
As seen in the Venn diagram above, a lot of papers focused on building construction only or urban
planning only. In reviewed papers, it is difficult to find an intersection of all three categories, so research
is needed to look for an integrated view for building and urban plans. A plethora of papers are focused on
urban planning and urban development related to energy, but their research did not relate to building
energy or building life cycle.
An understanding of the energy performance in buildings in an entire municipality or an entire district
is important for developing sustainable energy planning strategies that accelerate the energy renovation
process in existing buildings that are not energy efficient (Dall, Galante, & Torri, 2012). Also energy
demand in cities should be a dominant issue in energy supply planning. Increasing energy consumption
by urban populations could endanger economic development because the consumption of energy by the
residential sector, which does not generate wealth, could limit the amount of resources available to the
productive sectors, which use energy to produce goods and services (Pereira & Assis, 2013b). The article
Climate Change, Urban Energy and Planning Practices focuses on an Italian case and analyzes the
possibility of integrating energy planning with spatial planning, the effectiveness of plan implementation
mechanisms, and the prospect of integrating public-led interventions with market tools. Recent
innovations in the legislative framework support the inclusion of energy saving and climate change
adaptation and mitigation goals in plan implementation procedures (Zanon & Verones, 2013). As shown
in the above two papers (Pereira & Assis 2013b, and Zanon & Verones, 2013), papers are related to urban
planning and energy explain except for building energy-related information. Therefore it is needed to
research urban planning related to building energy and energy performance. Also, global-level strategies
need to be developed that facilitate both the sustainable construction of new cities and the re-development
of existing urban environments (Schuetze et al., 2013).
3.1 Intersection A - Urban Planning and Building Construction
This section is about the intersection of (A) Urban Planning and (B) Building Construction. Even
though papers are classified as belonging in this section, contents related to building construction or
building energy are sparse. Schuetze et al., (2013) discuss investigations into the decentralized and
building-integrated management of energy, water, and organic waste in relation to the sustainable
development of new and existing cities. This papers limitation is that it is considered only water usage
and organic waste in building energy impacts.
Howland (2013) explores how an energy map could catalyze energy efficiency upgrades, specifically
in the residential market. This research examines existing energy maps, existing energy assessment
platforms and what data they use, and it evaluates the state of energy data access in the United States
(Howland, 2013). Geographic Information System is used in this paper for analyzing building energy use.
However, while using GIS data, the unit of analysis in this map is not parcels, but districts. So this paper
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did not analyze building construction and energy, individually.

According to Dall et al. (2012), the methodology for energy performance classification of residential
building stock on an urban scale is largely based on information that is already available, such as
cartographic documentation, thematic maps, geometric data, and others. Data regarding the energy
performance of buildings is collected using energy audits on sample buildings, which are selected using a
statistical approach. Using the tools in a GIS platform, the integration of two data sources allows for a low
cost, comprehensive framework of the energy performance of buildings. This methodology was tested in
a medium sized town in the Lombardy region (Italy), and the results are discussed (Dall et al., 2012).
However, this research should be carried out with an on-site survey. This method is hard to use in analysis
of existing building status, because existing buildings do not have information to analyze. Also, this
method has some limitations to promoting energy efficiency in residential building.
In a paper by Fabrizio Ascione et al. (2013), the main targets are the evaluation of criticalities of the
building stock, promoting effective design for new buildings, and proper refurbishment of existing
buildings. In this regard, the application of standardized procedures is too onerous if the goal is the
qualitative distribution of the energy performances with reference to entire urban areas. GIS combines
cartography, statistical analysis and geo-referenced information, allowing for the generation of digital
maps of urban districts. At the urban scale, energy analyses and energy maps provide useful information
for evaluating the profitability of retrofit measures. Moreover, a geo-referenced model also facilitates the
identification and position of buildings with higher energy needs and the determination of their energy
class, and this method can be suitable for optimizing the process of decision making (Ascione et al.,
2013). This paper proposes a methodology to monitor the energy use of buildings of entire urban areas.
As shown in Asciones paper, there is a limitation to finding methodologies promoting energy efficiency
or problem of energy use to target buildings.
Another paper, (Heiple & Sailor, 2008), is about building sector energy consumption profiles by using
building energy simulation and geospatial modeling techniques. The methodology involves annual
building energy simulation for city-specific buildings and commonly available geospatial data in a GIS
framework. A purpose of this research is predicting energy consumption for the residential and
commercial sectors. This study focuses on waste heat of cities with building simulation and GIS. As
shown this research, there are some difficulties to connect building-specific data, building energy
performance, and GIS.
According to Kristian Fabbri et al. (2012), an evaluation and measurement of town energy usage are
problems which are related to the building construction date and characteristics of existing buildings. This
research aims to analyze the distribution of environmental energy performance indexes as related to
making a map representation. This research is for studying the statistical analysis of energy performance
certificate (EPC) and building energy usage or consumption of a city, town, and district. Also this map
projection attempts to evaluate energy indicators and building energy performance in cities, towns, and so
on. The author claims that if we cannot measure energy indicators of a town, then we cannot take any
action for energy efficiency (Fabbri, Zuppiroli, & Ambrogio, 2012).
Miller (2013) emphasizes a connection of cities and energy, and the reason why buildings have used
50% of the energy in cities and made over 35% of the worlds greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. The
author provides a multi-scale examination connection of urban and building energy use. This thesis
explains that building form and urban structure make an impact on building energy demand and
consumption, and shows that multi-scale examination will be needed to reduce energy consumption and
GHG emissions (Miller, 2013).
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Kolter and Ferreira (2011) suggest a data-driven approach to studying end-use energy consumption in
residential and commercial buildings. This approach is based on monthly electricity and gas bills, and
geographical survey information. Using this data, this paper determines corresponding features for the
buildings and predicts distributions of energy usage (Kolter & Ferreira, 2011).
Swan and Ugursal (2009) review modeling techniques related to energy consumption. In their
research, they divide the modeling techniques to two approaches: top-down and bottom-up. And then the
bottom-up approach is divided into statistical and engineering sections. This paper analyzes positive and
negative attributes of both approaches. In each approach there are many strengths and shortcomings, and
the authors claim that in order to achieve strategic development, it is necessary to consider both
approaches (Swan & Ugursal, 2009).
Yamaguchi et al. (2013) propose a methodology for developing urban-scale models of building
energy use. This methodology uses two approaches: classification of the building stock, and archetype
modeling. This papers result indicates that urban-scale modeling is possible to explain the buildings
overall characteristics of annual energy consumption and weekly variations (Yamaguchi, Choudhary,
Booth, Suzuki, & Shimoda, 2013). However, this paper explains limited building types, so it is hard to
extend to the whole range of building types.
Durieux et al. (2008) propose monitoring methodology about building construction. This
methodology is optimized for urban sprawl monitoring (Durieux, Lagabrielle, & Nelson, 2008). Current
GIS urban databases scale is parcel units. This methodology is necessary to analyze urban-scale energy
simulation.
3.2 Intersection B - Urban Planning and Energy Use & Life Cycle
This intersection has only one paper about the relationship between carbon emissions from urban
residential energy usage and the natural environment in Xiamen, southeast China. Hong Ye et al. (2013),
by using GIS data, explain the effect of building surrounding natural conditions on urban energy use and
carbon emissions. This research shows that green spaces and water bodies reduced carbon emission from
building energy usage. Therefore, more green space and water planning improves sustainable urban
development (Ye, Qiu, Zhang, Lin, & Li, 2013b).
3.3 Intersection C - Building Construction and Energy Use & Life Cycle
This intersection accounted for 17.6% of papers reviewed. Buildings use more than 40% of global
energy usage in their life cycle. Dixit et al. (2012) studied building life cycles classified into 5 stages,
which are: (1) Building material production, (2) Transportation from production unit to point of use, (3)
Construction (4) Maintenance & replacement, and (5) Demolition & disposal. An analysis of embodied
energy of a building can be performed utilizing this model in a clear and comprehensive manner. Also,
three approaches to calculate embodied energy by covering the proposed model are recommended
(Manish K Dixit, Culp, & Fernndez-Sols, 2013).
Raymond J. Cole (1998) provides a constructive direction for emerging second generation building
environmental assessment methods and protocols. This includes a standardization of environmental
assessment methodologies; a common, generalized framework which allows for adaptation of specific
and changing explicit criteria; and an increased emphasis on building performance over time (Cole,
1998).
Also, some papers focus on a specific phase of construction. Anne & Andrew (2013) explain that
building materials make an effect on energy efficiency, indoor air quality, and life cycle assessment
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(LCA). B. Asha Kiran et al. (2013) explain an integrated methodology by combining LCA with multicriteria decision-making which is applicable at the design phase (Kiran & Rao, 2013).
ODonnell et al. (2013) suggest a scenario modeling method. This paper is about modeling methods
related to environmental and energy management, but this method focuses on only commercial buildings
and the building operation phase. But this method enables communication among stakeholders who will
make a decision associated with energy management (ODonnell, Keane, et al., 2013). Also, in another
paper about scenario modeling, ODonnell and others analyze the barriers of the construction
management modeling method, and suggest that how to organize barrier data and events, and how to be
linked them in this method. He claims that the linked data system in this method is indispensable for
building environmental and energy managers. (ODonnell, Corry, et al., 2013).
Manish Kumar Dixit et al. (2010) claim that a set of parameters are unclear and vary greatly. So it is
necessary to identify parameters related to embodied energy. This paper also emphasizes the importance
of geographic location while making energy measurements (Manish Kumar Dixit, Fernndez-Sols, Lavy,
& Culp, 2010).
Zhenjun Ma and colleagues (2012) suggest a method for retrofitting existing building. This method
identifies most cost-effective retrofit measures for particular projects and suggests the systematic
approach to proper selection and identification of the best retrofit options for existing buildings (Ma,
Cooper, Daly, & Ledo, 2012).
Egging (2013) explains about strategic decision-making in public buildings reflecting energy price
trends. Also this paper emphasizes that decision tools for building energy management should have an
integrated perspective on comfort, costs, risks, energy price trends, technological progress, and
uncertainty (Egging, 2013).
Herrmann and Thiede (2009) suggest simulation methodologies for energy efficiency in
manufacturing. In this paper, suggested process models are divided to three groups, which are ecological,
economic, and integrated models. The uses and practical applicability of each model are shown
(Herrmann & Thiede, 2009).
A paper by Li and others (2010) explains about LCA-based environment impact models for
construction process. This paper suggests an integrated cycle environmental impact assessment model
which makes it possible to effectively quantify the environment impact and select environmental friendly
construction plans (Li, Zhu, & Zhang, 2010).
Gangolells at al. (2009) suggest methodology for predicting the severity of environmental impacts
related to the construction process of residential buildings. The authors explain that this methodology
presents specific environmental aspects related to the construction process, and supports improving
environmental performances and decision making in construction process (Gangolells et al., 2009).
4. Conclusion
According this literature review, there is no intersection of the three categories of research described
in the introduction. And this concept of research has not been studied heretofore. So the author believes
that analysis of urban-scale energy modeling and management is necessary to improve buildings energy
usage and reduce environmental impact. Information about existing buildings from the Alachua County
Property Appraiser This paper is reviewed for establishing urban scale energy management system considering
building life cycle assessment for net zero energy cities. A future work is constructing concepts that how to set up
data for analyzing and classifying indicators. By using information about existing buildings from Alachua
County Property Appraiser, future work is to make methodologies for analyzing building quantities,
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energy audits, and LCA with urban scaled.
5. References
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the energy performance of buildings and districts: Methodology, validation and development of Urban Energy Maps.
Cities.
[2]Batty, M., Dodge, M., Jiang, B., & Hudson-Smith, A. (1998). GIS and urban design.
[3]Cole, R. J. (1998). Emerging trends in building environmental assessment methods. Building Research &
Information, 26(1), 3-16.
[4]Dall, G., Galante, A., & Torri, M. (2012). A methodology for the energy performance classification of residential
building stock on an urban scale. Energy and Buildings, 48, 211-219.
[5]Davila, C. C., & Reinhart, C. (2013). URBAN ENERGY LIFECYCLE: AN ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK TO
EVALUATE THE EMBODIED ENERGY USE OF URBAN DEVELOPMENTS.
[6]Dixit, M. K., Culp, C. H., & Fernndez-Sols, J. L. (2013). System boundary for embodied energy in buildings: A
conceptual model for definition. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 21, 153-164.
[7]Dixit, M. K., Fernndez-Sols, J. L., Lavy, S., & Culp, C. H. (2010). Identification of parameters for embodied
energy measurement: A literature review. Energy and Buildings, 42(8), 1238-1247.
[8]Durieux, L., Lagabrielle, E., & Nelson, A. (2008). A method for monitoring building construction in urban sprawl
areas using object-based analysis of Spot 5 images and existing GIS data. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and
Remote Sensing, 63(4), 399-408.
[9]Egging, R. (2013). Drivers, trends, and uncertainty in long-term price projections for energy management in
public buildings. Energy Policy, 62, 617-624.
[10]Fabbri, K., Zuppiroli, M., & Ambrogio, K. (2012). Heritage buildings and energy performance: Mapping with
GIS tools. Energy and Buildings, 48, 137-145.
[11]Gangolells, M., Casals, M., Gass, S., Forcada, N., Roca, X., & Fuertes, A. (2009). A methodology for
predicting the severity of environmental impacts related to the construction process of residential buildings. Building
and Environment, 44(3), 558-571.
[12]Herrmann, C., & Thiede, S. (2009). Process chain simulation to foster energy efficiency in manufacturing. CIRP
Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology, 1(4), 221-229.
[13]Howland, A. A. B. (2013). The residential energy map: catalyzing energy efficiency through remote energy
assessments and improved data access. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
[14]Kiran, B. A., & Rao, P. N. (2013). Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM)
for Planning, Designing and Commissioning of Green Buildings.
[15]Kolter, J. Z., & Ferreira, J. (2011). A Large-Scale Study on Predicting and Contextualizing Building Energy
Usage. Paper presented at the AAAI.
[16]Li, X., Zhu, Y., & Zhang, Z. (2010). An LCA-based environmental impact assessment model for construction
processes. Building and Environment, 45(3), 766-775.
[17]Ma, Z., Cooper, P., Daly, D., & Ledo, L. (2012). Existing building retrofits: Methodology and state-of-the-art.
Energy and Buildings, 55, 889-902.
[18]Miller, N. (2013). Urban form and building energy: quantifying relationships using a multi-scale approach.
[19]ODonnell, J., Corry, E., Hasan, S., Keane, M., & Curry, E. (2013). Building performance optimization using
cross-domain scenario modeling, linked data, and complex event processing. Building and Environment, 62, 102111.
[20]ODonnell, J., Keane, M., Morrissey, E., & Bazjanac, V. (2013). Scenario modelling: A holistic environmental
and energy management method for building operation optimisation. Energy and Buildings, 62, 146-157.
[21]Pereira, I. M., & Assis, E. S. d. (2013a). Urban energy consumption mapping for energy management. Energy
Policy, 59(0), 257-269. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.03.024
[22]Pereira, I. M., & Assis, E. S. d. (2013b). Urban energy consumption mapping for energy management. Energy
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Policy.
[23]Schuetze, T., Lee, J.-W., & Lee, T.-G. (2013). Sustainable Urban (re-) Development with Building Integrated
Energy, Water and Waste Systems. Sustainability, 5(3), 1114-1127.
[24]Swan, L. G., & Ugursal, V. I. (2009). Modeling of end-use energy consumption in the residential sector: A
review of modeling techniques. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13(8), 1819-1835.
[25]Yamaguchi, Y., Choudhary, R., Booth, A., Suzuki, Y., & Shimoda, Y. (2013). Urban-scale energy modeling of
food supermarket considering uncertainty. The proceedings of BS.
[26]Ye, H., Qiu, Q., Zhang, G., Lin, T., & Li, X. (2013a). Effects of natural environment on urban household energy
usage carbon emissions. Energy and Buildings, 65(0), 113-118. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.06.001
[27]Ye, H., Qiu, Q., Zhang, G., Lin, T., & Li, X. (2013b). Effects of natural environment on urban household energy
usage carbon emissions. Energy and Buildings.
[28]Zanon, B., & Verones, S. (2013). Climate change, urban energy and planning practices: Italian experiences of
innovation in land management tools. Land Use Policy, 32, 343-355.
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Track V
(Case Studies/Residential-Commercial)
413

Energy Modelling as Part of a Comprehensive Residential NZE Strategy

Joseph M. Burgett1 and Abdol R. Chini2
1
Construction Science and Management Department, Clemson University, 2-134 Lee Hall,
Clemson, SC 29634-0507, USA
E-mail 1jmburg@clemson.edu
2
M.E. Rinker, Sr. School of Building Construction, University of Florida, 304 Rinker Hall,
Gainesville, FL 32611-5703, USA
E-mail 2chini@ufl.edu
Abstract
When considering net zero buildings, solar panels or other renewable energy sources commonly come
to mind first. However, a critical first step in a comprehensive net zero energy (NZE) strategy is energy
conservation. Energy use should be minimized, and the remaining load should be offset with renewable
energy. This paper will show the benefits of energy modelling software as a tool to prioritize energy
reduction strategies based on the five major end uses (heating, cooling, hot water, lighting, and MELs) in
a hot-humid climate. Twelve energy models simulating houses built between 1979 and 2007 in the
Southeast United States are used to demonstrate the value of energy models as part of a comprehensive
NZE strategy. This paper will show that the increased stringency of the energy code has reduced the
energy intensity per square foot by nearly 40% over the past 30 years. However, the energy efficiency of
newer homes has been largely offset by a steady increase in average home size. The average home built
30 years ago uses only 9% more energy overall than homes built in 2007. Perhaps more significant is
how energy use has changed over time with some end uses showing significant decreases in intensity
while others with moderate increases. Knowing how energy use has changed in the residential market is
needed so that conservation strategies are targeted at the most effective end uses.
Keywords: end use, residential, energy modelling, building code, Florida
1. Introduction
When considering net zero buildings, renewable power generation is what is commonly thought of
first. However, energy conservation is much more economical than power generation, and it is a critical
first step in achieving net zero energy buildings. This paper will show how energy modelling of
residential homes can be used to direct energy reduction strategies as part of a comprehensive net zero
energy strategy. The hot-humid climate of the American Southeast will be used as a case study to
demonstrate how overall energy use has changed in residential homes over the past 30 years. More
important, however, this paper will show how specific end uses such as lighting, hot water,
heating/cooling and miscellaneous electrical loads (MELs) have changed. This information can be used
by legislators, code governing bodies, utility providers, and many other stakeholders to prioritize energy
reduction strategies.
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2. American Southeast as a Case Study

This study will use the hot-humid climate of the American Southeast to demonstrate the effectiveness
of energy modeling as a tool to direct energy conservation strategies and the development of energy
efficiency measures (EEMs). To perform the study, several factors needed to be quantified. Because
housing styles and weather differences play such a key role in the effectiveness of EEMs, geographical
limitations need to be established. The hot-humid climate zone being studied is a relatively large area, so
several computer models were created to closely represent the various single-family housing types within
it. The characteristics selected for the model homes are qualities shared by more than 50% of the houses
in the area of study. Where statistical information on housing characteristics was unavailable, or if there
were judgments to be made by the modeler, a conservative approach of a reasonably high efficiency
design in the baseline was used. The characteristics that most significantly impact energy use and that
were most common for this area were year built, number of bedrooms, and location. Ultimately, 12
detailed energy models were created that showed energy consumption broken down by space cooling,
space heating, hot water, large appliances, MELs, and lighting.
3. Geographic Limitations
The first task of the study was to establish the geographic limitation. The goal of the study was to
evaluate the energy use in the hot-humid climate zone of the American Southeast, but this is a relatively
large area. The specific states in this climate zone include Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi,
Alabama, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, and North Carolina. Only Florida is located entirely in the
hot-humid climate type. These states were the initial area of interest for the study.
3.1. Climate Zones
Although the goal of the study is to evaluate energy use within the hot-humid climate type, an
important question is if the climate variations within the hot-humid climate type are significant enough to
warrant breaking them into smaller areas and modeling them separately. To answer this question, an
energy simulation model was created for a home with common construction characteristics and occupant
energy use patterns. The model was then simulated in 15 cities distributed across the hot-humid climate
zone. The hot-humid climate zone was defined by the Department of Energys Building America (BA)
programs Building Simulation Protocol [1]. The study found that there was a 38% difference in energy
use between the model with the lowest energy use and the model with the highest energy use. From this
study it seems appropriate to break down the hot-humid climate zone into smaller areas. (Table 1)
The Building America Climate Zone Map is a simplified version of the IECC Climate Regions Map
[2]. However, as the effectiveness of an EEM is so dependent on climate, the more detailed IECC climate
zone map was used to breakdown the hot-humid climate. Within the BA climate zone map are three
IECC climate zones. (Figure 1) The IECC labels these three climate zones 1, 2, and 3. Climate Zone 1 is
located in the southernmost tip of Florida and is, by far, the smallest of the zones. This zone encompasses
only the Florida counties of Broward, Miami-Dade, and Monroe. Climate Zone 2 is significantly larger
and includes all of the area adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic coast of Florida and Georgia.
The IECC Climate Zone 3 extends north of Climate Zone 2 beyond the hot-humid border as defined by
the BA Climate Zone map. Climate Zone 3 extends into Nebraska, Arkansas, and Tennessee, which the
BA Climate Zone map categorizes as Mixed-Humid. For this study, our overall boundaries were limited
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to the BA Climate Zone of hot-humid before being subdivided into Climate Zones 1, 2, and 3 for
modeling purposes.
3.2. Locations Representing Climate Zone
With the overall locations separated into geographical areas with sufficiently similar climates,
specific weather condition inputs needed to be identified and added to the energy model calculations.
Similar to the method used to validate the need for multiple climate types within the hot-humid climate
zone, an energy simulation model was run in multiple, evenly distributed cities across the 3 climate zones.
Twenty cities were selected for Climate Zones 2 and 3. However, only 3 cities were selected for Climate
Zone 1 because it covers a small geographical area. The BA Climate Zone map determines the hot-humid
zone by the number of days the temperature rises above set points during the warmest six months of the
year. Because cooling represents the major share of a homes energy budget in the hot-humid zone, the
number of Cooling Degree Days (CDD) were used to categorize the selected cities. The 3 cities from
Climate Zone 1, 20 cities from Climate Zone 2, and 20 cities from Climate Zone 3 were then sorted by
number of CDD. The median city of each zone was then selected as the zones representative city. The
median cities were Miami, FL, for Climate Zone 1; Orlando, FL, for Climate Zone 2; and Augusta, GA,
for Climate Zone 3. For future modeling of the zones, the weather characteristics of these cities were
used as inputs for the energy use calculations. (Table 2)
3.3. Limiting of Study to Climate Zones 1 and 2
Once specific cities that represented the larger climate zones were selected, pilot models were created
to begin developing an understanding of how homes distributed their energy use and which type of
measures would be most effective. Reasonable assumptions were made on the homes construction based
on common practices in local energy codes, common building sizes, and typical building characteristics.
The pilot models found that energy use patterns and effectiveness of EEMs for Climate Zones 1 and 2
were fairly consistent. However, the energy use patterns for Climate Zone 3 were significantly different,
especially for heating and cooling. Heating in homes in Climate Zone 3 represents the largest single
energy use, whereas cooling was one of the smallest. This is reversed for Climate Zones 1 and 2.
Because the energy use patterns are so different, it follows that the effectiveness of the EEMs tested were
also significantly different. Many of the EEMs selected focused on ways of reducing cooling loads, but
in a climate that doesnt have a high cooling load to begin with, the effectiveness of the EEMs was
significantly reduced. Based on the pilot study, Climate Zone 3 was removed because the effective EEMs
were too dissimilar from the EEMs in Climate Zones 1 and 2.
4. Structure of the Houses Energy Code Efficiency Standards

A significant factor in energy consumption is the construction of the home itself. This area of the
study required thoughtful consideration because there is an enormous amount of variance in design for
single-family homes. The first criterion that was reviewed was the energy code used by the states in
Climate Zones 1 and 2. Climate Zone 1 is entirely within the state of Florida, so the Florida Energy Code
was used to create the energy efficiency parameters for the baseline models. But Climate Zone 2 contains
multiple states, so a modified weighted average by geographical area approach was used. Texas makes
up nearly half of the geographical area, but Texas has a very nonaggressive implementation of energy
efficiency standards. In fact, Texas did not have a residential energy code until 1999. Although
geographically Texas was the state with the largest share of the hot-humid climate zone, using such a
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relaxed (or nonexistent) energy code would not have served the interests of the study. Florida had the
next largest geographical share of the climate zone at over 25%. Florida, along with Georgia, adopted a
residential energy code in 1979 and was the first of all Climate Zone 2 states to do so. Because of its
large share of the climate zone, longest history of residential energy efficiency standards, and the added
benefit of consistency within Climate Zone 1, Floridas energy code was also used to create the energy
efficiency parameters for the baseline models in Climate Zone 2.
Despite using a single state as the basis for the performance standards used for the models, a large
range of performance standards exists from when it was created over 30 years ago. Using a single model
to simulate 30+ years of residential housing characteristics was too broad to generate a result that would
be applicable to the majority of the housing stock. To more closely approximate the conditions of
existing housing within the two climate zones, a second criterion needed to be added based on the year
the home was built. When reviewing the changes of the Florida Energy Code, there were two years in
which the stringency of the code greatly increased. The first year with significantly increased home
energy performance requirements was 1986. That year, among other improvements, the code was revised
to reflect an improvement in wall insulation from R11 to R13, ceiling insulation from R19 to R30, heating
strips were replaced with heat pumps in the north, and the solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) of glazed
openings was significantly reduced in the southern part of the state. Similarly, in 2005 there was another
increase in performance required by the code. The most significant new performance standard required
homes permitted in 2005 to have a minimum SEER 13 HVAC units over the previously required SEER
10. As a result, the baseline models in Climate Zones 1 and 2 were further divided into three time
periods: built in 1986 or before, built between 1987 and 2005, and built in 2006 or after.
5. Structure of the House Size, Shape, and Shell

Another component that greatly influences a homes energy consumption is its size, but this is
another characteristic with a great deal of variance. To make the model results as applicable as possible
for the largest range of homes, the median house size built during each of the three time periods described
above was used. Using information published by the Shimberg Center for Housing Studies, the median
house size built for each year from 19702009 was collected [3]. Information was not available for
homes built between 1960 and 1969, so based on the housing trends of that time, a 1,350sqft house size
was used. The median house size for each of the three time periods was then calculated. For the baseline
model of homes built in 1986 or before, a home size of 1,458sqft was used. For homes built from 1987 to
2005, a house size of 1,891sqft was used, and for homes built in 2006 or after, a size of 2,210sqft was
used as the baseline model. These sizes are for conditioned space, and each of the models includes a 400
sqft garage.
House orientation, especially in warmer climates, greatly impacts the homes energy consumption.
For warmer climates in the United States, a home that can minimize its exposure on the east and west
sides will have a reduced demand for cooling compared to a home with the reversed orientation. In
Southern states, a narrow house oriented with its long axis east/west is the most efficient and most
commonly used configuration. For this study a conservative approach was used, so the most efficient
orientation was assumed in the baseline models. Each of the models has an east/west orientation with a
2:1 ratio of north/south wall exposure to east/west wall exposure.
The types of structures (shells of houses) vary throughout the climate zone. However, by reviewing
housing characteristics published by the Shimberg Center for Housing Studies and the U.S. Census
Bureau, the majority of structure types of houses built in Climate Zones 1 and 2 were identified as
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concrete block and conventional framing, respectively [4, 5]. As such, the baseline models for Climate
Zone 1 used CMU block for their structure and conventional wood framing was used in the Climate Zone
2 baseline models.
5.1. Number of Bedrooms
Another important characteristic of housing that impacts energy use is the number of bedrooms.
There is often a correlation between number of bedrooms and number of occupants. This is important
because the number of occupants significantly impacts several major energy categories, including
miscellaneous electrical loads (MEL) and hot water use. In fact, the number of bedrooms is one of the
primary inputs the energy modeling software BEopt uses to calculate the occupant dependent loads.
According to the Census Bureau survey data for 2005, approximately 75% of houses were either 2 or 3
bedroom [5]. Because of the significance that the number of bedrooms plays in how the modeling
software calculates occupant loads, another category was added to the baseline models. The baseline
models were divided again to account for either being 2 or 3 bedrooms. Although there are homes with
fewer or greater numbers of bedrooms than 2 or 3, this group represents only 25% of the overall housing
stock.
5.2. Protocols
For each of the models created, a detailed protocol specifically listing all building components and
modeling inputs is provided. Most of the inputs were derived from energy code requirements at the time
the building was constructed, U.S. Census data, or the BA House Simulation Protocol. However, several
of the inputs should be explained in more detail.
Garage: Statistical information could not be found for average garage size, so an approximate
400sqft garage was assumed. The garage is considered unconditioned space, and the overall
electrical load is quite low. However, minimal lighting and MEL draws were included with the
models.
Insulation Degradation: Loose insulation has a tendency to be compacted or damaged over time,
and that results in loss of its thermal resistance properties. The BA House Simulation Protocol
recommends an insulation efficiency reduction of 11% for existing homes, which was adhered to for
all attic insulation. Wall insulation, where the likelihood of damage is much less, was assumed to
have no degradation.
HVAC SEER: In 2006, federal regulation mandated that all new residential air-conditioning
units have a minimum 13 SEER. As a result, in this study all models for homes built in 2006 or after
were assumed to have an efficiency of SEER 13. To maintain a conservative approach to the models,
no degradation to the efficiency of the cooling equipment was included. All models that simulated a
house built before 2006 were assumed to have a true SEER 10. Homes built before 2006 would
likely have been originally built with a unit significantly less efficient than a SEER 13. The Florida
Energy Code required homes in the 1970s to have a minimum SEER 6, in the 1980s a minimum
SEER 8, and in the 1990s a minimum SEER 10. Although they may have been installed with a low
efficiency unit, many existing homes have had old units replaced with newer ones. Because of the
wide range of efficiency of units, a true, nondegraded SEER 10 unit was assumed.
Lighting: All lighting calculations were based on the BA House Simulation Protocol
Recommendations. Calculations were based specifically on equations 7-13 of the protocol.
418

Orientation and Window Placement: The orientation of the house plays a significant role in the
overall energy efficiency. Because there is an enormous range of shapes and orientations in the
housing market, a high energy efficiency design was selected consistent with the studys conservative
approach to creating the baseline models. The house has a rectangular shape with the north/south
walls having twice the length of the east/west walls. The long axis of the building is oriented
east/west to minimize heat gain because heat gain is not desired in a hot-humid climate. In addition,
again by being conservative in approach, the windows were oriented in a 20/20/20/40 configuration.
This configuration means that 20% of the windows were located on the east, west, and south
exposures, and 40% were located on the northern exposure.
6. Summary of Models and Verification of Accuracy

The result of the findings necessitated that 12 baseline models be created to capture the majority of
the houses in the area of study. The first characteristic was based on geographic location and the baseline
models were differentiated by being located in either the IECC Climate Zone 1 or 2. The second
characteristic that defined the baseline models was the energy performance required by code at the time
they were built. The baseline models were further differentiated by year built and divided into three
categories: built on or before 1986, from 1987 to 2005, and 2006 or after. The final differential factor of
the baseline models was number of bedrooms. For this study, the models were divided into either being 2
or 3 bedroom, which reflects approximately 75% of the existing single-family housing stock.
To validate the accuracy of the baseline models, the annual energy consumption for 100 randomly
selected single-family homes was compared with the baseline model simulation results. The weather file
used in the baseline models was modified to reflect the location of the actual single-family houses to
remove location as a possible cause for error. Of the 100 houses selected, 86 of them lined up with the
criteria of the model houses. Specifically, 14 of the houses had either fewer than 2 or greater than 3
bedrooms and, thus, were not included in the study. The purpose of this analysis of existing home utility
consumption was to provide a high level feel for overall accuracy of the models. Many extremely
influential characteristics of the home were not reviewed in this high level study. Some of these
characteristics that are not known include hours occupant spends at home each day, MEL intensity, use of
pools, cooling/heating set points, orientation of building, second refrigerator, installed EEM upgrades,
energy inefficiency from home neglect, and a host of other factors. Despite the unknowns, with the
limited purpose of an overall validation of the baseline models, this study was both needed and fruitful in
its findings.
The utility consumption data were from homes located in North Central Florida, so only the six
Climate Zone 2 baseline models were used for comparison. Some of the simulated models were better
represented by the 86 actual homes than others. All two-bedroom models and the three-bedroom model
built after 2006 had sample sizes of seven homes or fewer. Because of the small sample size, it was
determined the data collected for these categories could not be relied upon. However, three-bedroom
homes built before 1987 (CZ2_<1986_3BR) and the three-bedroom homes built between 1987 and 2005
(CZ2_1987-2005_3BR) had sample sizes of 25 and 44 houses, respectively. The percent margin of error
at 95% confidence for CZ2_<1986_3BR homes is 24.1% and for CZ2_1987-2005_3BR homes is 10.6%.
The weighted margin of error average between the two models is 15.4%. Considering the sample size
and low margin of error, these two categories of homes were used to verify the accuracy of the simulated
models. The difference in energy intensity (Btu/sqft) between the CZ2_<1986_3BR simulation and the
actual homes is 14.3%. Similarly, the energy intensity difference between the CZ2_<1987-2005_3BR
419

simulation and the actual homes is 24.0%. The combined weighted average between the two groups is
20.5%. It is important to consider two factors. First, and of most significance, aside from the size,
number of bedrooms, and year built, no other characteristics of the houses were considered. A second
factor is that several publications have stated that the energy modeling software BEopt underestimates
energy use [6]. The reduced energy use predicted in the baseline models could be a result of overly
conservative assumptions built into the modeling software. Considering these two factors, the baseline
models do appear to be reasonably close to the actual energy use of similar homes. Table 2 provides a
summary of the findings and Table 3 demonstrates the details of the findings.
7. Overall Energy Use of Homes

The Florida energy code of 2007 is significantly more stringent than that of 1979. One major change
was that the required SEER of air conditioners increased from 6.1 to 13. Some other changes that
occurred were that the allowable air infiltration in homes was reduced by 55%, and attic insulation was
nearly doubled. Improvements in water heaters, window efficiency, and duct leakage are some of the
other improvements the code addressed. Despite these significant increases in required efficiency, overall
home energy use only decreased by 9% from homes built over the past 30 years. (Table 4)
8. Energy Intensity
While overall reduction in energy use is important, it is critical to understand how the energy is being
used in order to develop energy reduction strategies and reach the zero net energy goal. An average of all
12 models showed that the reduction in annual energy consumption was almost entirely due to
improvements in space cooling, with small reductions in heating and hot water. Typical homes built
before 1986 used 34% more energy (7.4MBTU) in cooling than homes built after 2006. Heating had a
significant improvement in efficiency (14%), but because it is such a small load, the overall impact is
minimal. Water heatings increased efficiency contributed to the improved energy performance, but
again, the overall load was small, and the improved efficiency was modest. (Table 5) Much of the
energy savings from space cooling was offset by lighting and MELs. Lighting increased an average of
39%, and MELs increased another 11%. Figure 2 shows the energy consumption by end use of typical
homes built over the past 30 years. Historically, space cooling has been where most of the energy has
been used, and as such, it has been where energy efficiency efforts have been targeted. Now, however,
MELs are becoming a close second in most intensive end use and an area where energy reduction
strategies should be focused.
Figure 2 shows that, of the six energy end uses, only MELs and lighting are increasing in annual
energy use. It is important to identify the factors influencing these two end uses. MELs primarily include
plug loads from electronics, small appliances, and other consumer products. The proliferation of
entertainment systems and home computing devices has significantly increased the energy demand in
residential homes in recent years, and that trend is likely to continue [7]. By contrast, with the
proliferation of affordable LED and CFL lighting, it may seem logical that this end use would decrease.
A critical attribute significantly impacting the magnitude of the MEL and lighting end use is home size.
The average size of houses built in Florida before 1987 was approximately 1,400sqft. Homes built after
2006 are over 50% larger at an average of over 2,200sqft. The larger home size drove down energy
intensity (BTU/sqft) by 40% over the period of this study. (Table 6) Graphically, this is shown in Figure
3, which also shows the decline in energy intensity (BTUx10/sqft) of the models over time. The figure
also shows the home size increased at almost the same pace. The increase in home size increases the
420

MEL and lighting loads, offsetting the savings from more efficient air-conditioning units and a more
stringent building code.
9. Recommended Strategies for Net Zero Energy Homes

This study used energy models to isolate energy consumption by end use. The goal is to use energy
models as a cost effective means of directing energy savings efforts so that they have the most impact and
reduce the need for costly on-site renewable energy generation. Using the American Southeast as a case
study, several strategies can be recommended for this climate zone. First, as shown in Figure 2, space
cooling is still the most significant energy end use in this climate zone. While the code has significantly
increased the efficiency of air- conditioning units and the building envelope, there is still opportunity to
reduce energy consumption in this area. This study also showed the lighting and MEL energy end use has
steadily increased over time. Lighting represented between 9% and 14% of the models annual energy
use. The models were created using the Building America House simulation protocols that assume 66%
of the lighting is incandescent. Moving to CFL or LED lighting can cost effectively reduce energy
consumption in this end use. MEL was shown to be the second largest end use and ranged from 19% to
24% of a homes annual energy load. Some energy reduction strategies have been developed for MELs,
such as government regulation of standby power, smart power strips, and whole-house switches, but this
is an end use that is under researched. The study recommends additional study into MELs, specifically in
the means of modeling them and in the development of reduction measures.
10. Conclusion
The goal of net zero energy is often considered a product of on-site renewable power generation.
While this is an important component, a critical first step is to reduce energy demand. This study
demonstrated the benefits of energy modeling to identify which energy end uses to focus on as part of a
comprehensive net zero energy strategy. The hot-humid climate of the American Southeast was used as a
case study to show the usefulness of energy models. However, the methodology of this study could be
used in other locations to produce recommendations specific to other climate types. Over the past 30
years, the energy code in Florida has specifically targeted the cooling end use. These efforts have been
largely successful with an overall reduction of 34% in the cooling end use. The study also showed that,
while low power lighting has been developed, the overall energy use for lighting has increased over time.
Home size has increased by 52% since 1987 and has contributed significantly to lighting and MELs
energy use. This study also showed that although cooling remains the highest energy consuming end use,
MELs are now a close second. Some energy reduction measures have been developed for MELs, but this
study recommends this end use be further researched and additional measures be developed.
11. Acknowledgements
This research is sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energys Building America program. The goal
of the Building America program is to engineer the American home for energy performance, durability,
quality, affordability, and comfort.
12. References
[1] Hendron, R. and Engebrecht, C. Building America House Simulation Protocols. U.S. Department of Energy,
National Renewable Energy laboratory (2010)
421

[2] U.S. Department of Energy. Guide to Determining Climate Regions by County. Building America Best
Practices Series 7.1 (PNNL-17211) (2010)
[3] Shimberg Center for Affordable Housing. Florida Housing Data Clearing House. Retrieved from
http://flhousingdata.shimberg.ufl.edu/a/geo_portal?action=results&report=19&nid=1 accessed June 20th, 2011
(2010a)
[4] Shimberg Center for Affordable Housing. Florida Housing Data Clearing House. Retrieved from
http://flhousingdata.shimberg.ufl.edu/a/construction_sales?report=unit_characteristics_all&report=a1_total_units_h
omestead&report=a2_year_built&report=a3_size_type&report=a4_size_year_built&report=a5_valuations&action=r
esults&nid=1&go.x=6&go.y=20 accessed June 20th, 2011 (2010b)
[5] U.S. Census Bureau. Florida Physical Housing Characteristics for Occupied Housing Units. Retrieved from
http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/STTable?_bm=y&-context=st&-qr_name=ACS_2009_5YR_G00_S2504&ds_name=ACS_2009_5YR_G00_&-tree_id=5309&-redoLog=true&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=04000US12&format=&-_lang=en accessed June 21th, 2011 (2008)
[6] Building America. BA2007 Final Report: Potential Savings in Miscellaneous Electric Loads from use of Next
Generation Appliances. Retrieved from http://www.bira.ws/projects/files/9C3b_Potential_Savings_Appliances.pdf
accessed July 13th, 2011 (2007)
[7] Roth, K., McKenney, K., Ponoum, R., & Paetsch, C. Residential Miscellaneous Electric Loads: Energy
Consumption Characterization and Savings Potential in 2006 and Scenario-based Projections for 2020. TIAX LLC.
(Reference No. D0370) (2008)
422

13. Figures
Figure 1 Building Americas guide to determining climate regions by county (page 6)
423

25
MBTU by End Use
20
Space Cooling
Space Heating
15
Hot Water
Large Appliances
10
MELs
Lights
0
<1986
1987 - 2005
<2006+
Figure 2 Average annual energy consumption by end use
4500
2500
2000
3500
3000
1500
2500
2000
1000
1500
1000
Average Home Size (sqft)
Energy Intensity (BTUx10/sqft)
4000
500
Climate Zone 1 with 2

Bedrooms (BTUX10/sqft)
Average Home Size (sqft)
500
0
0
<1986
1987 - 2005
<2006
Year Home Built
Figure 3 Energy intensity (BTUx10/sqft) compared to home size
424

14. Tables
Table 1 Micro-climate impact analysis for hot-humid climate zone
Model Location
Orlando, FL
Tampa, FL
Jacksonville, FL
Gainesville, FL
Panama City, FL
Miami, FL
New Orleans, LA
Austin, TX
Houston, TX
Savannah, GA
Charleston, SC
Montgomery, AL
Macon, GA
Wilmington, NC
Jackson, MS
Average
Energy Use in MBTU

66,277
71,420
72,453
72,798
75,207
75,576
78,329
79,001
80,233
80,851
84,788
85,907
89,412
89,831
91,268
79,557
Difference from Average

16.7%
10.2%
8.9%
8.5%
5.5%
5.0%
1.5%
0.7%
-0.9%
-1.6%
-6.6%
-8.0%
-12.4%
-12.9%
-14.7%
0.0%
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Table 2 Representative city of climate zone study
Table 3 Comparison from baseline models to actual homes in north central Florida
Table 4 Annual energy use of home (MBTU)
426

Year Home Built

<1986
Reduction from
19872005
<2006
1986 to 2006
Climate Zone 1 with 2 Bedrooms
53.4
54.1
48.1
-10%
57.1
57.9
51.5
-10%
46.1
44.8
42
-9%
49.7
48.4
45.6
-8%
Average
51.6
51.3
46.8
-9%
Table 5 Average annual energy consumption by end use (MBTU)

Year Home Built
Energy End Use
<1986
19872005
Reduction from
<2006
1986 to 2006
Space Cooling
21.5
20.2
14.15
-34%
Space Heating
1.1
0.525
0.95
-14%
7.175
7.175
6.95
-3%
6.8
6.8
6.8
0%
MELs
10.3
10.9
11.4
11%
Lights
4.7
5.7
6.55
39%
Hot Water
Large Appliances
427

Table 6 Energy intensity per square foot (BTU/sqft)

Year Home Built
<1986
19872005
Reduction from
2006+
1986 to 2006

Bedrooms
36,626
28,609
21,765
-41%

Bedrooms
39,163
30,619
23,303
-40%

Bedrooms
31,619
23,691
19,005
-40%

Bedrooms
34,088
25,595
20,633
-39%
Average
35,374
27,129
21,176
-40%
428

Housing Refurbishment to Net Zero Energy Case Study

Mark Russell1, Vanessa Valentin1, Kristina Yu1, Amirhosein Jafari1, Jim Folkman2 and Margo
Maher3
1
University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131 USA

Home Builders Association of Central New Mexico, USA
3
Associated General Contractors of New Mexico
1
russ1307@unm.edu, 1vv@unm.edu, 1khyu@unm.edu, 1jafari@unm.edu, 2jf@hbacnm.com, and
3
mmaher@agc-nm.org
2
Abstract
Based on the 2011 American Housing Survey by the US Census Bureau, over 60% of the housing
inventory in the US is more than 30 years old. According to the survey, the median construction date for
homes is 1974. When considering methods to conserve energy and natural resources, the refurbishment
of the existing homes would play a significant role. The University of New Mexico Schools of
Engineering and Architecture in conjunction with the New Mexico Home Builders Association
(NMHBA) and the Associated General Contractors of New Mexico (AGC-NM) have undertaken a
research project to evaluate the methods for remodeling homes that are more than 25 years old. The
Civil Engineering Department at the University of New Mexico was endowed by the AGC-NM with a
1960s era, 3 bedroom, 2 bath, 140 square meters home. The construction materials and energy usage for
this facility is typical for the region. The primary objectives of the refurbishment are to convert the house
to a low energy facility, analyze the options for reducing the HVAC loads, and install renewable energy
sources to exceed the remaining energy demands. To accomplish this goal, the project will evaluate the
cost effectiveness of material replacements, examine the options for reuse of salvaged materials, analyze
the functionality of retrofitting building information systems, and perform a cost analysis that includes the
impact of government incentives on the feasibility of home owners implementation of these programs.
The lessons learned from this project will provide valuable data to assist state legislation in assessing tax
incentive programs and serve as a resource for environmental remodeling.
Keywords: home remodeling, net zero energy, southwest US sustainability
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
The United States Department of Energy estimates that over 41% of the energy demand can be
attributed to the built environment [1]. According to Lausten, the residential sector alone uses 27% of
the world's energy [2]. And the US Energy Information Administration, estimates that residential energy
consumption was approximately 6% of the total primary energy use in 2012 [3]. As reported by the
Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the majority of residences in the US are greater
429

than 36 years old and would require significant modifications to bring them up to current building
standards [4]. It can be derived from this information that the poor energy performance of the older
residential stock contributes significantly to the excess energy use. When performing remodeling of
residences, the use of energy efficient materials and practices can help regions to achieve their energy
saving goals.
1.2 Low Energy Facilities
Ideally a residence should be designed such that it can produce at least as much energy as the facility
uses. When the energy efficiency of the building increases, the owner may be able to recognize some
revenue as a result of the home producing more energy than is used and thus the owner is able to sell back
extra energy to the grid. With new homes, the ability to install the appropriate thermal barriers and
insulation to attain this level of building performance can be built into the initial structure. However, with
a remodeling situation in which the building was constructed using minimal insulation or the home has
settled and cracks and openings have compromised the building thermal barriers, the ability to obtain a
satisfactory envelope to conserve energy use can be far more challenging.
A common problem in classifying buildings as zero energy or low carbon is developing a definition
that has an international consensus. Although the ideal to have buildings that operate completely off the
grid may be desirable, it is certainly not practical based upon our current utilities infrastructure [5]. For
the purpose of this research project, the International Energy Agency (IEA) definition will be used which
considers a zero energy building to be one that on an annual basis returns as much energy to the grid as
what it consumes [2].
1.3 Government Incentives
Legislative action has often created the catalyst to promote the change to energy efficient building.
Evidence of this legislation is seen in the European Union Directive on Energy Performance on Buildings
which stipulates that all new buildings shall be nearly zero energy buildings by the end of 2020 [6]. A
similar initiative in the US is seen in the Building Technologies Program from the US Department of
Energy which establishes a strategic goal to achieve marketable zero energy home in 2020 and
commercial zero buildings in 2025 [7].
The payback period for investments in energy savings plays a significant role in homeowners
decisions to purchase more environmentally friendly materials. As much of the technology for improved
performance is relatively new, there is often not enough of a market for the industry to remain
economically viable on its own and the cost for green products may be noticeably higher than those of
conventional products. Government incentives for these programs can play a substantial role in both
encouraging new developments through research and in providing tax incentives for industry and home
owners to install the environmentally preferred equipment. However, there is a tremendous amount of
controversy within legislatures to develop new or continue to use existing tax incentives programs for
residential housing. Since these programs result in reduced taxes collected for the government, they are
often seen as an expense in the legislatures budget. Naturally, this results in significant debates
concerning the reduction of government spending and what programs should be funded by our taxes.
From a homeowners perspective, tax incentives or rebate programs need to be closely evaluated since
many of these programs have time limits and restrictions pertaining to their use. Effectively there are four
categories relating to tax incentives. The groups can be considered based on taxes and age of the
property. Thus there are Federal tax incentives for new homes and Federal tax incentives for remodeling.
430

The other two categories would be based on local taxes for new construction and local taxes for
remodeling. Other than tax incentives, there are also rebates that are offered by utility companies and
refunds provided by individual product manufacturers. Fortunately, from websites such as the
Department of Energy Tax, Rebates, and Savings website (http://energy.gov/savings) and RESNET
(http://www.resnet.us/), many of these programs can be evaluated to determine which apply to a
particular location and product.
Another method that the national and local governments have been able to promote more energy
efficient homes is through educational outreach programs. Both the US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and the US Department of Energy (DOE) have developed websites, training brochures,
and computer programs to assist home owners in selecting energy efficient products. The Home Builders
Association has taken this information and created site specific outreach programs in which they will go
to local communities to educate the residents on things they can do on an individual level to reduce
energy use and promote waste reduction.
The EPA has identified several national organizations that have established a priority to reduce
energy within the construction industry. Some of the most notable of the organizations due to their
planned participation in this case study are:
a. Associated General Contractors (AGC) which has included 4 goals that directly relate to materials
management as part of the 2006 Environmental Agenda. Those goals are:
- Encourage environmental stewardship through education, awareness and outreach.
- Recognize environmentally responsible construction practices.
- Identify opportunities to reduce the impact that construction practices have on the environment.
- Identify ways to measure and report environmental trends and performance indicators of such
trends.
b. The National Association of Home Builders (NAHB; http://www.nahb.org) issued the 2012
National Green Building Standard ICC 700-2012 as guidance on how to construct and remodel homes in
a sustainable manner. These guides include specific requirements to reduce, reuse, and recycle
construction waste. The NAHB also holds an annual conference to specifically address new
developments in Green Building technology.
1.4 Net Zero Energy Retrofitting
Oak Ridge National Laboratories (ORNL) has prepared a guide for the Residential Integration road
mapping project as part of the Department of Energys Building Technology Program to retrofit homes to
extremely low energy levels [8]. ORNL has traditionally performed research for reducing energy usage
by focusing on the following:
- Utility-led deep energy retrofits
- Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
- High-performance envelopes (roofs, walls, foundations, and moisture management)
- Envelope materials research
- Validation of computer-predicted versus measured energy consumption
- Materials characterization.
Through research in conjunction with the Tennessee Valley Authority on 23 homes in Creek Valley,
the ONRL has enhanced their recommendations for Deep Energy Retrofitting residential homes to lower
than usual energy savings. Some of the recommendations provided by ONRL include the following:
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Significant Envelope and Thermal Distribution Energy Savings. Working with industry
professionals, new standards for material insulation and labeling will be developed. Laboratory
tests will focus on wicking properties of materials and then develop kits for homeowners to
remediate the problem [8].
Utility-Led Deep Energy Retrofits. By developing new high-efficiency HVAC systems with
variable-capacity compressors significant energy savings can be realized [8].
Validation of Energy Audit Software with Measured Data. Energy consumption data from homes
should be used to provide Home Energy Score and HERS values, these values compared with
normalized measured energy savings representative of asset performance [8].
Duct Issues. Major space-conditioning challenges after whole-house retrofits included: design
and installation of properly sized ducts, moving ducts into conditioned space, and guidelines for
sealing inaccessible ducts [8].
2. Case Study
The University of New Mexico is working with the Associated General Contractors of New Mexico
and the Central New Mexico Home Builders Association to remodel an existing home as a demonstration
project. The project is intended to gather data and demonstrate the effectiveness of various remodeling
techniques. As a collaboration of industry leaders in research, construction, and residential building; it is
envisioned that this partnership will develop a synergy for future benefits to the community.
2.1 Existing Conditions
The house being studied was originally constructed in 1964 as a ranch home in Albuquerque, New
Mexico. In 1986, the facility was donated by the Associated General Contractors of New Mexico (AGCNM) to the University of New Mexico as part of an endowment package for the Construction
Management Program in the Civil Engineering Department. Since that time, numerous visiting
professors and occasionally new hired professors have lived in the home. Most of the minor repairs on
the home have been conducted by funds as part of the endowment and from volunteer labour of the
faculty and students. Essentially, all of the repairs on the home were intended only to keep the facility
habitable and no major energy conserving features have been added.
The home is a 1500 square foot 3 bedroom 2 bath concrete block facility constructed on a crawlspace
(Figure 1). There is a relatively flat gable roof with a 1:12 pitch. The ridge of the roof runs through the
middle of the building in a north south direction. Roofing construction is a ballasted built up roof system
using bituminous material. The current heating is by gas furnace and cooling is provided by an
evaporative cooling (swamp cooler) system. The building site is a 0.28 acre lot that has a grass lawn and
several planted landscaped areas. There is a covered carport and external storage shed.
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Figure 1. House layout

Currently, the performance and features of the electrical system of the house can be described as
follows: There are ceiling fans on the bedrooms. The living room and dining room areas do not have
ceiling lighting and lamps are not enough for providing appropriate lighting to these large spaces. The
electricity provided through the electric outlets does not provides adequate power for a single portable
heater or 2 small kitchen appliances working at the same time.
The building has been occupied by a family of three for the last two years. During that time, the
annual utility usage has been 9,000 kWh of electricity, 102,000 gallons of water, and 700 therms of gas.
The average Albuquerque, New Mexico utility usage provided by PNM, the local utility company, for a
similar size and age of home is: 9307 kWh per year and 755 therms of natural gas [9]. The Albuquerque
Bernalillo Water Utility Authority reports that the average daily water use per capita is 150 gallons per
day [10]. This would equate to approximately 109,500 gallons for a similar household. Therefore the
actual usage of utilities for the home is directly in line with the average Albuquerque utility usage for a
similar constructed and age of facility.
During and subsequent to the home remodeling, the facility will be used as an educational facility, an
office space, and temporary housing for visiting professors. The primary purpose for the house is to test
out various sustainable techniques and allow students to verify their effectiveness. In addition, the facility
is intended to provide a showcase for the general public in which they will be able to witness the various
techniques in a real life situation and receive added information from applicable sustainability experts and
433

contractors. As a research based facility, the home will be used to collect data regarding the full life cycle
of building materials and evaluate their impact on the general economy and society.
2.2 Budget
Based on table 1, the budget for the overall project is $140,000. However, as the project intends to
demonstrate the effectiveness of homeowners investing various ranges of funds to remodel their homes,
the expenses will be incurred in a phased manner. As the facility is a three bedroom house, it is planned
that one bedroom will be preserved at each funding level to be used as a demonstration for the general
public. In other words, one room will receive only the modifications relative to the $25,000 level, another
bedroom will retain only the benefits of the $75,000 level, and the third bedroom will be created to reflect
the higher cost remodeling.
Phase I of the project will incur the basic costs of the project necessary to perform research and
collect the monitoring data. These are costs that would not normally be incurred by an average
homeowner; but are necessary to communicate with the public and acquire accurate data. The estimated
cost for this phase is $9,000 and will be derived from University of New Mexico grants, the AGC
endowment, and matching funds from sponsors.
Phase II of the project is geared to the average homeowner that has up to $25,000 available to
remodel their home. This phase of renovation will commence shortly after the monitoring equipment
from phase I has been installed. Funds for this phase of the project are planned to come from in-kind
donations by material suppliers, local municipal grants, and state research funding.
Phase III of the project is geared to the homeowner that has up to $75,000 available for remodeling.
Since all of the additions from Phase II would be considered as part of this budget, there would be an
additional $25,000 needed to commence this part of the work. Work on this phase would commence
following the completion of Phase II and upon confirmation of materials and funds for this portion of
work. Similar to Phase II, it is anticipated that funds will originate from in-kind donations by material
suppliers, local municipal grants, and state research funding.
Phase IV of the project is intended to demonstrate how the house can be modified to obtain net-zero
energy and waste standards. As this will require a larger budget, it is anticipated that Federal Grants and
research projects will be pursued to fund this work. Additionally, in-kind donations from local
contractors will be used to promote their products and off-set the costs of expensive equipment. This
portion of the work will commence shortly after the completion of Phase III and validation that funds and
material are available.
3. Analysis
Prior to commending remodeling, monitoring equipment for local weather, temperature, humidity,
electrical sub-metering, water sub-metering, and gas usage will be installed. This will establish the
baseline conditions to which all of the subsequent data can be compared. As a facility that is being
designed to collect data and provide evidence of impacts on changing the building systems, it is critical
that every phase of the renovation is properly documented. One of the overall goals of the project is to
provide a demonstration of the savings that can be created based on an average homeowner spending
$25,000, $75,000, and more on renovations. To accurately reflect these impacts, all primary living spaces
of the house will need to be monitored and simultaneous time lines developed that reflects how the house
has been adjusted and what are the differences with respect to external weather conditions.
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As a graduate research project [11], the existing energy use was modeled with eQUEST 3.65 software
and then adjusted based on the planned upgrades to predict the Life Cycle Cost impacts of the
recommended changes. Based on a price of $ 0.113 per KWh of electricity and $1.06 per therm of natural
gas, the annual utility bills were estimated to be $1857.20. Next, the payback periods were calculated for
the retrofit activities using Monte-Carlo simulation and @Risk software. Table 1 provides the results
from this analysis in terms of mean value with a 90% probability. For example, by installing added
ceiling insulation, there is a 90% probability that the cost will be recovered in 9.2 to 12 years or an
average of 10.2 years.
Table 1: Summary of the payback periods for each retrofitting activity
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Activity
Programmable Thermostat
HVAC tune up
Replace all lighting with CFLs
Replace with Energy Star for Refrigerator
Replace with Energy Star for Clothes washer
Replace with Energy Star for Dishwasher
Insulate Ceilings
Insulate walls
Insulate Attic
Replace doors with insulated core
Replace windows with energy efficient glass
Install ground source heat exchanger
Evaporative Cooler
Solar Thermal
Solar electric
Payback Period (Year)

Percentile5
Percentile95
0.4
1.0
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.3
14.8
103.2
7.9
23.5
27.9
133.7
9.2
12.0
7.9
33.0
8.8
13.5
31.5
145.6
43.0
97.7
30.3
41.6
4.9
8.6
21.5
50.1
47.6
62.4
Mean
0.6
0.7
0.3
42.9
14.5
64.5
10.2
17.4
11.1
74.7
63.7
35.4
6.7
32.4
54.4
Rank
2
3
1
11
7
14
5
8
6
15
13
10
4
9
12
The evaluation of the building was based on 50 years of useful service life. The options for the
retrofit activities include:
- Keep home as it is. In this case the retrofit costs would be zero; but the utilities cost would be
maximum.
- Perform all of the recommended retrofit activities. In this case the retrofit costs would be
maximum; but the utilities cost would be minimum.
- Perform only a group of retrofit activities in which a substantial payback can be realized. In this
case the retrofit costs would be optimized; but the utility costs would not be the lowest.
The results of this study are demonstrated in Figure 2. Based on the LCC analysis, the optimum
retrofit costs would be $27,134.
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Figure 2: The optimum LCC for service life of 50 years

Based on the LCC optimization study the activities in Table 2 were determined to be the most cost
effective. The final result predicts that by performing these retrofit activities the LCC would decrease by
40% based on a 50 year building life cycle.
Table 2: The summary of the LCC optimization for different scenarios
Scenario
no Retrofit
Optimum
All Retrofit
No. of Retrofit
Activities
0
9
15
Selected Activities Numbers

1,2,3,5,7,8,9,13,14
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15
Average LCC
($)
46,988
27,134
63,852
4. Conclusion
The lessons learned from this kind of research can play an invaluable role in advising policy makers
on the advantages for tax incentives and educating the public on effective measures for remodeling homes
while conserving natural resources. With the combined efforts of the University of New Mexico,
Associated General Contractors of New Mexico, and Central New Mexico Home Builders Association, a
collaboration of influential and innovative organizations can enhance their cooperation and provide a
valuable resource for the public. Additionally, as an educational facility, it is intended to help train future
engineers and architects on the application of sustainable technologies and demonstrate the methods and
procedures to save energy while reducing waste generation.
The LCC modeling of the home was also able to demonstrate that the payback period for some of the
more expensive items may improve the energy performance; but the costs recovery in itself may not
justify the added expense. When determining activities for retrofit, it is critical to keep in mind the
overall objective of the project and a detailed cost/benefit analysis is often necessary. Although cost
savings can be a substantial reason for performing retrofit activities, often times other considerations for
the environmental and/or energy conservation may provide justification for the remodeling.
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4.1 Future Research

As a home remodeling project, there are innumerable areas in which future research can be addressed.
Currently the planning committee is considering expanding the data collection to include other types of
construction and various ages of facilities. Additionally, as more data is obtained on the actual utility use
for this facility, more comprehensive trends can be developed that would lead to a realistic indication of
the cost/benefit analysis and validate the assumptions used during the planning phase.
As an indicator of the sustainability of the facility a comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of
the remodeling process would be useful in quantifying the overall environmental impacts associated with
this project. It is planned to keep accurate records of the material used and the distances travelled to
facilitate these calculations in the future.
As mentioned above, a concern with many legislators is the amount of tax incentives that are
provided for energy and waste saving initiatives. Further research could play a significant role in
demonstrating the added jobs and trickle down cost benefits that would be associated with these
programs.
As new technology is developed it is anticipated the facility will be used as a test bed for application
and analysis of the improved remodeling techniques. By offering a public demonstration site such as this,
retailers will have an opportunity to analyze their products and evaluate the opinions of potential
customers prior to a full scale production.
5. References
[1] Department of Energy (DOE), Buildings Energy Data Book: 1.1, Buildings Sector Energy Consumption, D&R
International, Ltd. under contract to Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, (2012).
[2] J. Laustsen, Energy Efficiency Requirements in Building Codes, Energy Efficiency Policies for New Building,
International Energy Agency, OECD/IEA, (2008).
[3] U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), Chapter 2 of the Monthly Energy Review, Office of Energy
Statistics U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC 20585,DOE/EIA-0035(2013/12), (2013).
[4] Housing and Urban Development (HUD), American Housing Survey (AHS), HUD 10-138, (2010).
[5] M. Panagiotidou and R. Fuller, Progress in ZEBsA review of definitions, policies and construction activity,
Energy Policy, Volume 62, Pages 196206, (2013).
[6] EPBD recast, Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 May 2010 on the
energy performance of buildings (recast), Official Journal of the European Union, 18/06/2010, (2010).
[7] US DOE, Building Technologies Program, Planned Program Activities for 20082012, Department Of Energy,
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/mypp.html, (2008).
[8] J. Christian, A. Wolfe, R. Jackson, and T. Hendrick, Challenges and Opportunities To Achieve 50% Energy
Savings in Homes, Chapter 3 Deep Retrofitting, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy,
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, CO 80401, (2011).
[9] PNM, Home Energy Analyzer, http://www.myenergytips.com/CalcHomeEnergy.aspx?accountID=605, (2013).
[10] Albuquerque Bernalillo County Water Utility Authority (ABCWUA),
http://www.abcwua.org/content/view/342/555, (2012).
[11] A. Jafari, V. Valentin, and M. Russell, Probabilistic Life cycle Cost Model for Sustainable Housing Retrofit
Decision-Making, (2013).
437

Improving building energy efficiency by discovering hidden stars:

A case study from Australia
Steve Burroughs1,2
1
Principal Consultant, Sustainable Building Consultant/Academic Advisor, Dr Steve Burroughs,

38 Blackman Crescent, Macquarie, ACT 2614, Australia.
Email: drsteve@drsteveburroughs.com.au
2
Adjunct Associate Professor (Architecture), University of Canberra.
Abstract
Given the current environmental imperative, building owners and tenants in Australia are increasingly
being required to proactively manage the environmental aspects of building operation. The Industry
Superannuation Property Trust (ISPT), one of Australias largest unlisted property fund managers, has a
substantial investment in sustainable buildings on behalf of its stakeholders. This paper examines the
approach taken by ISPT in improving the sustainable operation of its building stock. The company has a
commitment to sustainability in the property industry and continues to seek ways of reducing energy
consumption in its office, retail, and industrial properties. ISPTs approach is based on discovering
hidden stars, a reference to improving building energy performance using cost-effective solutions driven
by smart engineering and computer modelling, and rated with respect to the National Australian Built
Environment Rating System (NABERS) from 1.0 to 6.0 stars (based on measured consumption). The
approach involves a comprehensive check of a buildings electricalmechanical systems, including an
examination of the building systems brief, available documentation, and the history of maintenance, on
which basis upgrades/replacements are made and configurations of the systems optimized. Computer
simulations help identify other potential efficiencies by modelling building energy use with parameters
derived from building design, electrical and mechanical systems, occupancy profiles, and climate. This
approach avoids the need to engage in costly, full-scale refurbishment of properties to achieve substantial
improvements in building environmental performance. A case study of a 17-storey, 21,000 m2 Sydney
office building exemplifies the smart-engineeringcomputer-simulation approach. The NABERS energy
efficiency rating of this building has improved from 2.5 stars (2007) to 4.0 (2010) and to 5.4 (2013). The
increase from 4.0 to 5.4 stars equates to a ~50% reduction in energy use. More widespread use of such
approaches in the sustainable property industry should generate financial and environmental benefits for
stakeholders including building owners, tenants, investors, communities, and government.
Keywords: building environmental performance, sustainable property industry, NABERS rating tool,
Australia, energy use, smart engineering, computer simulations, stakeholders
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1. Introduction and background

The key drivers of sustainability in the building and property industry in Australia are the issues of
energy consumption (in a market of rising costs), water conservation (in a drought-prone country), and
carbon emissions (in an era of international environmental responsibility). To operate effectively in this
context, organizations (including government departments and large corporates) in Australia are
increasingly being required to demonstrate proactive management of environmental aspects in their
activities, including in the operation of buildings, whether as owner or occupier. Developments in the
sustainable building and property industry are now proceeding at pace in the region (e.g., [1]), and include
the adoption of new building designs and materials, the refurbishment (retrofitting) and improvement of
conventional buildings, the refinement of environmental efficiency rating tools, improved technologies
for enhancing environmental efficiency, new/improved ways of monitoring and managing building
performance, and the use of green leases for tenancies in commercial buildings.
The private property/building sector is rapidly adopting green strategies, under the drivers of
government policies and regulations, improved returns (both capital returns and income/rental) from
sustainable buildings compared with conventional buildings, and stakeholder demands and expectations
regarding environmental accountability. An increasing number of existing buildings (particularly in the
office market) are being refurbished to be made more environmentally efficient. A particular driver is the
increasing penetration of the NABERS (National Australian Building Environmental Rating System)
scheme into the commercial property market, particularly into the office building market, as an
established indicator of green-ness and sustainability in the property industry (72% of the national
leased area of office buildings has been assessed at least once for NABERS energy performance [2]). As
of November 2011, Building Energy Efficiency Certificates (which include a NABERS base building
energy rating) are required by regulation when leasing office space >2000 m2, and the NABERS rating
must be disclosed.
Many existing building have been, or are in the process of being, refurbished/retrofitted to various
degrees to improve their environmental efficiency. The typical energy consumption break-down within
commercial properties in Australia [3] shows that ventilation and cooling constitute 50% of energy use,
in-building lights and power 20%, elevators (lifts) 15%, and heating and hot water 15%. These broad
figures indicate where the more major improvements in energy efficiency may be found, with ventilation
and cooling being the most obvious target. This paper examines the ways in which ISPT, one of
Australias largest unlisted property fund managers, is improving the environmental performance of its
leased building stock with particular respect to energy efficiency. Attention is paid to the approach used,
which consists of: (1) identifying lower-performing buildings through utility consumption data; (2)
identifying potential improvements through the analysis of documentation, engineering inspections of the
existing mechanical and electrical systems (including control systems), and computer simulations of
energy use; and (3) physically realizing the improvements by altering aspects of the buildings systems
and operation after a costbenefit analysis. A case study of an office building in the Sydney central
business district (CBD) exemplifies the approach taken, and shows that substantial increments in the
environmental rating of a building can be gained by using the combined smart engineeringcomputer
simulation approach.
Information for this study of building energy efficiency was obtained from various complementary
sources, including: academic literature; property industry documents and reports; government and
organization websites; and data and information from ISPT, including utility consumption data, building
rating data, and information about the organization and its methods as gained from documents and
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interviews with ISPT engineering staff and management personnel. The study is made in the context of
the commercial realities of the sustainable property industry, where buildings represent the assets and
income of owners and investors; of importance in this respect is the measurement of environmental
efficiencies using the NABERS rating scheme, which allows building owners, investors, financiers,
tenants/occupants, and others to evaluate and compare buildings.
1.1 The National Australian Building Environmental Rating System (NABERS)
There are two major tools for assessing environmental aspects of buildings in Australia. The Green
Star Rating (GSR) rates a building according to its design and construction/refurbishment, based on its
environmental features and attributes, whereas the National Australian Built Environment Rating System
(NABERS) provides a rating based on the actual (measured) environmental performance of a building
during occupation/use. NABERS (www.nabers.com.au), of more concern in this paper, incorporates four
components: energy, water, waste, and indoor environmental quality. The NABERS energy tool is the
most widely used of the components, and rates a building from 1 to 6 stars according to its measured
performance using 12 months of energy use. A rating is valid for only one year, and may therefore vary
yearly.
The energy tool converts the energy used into greenhouse-gas equivalents according to the source of
electricity generation. The emissions values are then normalised using algorithms that account for the
buildings location, size (lettable area), hours of occupation, other usage factors (e.g., number of
computers), and climate, to yield a value of emissions per m2. This value is then compared with the
benchmark for the particular state, on which basis a rating is computed. Although the benchmarks
between states in Australia are different (given the climatic conditions and the different ways in which the
electricity is produced), the differences in value between steps are very close. Figure 1 shows for the state
of New South Wales (NSW) that greater degrees of energy efficiency are required to attain equivalent
increments in NABERS rating as star ratings increase.
There are several separate NABERS energy rating systems available, including one for office
buildings (base building rating covering the energy consumption resulting from the activities and central
services and common areas supplied/managed by the landlords/operators of the buildings, such as air
conditioning) and one for office tenancy (tenancy rating covering energy use in the areas of the building
and activities that are under the control of the office tenants, such as office lighting). A whole-building
rating covers both the tenanted spaces and the base building, and is typically used in an owner-occupied
building, or where there is inadequate metering to obtain a base building or tenancy rating, or where the
lease is a gross (cf. nett) type of lease. The separation of base building and tenancy consumption to give
separate NABERS ratings means that tenants behaviour does not affect the level of efficiency established
by the building owner for the base building. Other systems cover hotels, shopping centres, data centres,
and homes. Using online tools, owners or occupants of premises can input data and obtain their own
rating for any component, although official ratings can obtained only via an accredited assessor.
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Figure 1. Reductions (in % values) in GHG emissions for NABERS energy (Ene) star ratings in the state
of New South Wales.
As of April 2012, the NABERS website accredited rating reporting tool indicated that 1109 buildings
in Australia had an official NABERS energy efficiency assessment rating. Of these, 159 had tenancy
ratings, 699 had base-building ratings, and 251 had whole-building ratings. Of the base-building ratings,
eight had a rating of 6 stars, 25 of 5.5 stars, and 78 of 5 stars. As of January 2014, the reporting tool
showed that 1425 buildings had an official energy rating. Of these, 169 had tenancy ratings, 883 had basebuilding ratings, and 273 had whole-building ratings. Of the base-building ratings, eight had a rating of 6
stars, 46 of 5.5 stars, and 155 of 5 stars.
1.2 The sustainable property industry in Australia
Sustainable buildings include both newly constructed buildings and existing buildings refurbished to
a high level of environmental performance. It is apparent that such buildings are superior to conventional
buildings in many respects, including with regard to better environmental performance (e.g., lower utility
consumption), and to higher rents, higher valuations, improved occupancy rates, lower tenant turnover,
and improved occupant wellbeing and productivity [4][7]. This correlation between buildings
environmental features/performance and investment returns is attractive to real estate investors, who
expect higher returns for improved sustainability and for higher levels of certification on the
environmental performance of their buildings.
An Investment Property Databank (IPD) 2011 study of the investment performance of buildings with
respect to their environmental ratings for 570 buildings in Australia showed a clear advantage of greenness [8]. Property asset valuation data included returns, capital value, rents, and vacancy rates. For
NABERS energy, the annualized 2-yr return for the office market was 5.4% for 5 star, 4.4% for 4 star,
and 1.6% for unrated. More recent data [10] confirm the earlier studies. The IPD Australia Green
Property Index was launched early in 2011 and enables the impact of Green Star, NABERS Energy, and
NABERS Water ratings on investment performance to be measured. The index represents 90% of the IPD
Australian commercial office database by capital value. For the overall Australian CBD office market,
assets rated with NABERS energy at 46 stars delivered an annualised total return (capital plus income)
of 11.3% in the year to March 2012, compared with 03.5-star assets, which returned 9.4% [10]. This
differential was greater for buildings refurbished in the last five years, with corresponding values of
11.8% and 8.7 %, respectively. In the year to September 2013, the assets rated with NABERS energy at
46 stars delivered an annualised total return of 9.5%, compared with 7.7% for the 03.5-star assets [11].
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2. ISPT and its approach to improving the energy efficiency of buildings

2.1 ISPT
The Industry Superannuation Property Trust (ISPT) was created in 1994 as a collectively owned
investment vehicle. The organization is now owned by 21 superannuation funds and like-minded
organisations, and more than 50% of Australian workers have their retirement savings invested in
property through ISPT. ISPT has over $9.2 billion of funds under management through investments in
various types of property.
ISPT has a recognised commitment to sustainability in the property industry. The organizations
primary environmental/sustainability philosophy can be summed up as not to waste and not to pollute.
However, to actually achieve this, ISPT has realized that buildings systems must be configured in such a
way as to be efficient and economical, and kept in that condition by monitoring and adjustment. This
approach applies equally to management endeavours as well as engineering applications. ISPT has a
stated aim for building solutions that result in: (1) responsible investment and outcome; (2) buildings that
are attractive for long-term tenants: and (3) optimum design, delivery, and quality of its buildings and
systems so that they are safe, easily maintained, consume a minimum of utility resources, and deliver
pleasant and efficient workplaces for occupants.
ISPT has a data-logger that downloads utility data daily from its 70 buildings. Potential
improvements in the environmental efficiency of buildings in the ISPT property portfolio, including
reducing the consumption of both energy and water, are identified and initiated by ISPTs in-house
engineering team on an annual review basis. The NABERS scheme is used to apply to the refurbishment
and operation of existing buildings, and the Green Star system for new-built developments. To date, ISPT
has prioritised improvements to energy efficiency, which are now being followed by improvements to
water, IEQ, and waste.
2.2 Smart engineeringcomputer simulation approach
ISPT uses a smart engineeringcomputer simulation approach to upgrading the energy efficiency of
its buildings. In this approach, the basic information such as the building systems brief and available
documentation, as well as the history of maintenance and complaints, are collated and analysed. Then, the
configuration and original setup of the building systems are reviewed and systematically questioned, and
any viable opportunities to adjust them are prioritised and implemented to bring the base systems to their
ultimate configuration. A tuning exercise is then carried out on the adjustable parameters. In this
approach, as the case has been addressed from the root cause of inefficiencies of operations and
performance, it is much more likely that the ultimate level of performance will be achieved, in a shorter
period of time, and in a more stable and cost-effective fashion, than by ad hoc approaches. The outcomes
of ISPTs approach have been measurably successful as indicated by improvements in NABERS energy
ratings of many of its buildings.
In conjunction with the engineering approach, computer-modelling software is used to simulate
potential improvements to energy efficiency. The software is a commercially purchased programme,
TraceTM 700 energy and economy simulation and analysis (Trane, www.trane.com). The TRACE (Trane
Air Conditioning Economics) software includes an analysis and calculation of load, system, energy and
economics to compare the energy and economic impacts of building variables such as architectural
features, HVAC equipment systems, other electricalmechanical systems, building utilization, operating
schedules, occupancy profiles, climate, and financial options. Essentially, the software allows building,
system, and equipment designs to be optimized based on modelled energy utilization using what if
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scenarios: evaluations of proposed energy-saving concepts can be made by generating alternatives based
on different configurations and the effects of system variations, utility rates, and equipment options. The
modelling can account for any processes or features that affect the heating/cooling load of the building or
which otherwise consume energy.
The calculations explicitly cover the following items [12]: (i) Climatic data, including hourly data for
temperature, solar radiation, wind and humidity of typical days of the year, representing seasonal
variations. The program can calculate building heat gains and losses for all 8760 hours in a year. (ii)
Building orientation, size, shape, mass and heat transfer characteristics of air and moisture. (iii) Building
operational characteristics, accounting for temperature, humidity, ventilation, illumination, and control
modes for occupied and unoccupied hours (utilization profiles/schedules). (iv) Mechanical operational
characteristics, accounting for design capacity, part-load performance, and ambient dry bulb and wet bulb
depression effects on both equipment performance and energy consumption. (v) Internal heat generation
from illumination, equipment, and the number of people in occupied spaces during occupied and
unoccupied hours.
TRACE software contains five analysis phases in the energyeconomic evaluation [12]: (i) Load
Phase. This phase involves entering load data such as building construction, orientation, utilization profile
(including lighting and occupancy schedules), and climate. Building loads are then calculated by zone and
by hour, and also account for coincident loading for items such as lights and occupants. (ii) Design Phase.
This establishes the building load model at design conditions. Entries include the type of mechanical
system, as well as the percentage of wall, lighting, and miscellaneous loads assigned to the return air, and
the design outside-air quantities. The program determines design cooling load, heating load, outside air
quantity, total air quantity and the supply air dry bulb temperature. (iii) Airside System Simulation Phase.
This translates building heat gains and losses into equipment loads by system and by hour, utilizing all of
the building variables that affect the system operation. This consists of air-moving loads, heating loads,
cooling loads, and humidification loads. (iv) Equipment Simulation. This phase translates equipment
loads, by system and hour, into energy consumption by source. The loads are translated, for example, into
kWhr of electricity. Entries needed include the equipment types used for heating, cooling, and airmoving. (v) Economic Phase. The phase uses utility rates and system-installed cost data, along with other
economic information such as the cost of capital, to compute annual owning and operating costs. It also
calculates various financial measurements of an investment such as the return on additional investment
between alternatives.
ISPT also models NABERS energy ratings using similar parameters and algorithms as used by the
NABERS tool, and generates values of energy consumption month-by-month that correspond to
theoretical NABERS ratings at half-star intervals. This allows the more poorly performing seasons and
months with respect to expected energy consumption to be identified.
3. Case study: 345 George Street, Sydney

The property at 345 George Street is a 17-storey office tower built in 1988 and located within
Sydneys CBD. The building (Figure 2) offers 16 levels of office accommodation, ground floor retail, and
parking, and has a leasable area of 21,000 m2. Since being acquired by ISPT in late 2006, the building has
been progressively refurbished. Details of the energy efficiency gains made by refurbishing or
replacing/upgrading various equipment, systems, and controls are provided below.
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Figure 2. Part of the office space in 345 George Street, Sydney.
ISPT engineers discovered that energy use during weekends was about 50% of what was used during
the week, an unusually high percentage given the shorter time period and the lower occupancy of the
weekends. This problem was traced to six large hot water (HW) systems with electric elements that were
running continuously. These systems were reconfigured to meet the lower expected demand during
weekends.
ISPT engineers also inspected the boiler and found it to be entering full capacity without modulation
even at partial heating demand. They discovered that the boiler local modulation system was not
responding to the building master control system (BMCS) at these times. This was due to the lack of a
specific component in the boiler control panel; when this was added, the modulation functionality was
restored. Significant gas usage was saved as a result of disabling this routine.
Typical of many buildings, the tenant condenser water system, which was required to be available on
a 24/7 basis, was running in a constant pump speed mode such that 100% of the water was being
continually circulated irrespective of how many tenant supplementary air-conditioning package units
were running. It is usual for a small number of these package units to run 24/7 but not all of them. The
engineers recommended the installation of condenser water shut-off valves on each of the package units
so that when the unit was not running, the condenser water was isolated from passing through the unit.
This allowed a variable-speed drive controller to be incorporated with the condenser water pump, which
resulted in significant energy reduction.
As with most buildings that were built around the mid to late 1980s, the design allowance for lights
and equipment was typically 25 w/m and 15 w/m, respectively . Now, both lights and equipment run at
around 10 w/m, representing an average building cooling load of approximately 1520%. As such there
was the opportunity to rebalance the HVAC airflow to meet current demands. This enabled the variable
air volume (VAV) system minimum air flow rates to be reduced, which in turn reduced the need for
reheat and resulted lower energy usage. It also resulted in significant energy reduction as less air was
being circulated in the building, and the system pressure was also lower, thus further reducing energy
consumption.
Optimum control strategies presented one of the major opportunities to operate all the systems in
harmony and based on their true demand. Low-temperature VAV principles, variable volume flow in the
chilled and condenser water system, air- and water-side static pressure reset routines, and optimum
start/stop/lockout of all plant components were amongst the measures considered and incorporated in the
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new BMCS functionalities. ISPT engineers also revised the traditional preventive maintenance for the
control system to an outcome-based proactive maintenance contract so that the controls contractor can
take the responsibility for root-cause-based maintenance and also perform ongoing tuning and reporting
on the performance of the building systems, including tenant satisfaction and energy efficiency.
The HVAC system of the building is of VAV design, face zoned with individual air handling units
(AHUs), and incorporating hot water reheat coils mounted within each VAV box. Because of their age,
the HW valves do not shut off completely and there is a small amount of leakage through the valve seats.
This small amount of HW leakage presents itself as additional cooling load to the HVAC system on top
of the normal building cooling loads. Even though the additional load is small it is multiplied by a few
hundred instances and becomes significant. Replacement of the valves would be the ideal solution, but
this is costly and time-consuming, especially given that the building is fully occupied. Considering the
benefits from the air side balance outlined above, the need for reheat throughout the year was noticeably
reduced. As an interim solution, ISPT engineers locked out the boilers and HW pumps during the year
except in the winter period, so that there was no additional cooling load required to compensate for the
HW leakage. The space temperature was satisfactory as to the lock out and consequently achieved energy
savings both in the cooling and heating systems. In the meantime, the leaking valves are progressively
being replaced for completeness.
Other improvements to the building include upgrading the elevator system to generate power when
going down, and upgrading building floor plates and zoning them for cooling and heating. A summary of
the various upgrades and the schedule is given in Table 1.
Item
Lift system upgraded to generate power when descending
Introduction of new optimum control strategies / BMCS replacement and functionality
upgrade (including low-pressure VAV principles, variable volume flow in the chilled
and condenser water system, air- and water-side static pressure reset routines, and
optimum start/stop/lockout of plant components)
Incorporate a variable-speed drive controller to the condenser water pump
Provision of isolating devices to optimize tenant heat rejection plant operation based on
demand
Rebalance HVAC airflow to account for lower demand
Lock out the boilers and HW pumps during the year except in the winter period, so no
additional cooling load is required to compensate for the HW leakage from valve seats
Rectification of trim heating system
Floor plate upgrade and zoning for cooling/heating
Reconfiguration of HW element systems that were previously running all weekend
Modify boiler local modulation system
Replacement of lights (in fire stairs) to (LED sensor fittings) lower wattages
Completion
Date
Nov 2010
JunDec 2011
Nov 2011
Nov 2011
Nov 2011
Nov 2011
Nov 2011
Nov 2011
Dec 2011
Dec 2011
Jun 2012
Table 1. Summary of upgrades to the office building at 345 George Street.
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Together, the improvements discussed have seen the NABERS energy efficiency rating of this
building improve from 2.5 stars (2007) to 4.0 (2010) and to 5.4 (2013). The increase from 4.0 to 5.4 stars
equates to a ~50% reduction in energy use. The total amount of energy used by the building in years
2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013 was 9508570, 7980866, 5284162, and 4761574 MJ, respectively. The
percentage reductions in energy consumption from 2010 to 2011, 2011 to 2012, and 2012 to 2013 were
16%, 34%, and 10%, respectively, and the energy costs in 2013 were $240,000 lower than those in 2010
(assuming a constant $0.05/MJ).
Figures 3, 4, and 5 show the monthly total energy consumption (in MJ), the monthly electricity
consumption (in kWhr), and the monthly gas consumption (in MJ) for the years 20102013 for the office
building, respectively. The May and June 2011 consumption values were larger than the corresponding
months in 2010 because of large gas usage (Figure 3). The year-on-year energy reduction from 2010 to
2011 resulted from decreases in consumption in the months of July to December between the two years
(Figures 3 and 4), following extensive replacement/upgrades to the buildings BMCS from June to
December 2011 (Table 1). The large reduction in energy consumption from 2011 to 2012 was due to
energy use reductions that took place mainly in the months of January to June, a result of the combined
effect of the BMCS upgrade that had taken place in the second half of 2011 and the multiple upgrades to
aspects of the HVAC system and other equipment components in November and December 2011. The
overall energy reduction from 2012 to 2013 was smaller, but was due principally to reductions in the
months of March to August, which can be traced mainly to a decrease in the use of gas.
1500000
1000000
500000
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
2010 energy total
Figure 3. Monthly total energy consumption (in MJ) for years 20102013 for the office building at 345
George Street, Sydney.
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250000.00
200000.00
150000.00
100000.00
50000.00
0.00
2010 Elec Usage
2011 Elec usage
Figure 4. Monthly electricity consumption (in kWhr) for years 20102013 for the office building at 345
800000.00
600000.00
400000.00
200000.00
0.00
2010 gas total
2011 gas total
Figure 5. Monthly gas consumption (in MJ) for years 20102013 for the office building at 345 George
Street, Sydney.
4. Discussion and conclusions

The smart engineeringcomputer simulation approach to upgrading the energy efficiency of buildings
differs from ad hoc approaches. In the latter, the building systems, their configuration, and their original
setup are assumed to be givens, and upgrade work is focused mostly on altering adjustable operational
parameters of the building systems via the BMCS using educated guesswork and experience. Under such
ad hoc approaches, some efficiencies can be gained but the ultimate level of achievement is case
dependent and generally slow and limited. The engineeringcomputing approach used by ISPT has
proved successful in improving the energy efficiency of the office building at 345 George Street, Sydney,
as measured by utility meters and official NABERS ratings. A summary of ISPTs major initiatives in
upgrading the building is given in Table 2.
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Poor energy efficiency.
Triggers
BMCS system replacement due to lifecycle and lack of parts/support for original.
Assessment of existing usage, establishment of the expected utility consumption, identify
problems/deficiencies.
Reconcile fighting of cooling and heating.
Reduce use of excessive air.
Initiatives
Creation of optimum control strategies.
Provision of isolating devices to optimize tenant heat rejection plant operation based on
demand.
Post-implementation tuning.
Table 2. Summary of major initiatives for reducing energy consumption for the office building at 345
Regarding NABERS, both the consistency of its ratings (e.g., between equivalent buildings in
different regions of Australia) and aspects of its methodology for assessing energy ratings have been
criticised [13]. The scheme has improved over time, but some issues remain. For example, locally
significant factors such as shading by nearby buildings in the CBD environment are not (and perhaps
cannot be) considered in the scheme. Normalizing emissions values (energy consumption) to a particular
climate, 50 hours/week occupancy, and 8 W/m2 equipment density has limitations for high-efficiency
buildings because of additive effects [14]. Bannister [14] recognizes the potential for shifting the
NABERS energy rating scheme from a normalized system to a variable benchmark scheme and to include
nationalization of the benchmark, rather than the current state-by-state differences. However, despite such
issues, the scheme has shown itself to be very effective in measuring environmental efficiencies and in
comparing buildings. Of note with respect to the sustainable property industry, Bannister [14] observes
that the NABERS rating tool is only one small but important part of the overall machinery of the
scheme. By creating a rating, one is setting a standard in which a very wide range of stakeholders have
interest, and a great deal of conscious effort is required to manage the interests and expectations of these
stakeholders while maintaining the technical integrity of the scheme.
The technical/technological aspects of improving the environmental efficiencies of buildings should
be seen as only a part of the movement towards sustainability in the building/property industry. These
aspects must be considered within the commercial realities of the industry, which include the costs versus
the benefits of improvements and the protection and enhancement of investors and owners positions. Of
importance is the relationship between environmental efficiency improvements and the NABERS (and
other) environmental rating tools, because certified NABERS ratings influence rents, the value of
buildings, and the quality of tenants. ISPTs approach (Table 3) in improving the environmental
efficiency of its buildings through engineeringcomputing, within the companys wider sustainability
agenda, represents the intersection of the application of technology, the enhancement of environmental
sustainability, and the creation of value for stakeholders.
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Objective: environmental responsibility and enhance investors funds
Concept
Opportunity triggers: planning, replacement of major systems, operational feedback
Establish Ultimate + Viable Benchmarks for Utility Consumption
Ultimate: Engineering Assessment + Energy Simulation + Stakeholders Input
Viable: Buildings Commercial Position + Engineered Business Case
Approach
Effective Implementation Integrated Project Delivery Model
Post Implementation: Monitor + Integrate
Maintain and Improve good performance: Stakeholders Involvement
Table 3. Summary of ISPTs concept and approach to improving the environmental efficiency of its
building stock.
5. Acknowledgements
The generous cooperation of ISPT in supplying details of its methods, and data for the George Street,
Sydney, building is gratefully acknowledged.
6. References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
GRESB. Global real estate sustainability benchmark 2013 GRESB report. Retrieved from
http://gresb.com/content/2013-GRESB-Report.pdf (2013).
NABERS. The NABERS annual report 20132014. Retrieved from www.nabers.com (2013).
Hilderson, P. Commercial property going green, Jones Lang LaSalle Report, April (2004).
Miller, N. and Pogue, D. Do green buildings make dollars and sense? USD-BMC working paper 0911
(2009).
Property Council of Australia. The missing link. Retrieved from:
http://www.propertyoz.com.au/Article/NewsDetail.aspx?p=56&mid=1554 (2009).
Chegut, A., Eichholtz, P., Kok, N., and Quigley, J.M. The value of green buildings new evidence from the
United Kingdom. Proceedings of the 17th Annual European Real Estate Society Conference (2010).
Green Building Council of Australia (GBCA). Performance and perceptions of green buildings. Informal
Report. Retrieved from:
http://www.gbca.org.au/uploads/PERFORMANCE_AND_PERCEPTIONS_OF_GREEN_BUILDINGS.pdf
(2010).
IPD. Green cities 2011: Introducing the PCA/IPD green investment index. Retrieved from:
http://www.ipd.com/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=e48fKnS8DKQ%3d& tabid=427&mid=10392 (2011).
Newell, G., MacFarlane, J., and Kok, N. Building better returns: a study of the financial performance of green
office buildings in Australia. Report for the Property Funds Association. Retrieved from
http://www.api.org.au/assets/media_library/000/000/219/original.pdf?1315793106 (2011).
IPD. IPD statement: IPD Australia Quarterly Green Property Index 23 May 2012. Retrieved from
http://www.ipd.com/news_archive/2012/IPD%20AUS%20Green%20Index%20Press%20Release_120523.pdf
(2012).
IPD. Snapshot: The Property Council/IPD Australia Green Property Index. Retrieved from
http://www.ipd.com/regional/AU%20Green%20snapshot%20flyer%20Q3-13.pdf (2013).
Trane. TRACE 700 HVAC load design and analysis software. Information brochure retrieved from
http://www.trane.com/Commercial/DNA/View.aspx?i=1136 (2013).
Lend Lease. NABERS energy for offices rating scale update, submission document by Lend Lease to the
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Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water. Retrieved from:

www.abgr.com.au/downloadFile.aspx?file_id=346 (2011).
[14] Bannister, P. NABERS: Lessons from 12 Years of Performance Based Ratings in Australia. paper presented at
International Conference for Enhanced Building Operations, Manchester, England, October 2326, (2012).
450

Analysis of Zero-Net Energy Districts; End Use, Urban Density and Energy
Efficiency Prospects
Ciera L. Shaver, Gunnar R. Gladics
Kevin G. Van Den Wymelenberg, PhD
University of Idaho College of Art & Architecture Graduate Studies
University of Idaho, Integrated Design Lab
cshaver@uidaho.edu
Abstract
This paper proposes the use of Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) data,
Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS) data and other locally collected data to analyze current
and future predicted energy usage at an urban scale. Today, engineers and architects are able to execute
zero-net energy design at the building scale; however, this technique may only be suitable for specific
structures within specified urban areas. If energy flows and end uses were better understood and known at
a higher level of detail, groups of buildings may be able to better function as a whole zero-net energy
system rather than as individual zero-net units. This is fundamental in order to achieve zero-net energy at
scale. The paper proposes a method of analysis to quickly identify total energy consumption as well as
end uses without detailed utility data collection at individual sites. The method is applied to a case study
using a portion of the central business district of Boise, Idaho. The data gathered are used to predict
energy consumption of the district when considering selected variables including density, energy
efficiency, and renewable energy generation. Each variable includes two levels in addition to the current
baseline. The data show that it is possible for the area of interest to increase in density while maintaining
and reducing total energy use. Adding renewable energy to the mix reduces the total demand of energy
resources from off-site production. With further research discussed in the literature review it may be
possible to capture even more wasted energy through district systems, approaching or meeting the zeronet goal. The proposed alternatives of an increase in density, an increase in energy efficiency, and the
introduction of renewable energy did not allow the district to achieve a zero-net energy status. However,
the proposed process rapidly facilitated discussion and helped to develop an improved understanding of
the levels for each variable needed in order to achieve zero-net energy at an urban scale.
Keywords: Zero-Net Energy, Density, Energy Efficiency, Commercial Building Energy
Consumption Survey, Renewable Energy, Energy Flows, Energy End Use
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Fig. 1: Axonometric view of the district, 2014
1. Introduction
More often, the design community is incorporating elements of energy efficiency and renewable
energy into the built environment, resulting in long term benefits to users and the environment.
Recent zero-net architectural designs, such as the Bullitt Center in Seattle and the Aldo Leopold
Legacy Center in Wisconsin, have created a catalyst for thorough planning at a variety of scales in
order to achieve these aggressive goals. In order to keep up with the increasing pace of energy
efficiency goals, practitioners and developers must understand how to control energy use beyond the
scale of an individual building. The exploration of energy efficiency at a district scale may open
opportunities not present at the individual building scale, and certainly presents a new challenge
regarding zero-net energy districts that include high energy consumers such as grocery stores or
hospitals. The overarching goal of this paper is to: (1) demonstrate a method to quickly estimate
energy consumption and end use breakouts at an urban district scale; (2) analyze and determine the
energy use of an example district over time, considering variables of future growth in density, energy
efficiency, and renewable energy; (3) determine the feasibility of the district becoming zero-net
energy, considering increasing density, energy efficiency, and renewable energy over a long-term
planning horizon.
This paper documents and analyzes the energy saving/harvesting potential of a district in
downtown Boise, Idaho. The paper presents results of applying energy efficient design strategies
within a medium-scaled district, while increasing density and renewable energy generation over time.
Furthermore, the research analyzed energy uses to help prioritize efficiency efforts and identifying the
implications to energy sales by fuel type. Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey
(CBECS) data and Residential Consumption Survey (RECS) were used to quickly estimate how
energy is used on the district. The district currently hosts three grocery stores, three fast-food
restaurants, a convenience store, brewery, law school, architecture firm, music store, several local
retail stores, law firms, a doctors office/health facility, and several residential units. The variety of
uses within the district doesnt reflect the districts zoning, which includes C-5 and R-0 indicating
that the large-scale structures on the district were obtained through a conditional use permit.
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Fig. 2: Zoning breakdown of the site. C-5HDC: Central Business Historic District C-5DDC: Central
Business District Downtown Overlay. C-5DD: Central Business Downtown Overlay. R-ODD:
Residential Office Downtown Overlay.
Recently the district hasnt reflected the current trend toward efficient planning. With five vacant
parking lots and numerous low-density residential units, it is probable that the district will undergo
substantial redevelopment in the years ahead, and energy efficiency and renewable energy will likely
have substantial consideration during this redevelopment. Three structures in the district utilize the
citys geothermal resource. After several quick site visits examining utility meters, it was determined
that 21 of the 28 buildings use gas energy to heat the buildings. The research considers two primary
stakeholder perspectives. One is energy consumers, which could be individual building owners or a
district ownership group, and the other is energy sellers, namely utilities.
2. Literature Review
A literature review served to determine which types of planning variables were applicable
to the Boise district. The Lloyd District in Portland, OR provided information on other methods
of energy analysis at a district scale and served as an example of how it has been implemented.
The literature was also examined to gain insight regarding energy efficiency and renewable
energy elements that may be applicable to the potential zero-net energy district in Boise.
An ecodistrict is defined by members of the Portland Sustainability Institute to be a
neighborhood or district where neighbors, community institutions and businesses join with
city leaders and utility providers to meet ambitious sustainability goals and co-develop
innovative district-scale projects [15]. The Lloyd District sought to create a neighborhood to be
identified as an efficient, biophilic, connected, and prosperous district. These goals were each
broken down into specified tangible outcomes, including the introduction of 10,000 jobs by
2035. Building upon these definitions, the Boise district presents the potential to become an
ecodistrict, as well as a catalyst project for sustainable urban growth.
Sustainable design elements within the Lloyd District included a green infrastructure
system, the reuse and salvage of local materials, as well as the implementation of a zero-waste
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policy. With an increasing demand for renewable energy, photovoltaics serve as a clear choice
for an alternative to energy harvesting.
The use of photovoltaic (PV) cells serves as means of renewable energy for the district, and
have recently become a much more economical design investment [1]. A recent study
performed by Fthenakis and Alsema analyzed the economic and theoretical benefits of
photovoltaic power, based on recent technology and data. According to the study, recently
designed photovoltaic compatible structures have incorporated the weight of the photovoltaic
modules as an element of support design, and have therefore eliminated the need for concrete
foundations for the individual photovoltaics. With the addition of newly modified and improved
designs, it has increased the implementation of photovoltaic panels into architectural designs.
Aside from renewable energy, the Lloyd district incorporates numerous means of potential
sustainable and highly-efficient design elements. These specified elements can serve as costsaving methods for the energy on-site. According to Lund, the three main technological changes
that have recently occurred include: energy savings in the demand realm, efficiency
improvements within energy production, and the replacement of fossil fuels by various sources
of technology-based renewable energy [2].
Idaho has adopted an energy plan that mandates the pursuit all cost-effective energy
efficiency by electric utilities [16]. The 2012 Idaho Energy Plan states that it aims to help
enable a secure, reliable, affordable energy supply network while protecting health and safety
and enhancing economic competitiveness, and establish the process by which sound data and
debate is regularly engaged to help Idaho stakeholders respond to energy challenges and
opportunities [16]. The overall objectives of the plan include the security and reliability of the
energy grid, to maintain Idahos low-cost energy supply, to protect Idahos public health &
safety, to conserve Idahos natural resources, to promote sustainable economic growth, and to
provide appropriate means for Idahos new and efficient energy policies to successfully adapt to
current trends.
A common challenge associated with the increase in energy efficiency and renewable
energy generation is that it puts stress on the ratio of fixed costs (such as transmission and
distribution) in the delivery of reliable energy and can dictate changes to pricing structures.
These changes can lead to energy consumer frustration and increased risk amongst energy
providers. Given that the increase in efficiency and renewable energy is going to continue, it is
important to examine the effects across time. How much energy will the utility need to provide
as density increases, but as efficiency and renewable energy increases simultaneously? What
will pricing structures need to look like in order for the utilities to continue to provide reliable
energy to meet demand? What will these changes mean for energy consumers? How will
energy consumers make decisions about adding increased renewable energy? This paper does
not answer all of the questions, however, the proposed method provides a platform to engage in
these conversations more quickly at a district scale.
3. Methodology
3.1. Baselining
The analysis of the district involved the use of CBECS Energy IQ Benchmarking (RECS data for
residential units) data to determine current approximate energy end use for each building on-site. Due
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to the common unwillingness of tenants to share their energy data, and the slow process of requesting
and receiving data from utilities with tenant approval, existing databases were selected as a
reasonably accurate data resource for determining specific buildings energy end use data. Filters
implemented within the CBECS evaluation included: determining each buildings primary building
activity, floor area, hours of operation, age, occupancy type, and location. The filter that remained
site-specific was the Location, in which we specified zones 1, 2, & 3, referring to the Pacific
Northwest. Each building was then evaluated based on its individual primary building activity plus
(PBA+). Primary building activities include: a college/university (1), grocery store/food market (7),
convenience store (1), diagnostic medical office (1), other retail (5), mixed use office (5), bank (3),
administrative/professional office (10), distribution/shipping center (1), and a vacant building (1).
Within each buildings primary building activity, filters were applied to determine each buildings
Energy Usage Intensity (EUI). Within the buildings EUI, the end uses were broken down into unique
categories including office equipment, computers, cooking, refrigeration, service hot water, lighting,
cooling, ventilation, heating, and a miscellaneous category. The percentage of energy usage within
each category was provided, as well as the absolute value (kBTU/ ft2-yr) per category.
3.2. Data Collection

After accumulating the CBECS data, resources from local energy utilities (Idaho Power,
Intermountain Gas, and Idaho Geothermal) were examined to determine the cost of electricity, natural
gas, and geothermal for different sizes of energy consumers. These data were applied to the
consumption data determined from CBECS, which determined the districts total annual energy use in
kBTU/ ft2-yr, kWh/ ft2-yr, average annual cost, and average annual cost/ ft2 of the present structures
as well as individual data per fuel type and end use.
Fig. 3: EUI distribution on the district, based on existing buildings using CBECS and RECS
3.3. Data Manipulation

Once the districts energy usage baseline data were obtained, alterations regarding the districts
proposed increase in density, energy efficiency, and renewable energy usage were added. These three
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variables were examined using two levels each, as shown in Table 1. Each variable was studied
separately for this paper showing multiple variations in detail for this particular district.
Table 1: Simple breakdown of overall research variables

A 20% and 40% density increase was applied to the district, assuming that the district would
either grow in density by 20% or 40% by the year 2035. This altered the building area and roof area
impacting both energy usage and the potential of rooftop photovoltaic generation. All additional
square footage resulting from the increased density variable was considered to be Mixed Use for the
CBECS filtering step, which meant that it used a relatively low amount of energy for refrigeration, a
relatively high amount of energy for heating and cooling,.
A 40% and 60% increase in energy efficiency was then applied to these density increases, which
impacted the feasibility of a zero-net energy district. A geothermal resource was added given the
availability through Boises geothermal district, which considered each density increase and applied
an equal increase in geothermal usage. This altered the efficiency of the district and decreased the
districts annual average energy cost. In order to calculate the amount of renewable energy possible
for the district, PV Watts was referred using the Boise energy module.
All renewable energy data were generated using PV Watts Renewable Resource Data Center [17],
referencing the climate for the district in Boise, Idaho with fixed panels at 43.8 degrees of tilt and
facing due south. These PV generation assumptions resulted in an estimated 1365 kWh per 94.25 ft 2
of PV array space, or per 1 kW installed. All data regarding the renewable energy generation assumes
that the district will install PV panels to cover a maximum of 50% of rooftop area. The maximum of
50% roof area was applied in order to avoid panel self shading, to allow rooftop access to PV
panels and other equipment, or to avoid shading skylights and accounting for other rooftop
equipment demands. Energy costs were considered fixed since price escalation projections over the
planning horizon are not known, may be highly variable, and are outside the scope of this paper.
The current amount of rooftop area (435,489 ft2) on the district allows for a total of 2,130 PV
panels at the 50% level and 1,155 PV panels at the 25% coverage level. With the PV assumptions
above, the district generates 2,907,450 kWh when 50% of rooftop area is covered (providing enough
electricity for 17% of the districts total electric needs), and 1,453,725 kWh when 25% of rooftop
area is covered for the current baseline construction (providing enough electricity for 8.5% of the
districts total electric needs).
4. Results
4.1. Baseline Results
According to the CBECS data accrued for the current district building types, it is clear that there
is a high use of energy for heating and refrigeration, as well as a high reliance upon electricity as the
dominant fuel type. It is evident that a substantial amount of the heating is accomplished with electric
fuel. The CBECS data suggest that there is comparatively little usage for cooling, ventilation, and
miscellaneous with the current building types.
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Fig. 4: Energy usage and kBTU distribution for current district
4.2. Density Increase Results

4.2.1. Increase in density by 20%
Table 2 describes the district data after a 20% density factor has been applied, assuming that the district
increases in density by 20% by the year 2035. With this increased density, the district gains additional
building and rooftop square footage, which in turn increases the PV electric generation potential. The
20% increased density result in an additional 118,982 ft2 of building area, as well as an additional 121,146
ft2 of rooftop area. The additional square footage enabled the districts average EUI to decrease by 1
kBTU/ ft2 -yr (398 kBTU/ ft2-yr) due to the slight shift in average end use type. The cost to fuel the
district increased by $170,840 on a 12-month basis for a total of $ 1,460,358.
4.2.2. Increase in density by 40%

Table 1 describes the district data after a 40% density factor has been applied, assuming that the district
increases in density by 40% by the year 2035. With this density increase, the district gains an additional
building area of 241,149 ft2, as well as an additional rooftop area of 208,225 ft2 compared to the
current baseline. The average EUI increases to an average of 406. The cost to fuel the district
increases by $170,840 annually. This happens because the density increase is a flat increment,
which means that all factors within this element will increase at an equal amount. The energy usage
changes as an energy efficiency factor is applied. The electric, gas and geothermal usage increases
significantly for this same reason. The annual cost to fuel the district increases by $263,868.00 on a
12-month basis for a total of $ $1,553,386.
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Table 2: District data after a 20% and 40% density addition
4.3. Energy Efficiency Results

Given the commitment to energy efficiency in Idaho, applying increased efficiency levels to
density increases is logical. After researching many possible energy-efficient avenues, it was
determined to apply a 40% and 60% energy efficiency improvement to the 20% and 40% density
growth levels.
4.3.1. Increase in Energy Efficiency by 40% and 60%; Increase in Density by 20%
The data in table 3 describes the districts overall status when an application of a 40% and
60% energy efficiency variable is applied to the whole district, while also assuming a 20%
densification variable.
Should the district implement an energy efficiency factor of 40%, the average EUI will
increase to 244. This is due to all energy end uses decreasing by 40%. With a 40% energy
efficiency factor, the districts total kBTU/yr usage decreases by a total of 41,986,986 kBTU/yr.
The cost, decreases by a total of $734,331 on a 12-month basis for a total of $.
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Should the district implement an energy efficiency factor of 60%, the average EUI will
increase to 162. With a 60% energy efficiency factor, the districts total kBTU/yr usage decreases
by a total of 56,971,525 kBTU/yr. The cost, decreases by a total of $976,339.00 on a 12-month
basis for a total of $xxx,xxx. Again, the values in this section are assuming the 20% growth
factor and no fuel cost escalation over time.
Table 3: Data collected for a density factor of 20% and an energy efficiency factor of 60%
Fig. 5: Energy Usage & Fuel Usage with an applying a 20% density and a 40% and 60%
efficiency increase.
4.3.2. Increase in Energy Efficiency by 40% and 60%; Increase in Density by 40%
All data pertaining to energy usage and EUI in Table 4 are identical to the data collected
in Table 3. This is due to the flat metric of growth (20% and 40%) that was applied to the energy
459

usage on-site. A density increase of 40% with an energy efficiency factor of 40% increases the
districts EUI to 239. The districts kBTU/yr lowers by a total of 24,162,733 kBTU/yr, and the
cost decreases by a total of $507,673 on a 12-month basis for a total of $781,845.
If the district were to implement a 40% density factor with a 60% energy efficiency
factor, the districts overall kBTU/yr usage would decrease by a total of 39,928,688 kBTU/yr and
the cost would decrease by a total of $768,288 on a 12-month basis for a total of $521,230.
Table 3: Data collected for a density factor of 40% and an energy efficiency factor of 60% as
applied to a 40% density increase
Fig. 6: Energy Usage & Fuel Usage with an applying a 40% density and a 40% and 60%
efficiency increase
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4.4. Renewable Energy Results

Given the increased density, there is an increased opportunity for rooftop photovoltaic energy
generation. The impacts of increased roof area are discussed here for two levels of PV
implementation.
4.4.1. Renewable Energy on the Baseline
The current rooftop area is 435,389 ft2. If the district were to utilize 50% of the current
rooftop area, this would support 2,303 ft2 of PV space, which would create 2,907,450 kWh
annually. This amount of electric generation would fuel 17% of the districts required kWh.
4.4.2. Renewable Energy with a 20% Increase in Density
A 20% increase in density leads to a growth of rooftop area, totaling 556,535 ft2, in which
case the district can support a maximum of 2,944 ft2 of PV space mounted on rooftops. If the
district were to utilize 50% of the current rooftop area, this would create 4,029,480 kWh
annually. This amount of electric generation would fuel 8% of the districts required kWh.
4.4.3. Renewable Energy with a 40% Increase in Density
A 40% increase in density leads to a growth of rooftop area, totaling of 643,614 ft 2, which
case the district can support a maximum of 6,828 ft2 of PV space to be mounted on rooftops. If
the district were to utilize 50% of the current rooftop area, this would support 3,414 ft 2 of PV
space to fit on-site, which would create 4,660,653 kWh annually. This amount of electric
generation would fuel 24% of the districts required kWh.
4.5. Two Case Studies of Boise District

Boise is an emerging urban city with a desire to develop its downtown in a healthy, urban
manner. Given that the total energy consumption on the district is 71,460,536 kBTU/yr, and the total
electricity consumption is 57,169,191 kBTU/yr, even considering the most aggressive 60% efficiency
target, and given that the maximum PV generation is 6,305,633 kWh/yr, then it becomes clear that a
zero-net energy district is not feasible with these assumptions. Shifting in a research outcome,
realistic routes were chosen for the district, considering its possibilities within density, energy
efficiency, and renewable energy. Therefore, this section describes two case studies for the district in
Boise, none more aggressive and one less aggressive in all variables.
Table 4: Breakdown of Boise case scenarios

The current age of district and adjacent structures show that the area has increased in density by
roughly 15% every ten years. This assumption was examined by the given data of areas construction
over the past 20 years. Considering Boises current growth patterns, a less-aggressive scenario
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assumes that the district will increase by a factor of 20% in the next 20 years, and to implement an
energy efficiency factor of 40%. It also seems accurate to assume that the district might fill 25% of
rooftop areas with photovoltaic panels. A more-aggressive scenario proposes a 60% energy efficiency
increase, a 40% growth in density, with 50% of the rooftop area occupied with PV space.
4.5.1. Aggressive Case Study: 40% Density Increase; 60% Energy Efficiency Increase, 50%
PV Rooftop Coverage
Table 5 describes the end-uses for a district scenario involving a 40% density increase and a
60% energy efficiency increase. The districts average EUI is lowered to 41 even with the
increased rooftop area totaling 643,614 ft2. The end use categories are significantly lowered (i.e.
Miscellaneous was lowered from 160 kBTU/ft2 -yr, to 66 kBTU/ ft2-yr). The overall cost
shrinks from the baselines $1,289,518.00 to $521,230.00 annually. If 50% of the rooftop area
were to be occupied with PV space, 4,660,653 kWh would be produced annually, providing 28%
of the necessary electricity for the district.
4.5.2. Less Aggressive Case Study: 20% Density Increase, 40% Energy Efficiency Increase,
20% PV Rooftop Coverage
Table 6 describes the end-uses for a district scenario involving a 20% density increase and a 40%
energy efficiency increase, with 25% of the rooftop area to be occupied with PV space. The districts
EUI is lowered to 59 with the increased rooftop area totaling 556,535 ft2. The end use categories are
significantly lowered (i.e. Miscellaneous was lowered from 160 kBTU/ ft2-yr, to 99 kBTU/ ft2-yr).
The overall cost shrinks from the baselines $1,289,518.00 to $726,027.00 annually. If 25% of the
rooftop area were to be occupied with PV space, 2,015,040 kWh would be produced annually,
providing 8% of the necessary electricity for the district.
5. Discussions
This research involves two primary stakeholder perspectives. One includes the energy utilities
(energy sellers) perspective, and the other is the district building owners or the city (energy buyers)
perspective. This information will also be useful for people involved in the district who may be interested
in its potential as an energy saving and producing district.
The initial districts energy break down illustrates the fact that most of the energy is being devoted to
heating and refrigeration. This makes sense, due to the significant amount of fast food & grocery facilities
currently in the district. This information is useful to a potential retrofitting plan, because it points directly
to the significant energy usage. Since we know that most of the energy is being devoted to heating and
refrigeration in grocery stores, if we are able to mitigate that energy it will create a larger dent in the
energy usage on the district as a whole.
As displayed in tables _____, an increase in density leads to a slight reduction in the districts average
EUI. While this isnt a large amount, it aids in the hypotheses regarding densification and growth as a
potential means to lower district energy usage. Each scenario also describes an increase of electric, gas
and geothermal usage due to the increase in mized-use square footage. According to CBECS, mixed-use
structures require much power to heat the building, provide service hot water, cool the building, as well as
ventilate the building. All of these factors are provided by gas and geothermal means of energy, which
explains the increase in gas and geothermal usage with the increased density. With a large increase in
462

geothermal and gas usage comes a significant decrease in the overall cost, as geothermal and gas energy
is significantly less expensive than electric energy costs.
6. Conclusions
The paper proposes a method of analysis to quickly identify total energy consumption as well as end
uses without detailed utility data collection at individual sites.A 20% increase in density, as well as a 40%
increase in density is the first variable discussed in the results. The second variable considers a 40% and
60% increase in general energy efficiency over current consumption. A third variable introduces
renewable energy. In the future multivariate regression may be run to find and optimized pathway to the
most productive combination of density, energy efficiency, and renewable energy. CBECS data were used
to lead to the districts overall energy usage and cost breakdown. Additional future research may lead to
including more variables or more detailed control of current variables, such as the ability to control
energy efficiency of particular end uses separately. Data were collected for a total of 28 buildings existing
within the district. Based on the research and data collected, it is apparent that with a mere increase in
density and addition of PV generation, it is not possible for the district to become zero-net.
Fig. 7: Cost breakdown of district, considering all variables applied

This research sought to generate a specific process to obtain energy information, enabling designers
to design structures around the energy necessities of the specified site. CBECS proved to be a beneficial
source, as it gave detailed results of each buildings energy end uses, and provided a platform to create an
estimated cost to fuel the site. Idaho power, intermountain gas, and the city geothermal guide served as
resources concerning the pricing-out of each scenario. These data combined led to tangible, numerical
information regarding the districts energy usage, where there is room for improvement, as well as how to
possibly redesign to create a more energy-responsible district. With further research discussed in the
literature review it may be possible to capture even more wasted energy through district systems,
approaching or meeting the zero-net goal
With the addition of an energy efficiency factor alongside the density increase and PV generation, it
decreases the districts energy usage as a whole, but it doesnt provide enough of a reduction to qualify
the district zero-net. The data does, however prove that an increase in density in combination with an
increase in energy efficiency does reduce the overall energy usage and cost significantly. This result can
benefit future planners of the site, encouraging energy efficient methods to provide Boise with a less
expensive catalyst for sustainable urban design.
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7. References
[1] Alsema, E, V Fthenakis. "Photovoltaics energy payback times, greenhouse gas emissions and external costs:
2004-early 2005 status." Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications. 14. (2006): 275-280. Print.
[2] Rogner, H. "Clean energy services without pain: district energy systems." Berkley Electronic Press. 5.2 (1993):
114-120. Print.
[3] Fridleifsson, I. "Geothermal Energy for the benefit of the people." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.
5.3 (2001): 299-312. Print.
[4] Ostergaard, P, H Lund. "A renewable energy system in Frederikshavn using low temperature geothermal energy
for district heating." Applied Energy. (2009): 479-487. Print.
[5] Stefansson, V. "The renewability of geothermal energy."Proceedings World Geothermal Congress. (2000): 883887. Print.
[6] Albizzati, V., F. Anzioso, P. Campanile, A. Canova, E. Carpaneto, G. Chicco, L. Fazari, and M. Goglio, M.
Repetto, F. Rozzo, M. Tartaglia. "Design of the Energy Networks in a Sustainable District." 18th International
Conference on Electricity Distribution. Ed. Cired. Turin: 2005. 1-4. Print.
[7] Lund, H. "Renewable Energy Strategies for Sustainable Development." Science Direct. 32. (2007): 912-919.
Print.
[8] Christy, A., Heimlich, J., & Hughes, K. (2005). Integrated solid waste management. Unpublished manuscript,
Community Development, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, , Available from Ohio State University Extension.
(CDFS-106-05).
[9] Evans, R. (2008). Energy conservation chain analysis of sustainable energy systems: A transportation case
study. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society,28(2), 128-137. doi: 10.1177/0270467607313958
[10] Hawkey, D., Webb, J., & Winskel, M. (2012). Organization and governance of urban energy systems: district
heating and cooling in the uk.Journal of Cleaner Production, 22-31.
[11] High-Pippert , A., & Hoffman, S. (2005). Community energy: A social architecture for an alternative energy
future. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 25(5), 387-401. doi: 10.1177/0270467605278880
[12] Lund, H. (2006). Renewable energy strategies for sustainable development. Science Direct, (32), 912-919. doi:
10.1016/j.energy.2006.10.017
[13] Mizuno, M., Yamugachi, Y., & Yoshiyuki, S. (11-14).Development of district energy system simulation model
based on detailed energy demand model. In IBPSA Conference (pp. 1443-1450).
[14] Ortiz, J., & Perez-Lombard, L., Pout, C. (2007). A review on buildings energy consumption information.
Manuscript submitted for publication, Sustainable Energy Centre, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain. , Available
from Science Direct.
[15] Ashforth, Hank. "Lloyd Ecodistrict Roadmap." Lloyd Ecodistrict Roadmap. Portland Sustainability Institute,
n.d. Web. 1 Sept 2013.
[16] McKenzie, Curt. "Idaho Energy Plan." Idaho Energy Alliance. N.p., 06 Mar 2012. Web. 10 Jan 2014.
<http://www.energy.idaho.gov/energyalliance/d/2012_idaho_energy_plan_final_2.pdf>.
[17] www.rredc.nrel.gov
464

Decommissioning Energy of Buildings A Case Study

Parna Daeimojdehi1 and Abdol R. Chini 2
1
Graduate Student, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-5703 USA

Parnarahat@ufl.edu
2
Abdol R. Chini, Ph.D., P.E., University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-5703 USA
Chini@ufl.edu
Abstract
The loads on the environment can be reduced by producing energy efficient and eco-friendly buildings.
Determining whether a building is energy efficient and eco-friendly requires detailed information about
various phases of its life cycle, i.e., initial embodied energy, operational energy, recurring embodied
energy, and decommissioning energy. Though such conclusions should be based on the results of a
whole life cycle analysis of a building project, there is always an opportunity to explore each phase
separately to collect more detailed information and strengthen the phase-specific databases. This research
focuses on decommissioning energy phase of a buildings life cycle. Presently, there is significant
research assessing energy consumption and the environmental impact of buildings, but few works
encompass the decommissioning phase. While some studies have included decommissioning, the
definition of decommissioning varied depending on various stages of demolition, reuse, recycling, and
disposal. Few reasons for this gap in the literature may be the complexity of the decommissioning
processes and lack of solid data on the amount of construction and demolition waste and percentages of
materials reuse, recycling, and disposal. The decommissioning phase will become more important when
low/net-zero energy buildings become commonplace. This paper reviews the literature on energy
consumption during decommissioning phase of buildings and evaluates capabilities of available life cycle
assessment software programs in calculation of such energy. A case study will compare
decommissioning energy of structural elements of a repair garage building using ATHENA and GaBi.
Keywords: ATHENA, carbon footprint, decommissioning, End-of-life LCA, GaBi
1. Introduction
Increasing awareness of Global Warming and its effects on human life has caused various industries to
reduce impact of their operations on the environment. Construction sector has a large share in energy
consumption. Nearly 40% of total U.S. energy consumption in 2012 was consumed in residential and
commercial buildings [1], almost the same rate as the transportation [2]. This rate includes embodied
energy and operational energy of buildings. Embodied energy of a building is the energy for all direct and
indirect processes within the life cycle of a building, from extraction of raw materials, to manufacturing,
installation, repair and maintenance, and decommissioning. Decommissioning energy includes energy for
dismantling, sorting, transporting, and disposal of materials. Operational energy of a building includes
energy consumed for heating, cooling, lighting, etc.
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Previous studies [3-5] have shown that operational energy of traditional buildings accounts for 80-90%
of total energy consumption, and embodied energy is only 10-20%. Embodied energy includes
manufacture and construction (8-18%) and End-of-Life (EOL) (2%). In a study done on an energy
efficient housing project consisting of 4 two-story buildings in Sweden, the embodied energy was 40% of
the total energy consumption of the buildings. The rate of operational energy to embodied energy in
traditional buildings and energy efficient buildings are 4 and 1.5, respectively. With the current strategies
and efforts to achieve net-zero energy buildings, embodied energy would become the most significant
component of energy consumption of buildings. Currently the share of decommissioning energy of
buildings is not considerable but in net-zero buildings, the share of operational energy would reduce to
zero and the embodied energy, including decommissioning energy would require more attentions. This
paper focuses on analyzing EOL energy.
2. Decommissioning energy
Decommissioning is the phase that a buildings useful life comes to an end and needs to be cleared
away. Review of the limited number of LCA case studies that have analyzed the End-of-Life impacts of
buildings on environment, including Global Warming and Carbon Footprint, shows that it is a
complicated process in terms of various scenarios that might occur. These scenarios may include
demolition or deconstruction, reuse, recycling, or landfill, and their combinations. It is not clear that by
the end of expected service life of buildings, which materials and what percentage of them would be
recyclable. On the other hand, the energy necessary for transportation and recycling process is hard to
estimate. The reviewed case studies, even those that monitored the EOL process on the job site and
directly acquired the data, had to use the presumed information from the available databases for certain
parts of their calculations [5]. In a classification for LCA based on European standards, two different
terms of Cradle to grave and Cradle to cradle are used to show the scope of work. Cradle to grave
includes EOL assessment up to final disposal, whereas, Cradle to cradle includes reuse and recycling of
materials within LCA [6].
Table 21. End of life phase of building materials (adapted from [7])
End Of Life
C1.De-construction, demolition
C2.Transport to waste processing
C3.Waste processing for reuse, recovery and/or
recycling
C4.Disposal
Benefits and loads

beyond the system
boundary
D. Reuse, recovery and/or recycling potentials
The End-of-Life assessment of buildings starts with identifying the scope of work. Even this stage of
the life cycle analysis of buildings needs to be clarified in terms of what it consists of. Cabeza et al
studied LCA of residential buildings [7]. They divided the end of life phase into four sub-phases (Table
1): deconstruction/demolition, transportation, waste processing, and disposal. Deconstruction/demolition
included energy used during the process of deconstructing/demolishing a building, including carrying out
the deconstruction/demolition work and sorting of materials arising from the process. They assumed that
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the amount of deconstruction/demolition waste was equal to the mass of all building materials.
Transportation distance to landfills or recycling plants was assumed to be 30 km. Based on their analysis,
21% of embodied carbon and 5% of embodied energy of the buildings were related to EOL phase [7]. In
another case study, Blengini divided EOL phase into three steps of dismantling the reusable and
recyclable materials and structure; controlled demolition of the structure and the required operations for
waste treatment; and recycling, reuse or landfill of materials [4].
Scheuer measured EOL energy of a new building at the University of Michigan campus [9]. He
assumed recycling all metals, concrete, CMU, brick, mortar, granite, and ceramics resulting in reduction
of waste. However, he did not consider reduction of embodied energy due to recycling in lieu of disposal.
No deconstruction was included and demolition energy was estimated based on a Canadian study. The
average distance for transportation of materials to landfill or recycling plants was estimated based on data
from Ann Arbor area. Total energy for EOL of the building was calculated to be 4 x 106 MJ, about 2% of
total life cycle energy of the building. This did not include energy for recycling of salvaged materials [9].
An important issue in calculating decommissioning energy is selecting the appropriate database.
According to Junnila [5] there are only two European programs that are exclusively devoted to
construction products. These programs calculate embodied energy in accordance with the most recent
European Standards. One is managed in Spain (DAP) and the other one (EPD) is developed by German
Institute of Construction. The goal of Junnilas study was to do cradle to cradle LCA for an office
building based on the European databases. He concluded that cradle to cradle LCA data was available
only for a limited number of materials and for a limited number of end of life options.
Most of the studies in measuring decommissioning energy include only demolition energy and
transportation to the landfill based on an average traveling distance (60-70 kM) [5]. Including other end
of life options (deconstruction, reuse, recycling, etc.) is complicated and require an extensive database. If
the goal is to do a whole building life cycle assessment, LCA tools can be helpful in terms of simplifying
the process and reducing the time, especially with data inventory phase.
3. Assessment Tools
There are several LCA tools that offer building modeling. They use two approaches. One uses a
process-based modeling consisting of a series of units with inputs and outputs. Each unit input and output
has a specific impact on environment. This type of modeling is extremely data intensive; GaBi and SimaPro use this approach. The other approach is called Economic input-output or sector-based modeling that
considers each economic sector output as an input for another sector. It lies on sector level averages.
Tools such as ATHENA and Open LCA, use this method. For this study, those tools were selected that
were able to calculate the end-of-life impact of building materials. Based on their manuals ATHENA and
GaBi provide EOL analysis. Therefore, these two software programs were selected. Selection of
ATHENA and GaBi that are sector-based and process-based, respectively provide an opportunity to
assess the effectiveness of these two modeling approaches.
The remaining sections of this paper evaluate the feasibility of modeling EOL phase of structural
components of a repair garage building with GaBi and ATHENA and compares the results for global
warming and carbon footprint impact. One of the issues in using LCA assessment tools for EOL phase is
that their analyses are based on the current practices of demolition and partial recycling and do not
provide the flexibility for considering other EOL options. The other concern with these tools is the
limited information they provide about the LCA process for EOL phase.
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3.1. Repair garage case study

The example used for this case study is taken from a repair garage project in Means Scheduling
Manual [10]. This building is a 30.5 m x 12.2 m building with concrete foundation, concrete block
bearing walls, and open web steel joists roof framing. Additional details about the project have been
provided by Shrivastava and Chini [11]. The building is assumed to be in Orlando, Florida when it comes
to distances from the project site to landfills and recycling plants. Since the required inputs for each
assessment tool is different, several assumptions were made for EOL analysis with each tool.
3.2. ATHENA
Athena Impact estimator is a whole building assembly LCA tool. By setting up basic parameters such
as location, size and some components of assemblies, the software generates a set of environmental
impact reports from cradle to grave including EOL stage impact. The predefined and fixed scenario of
EOL in Athena includes demolition and transportation to landfill. Concrete components are assumed to be
demolished, crushed, and reused on the site. Therefore, no transportation is considered for demolished
concrete. Concrete reinforcing steel is assumed to be transported to a recycling plant. However, the
environmental burden of recycling or reuse are not included and considered a charge to the next use. In
addition, ATHENA is not taking into account gas emissions and other environmental burdens related to
landfilling demolished materials [12]. Based on dimensions of the repair garage ATHENA provided a
bill of materials shown in Table 2. Table 3 shows the primary resources used to provide the necessary
energy for deconstruction/demolition of the building at End-of-Life phase. The global warming impact is
directly related to these values.
Table 2. Bill of materials of the repair garage project in ATHENA

Material
Aluminum
Ballast (aggregate stone)
Concrete 20 MPa (flyash av)
Concrete 30 MPa (flyash av)
Concrete Blocks
Galvanized Decking
Galvanized Sheet
Mortar
Open Web Joists
Precast Concrete
Rebar, Rod, Light Sections
Welded Wire Mesh / Ladder Wire
Quantity
0.39
20536
53
36
6546
3.68
0.44
20
5.52
4
4.99
0.38
Unit
Tonnes
kg
m3
m3
Blocks
Tonnes
Tonnes
m3
Tonnes
m3
Tonnes
Tonnes
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Table 3. Primary energy consumption report from ATHENA for EOL

END OF LIFE
De-Construction Demolition
Transport
Total
12.37
6.31
18.68
180.50
92.073
272.58
27,289.26
13,273.90 40,563.168
598.28
304.22
902.50
26.90
13.77
40.67
1,098.60
562.35
1,660.94
45.50
24.29
69.79
29,251.41
14,276.91 43,528.32
Hydro MJ
Coal MJ
Diesel MJ
Heavy Fuel Oil MJ
LPG MJ
Natural Gas MJ
Nuclear MJ
Total MJ
3.3. GaBi 4.0

Gabi software is a professional LCA tool for all materials including construction materials. In GaBi,
LCA is defined with plans, processes within the plans, and flows, which are the resources and
materials that the process is applied on. The approach to model a building LCA in GaBi is to identify
plans and relative processes for each building material and define a scenario for its life cycle. Using GaBi
database allows the user to minimize the time spent on Life Cycle Inventory process. However, modeling
a whole LCA of a building in GaBi is extremely data intensive. To simplify the process, EOL phase
modeling of the repair garage of this study is limited to concrete assemblies, steel joists and CMU walls.
Table 4 shows quantities of the materials considered.
Table 4. Quantity takeoff and EOL scenarios
Recycled
Amount Unit Landfilled
on site
Concrete
3000 psi
Steel
Rebar and light sections
Steel Joist
Masonry
CMU Block
198,960
kg
5,370
5,520
kg
kg
53,625
kg
0%
0
0%
0
0
100%
53,625
100%
198,960
0%
0
0
0%
0
Sent to
Recycling
plants
0%
0
100%
5,370
5,520
0%
0
Based on GaBi database, three plans where defined to model disposal and recycling EOL of steel
rebar, concrete, CMU and steel joists. The scenarios for percentage of materials landfilled, recycled on
site, and sent to recycling plants are shown in Tables 4. To compare the results with ATHENA, the
distances for transporting materials to recycling plant and landfill are assumed to be 300 and 80
kilometers, respectively. These numbers are based on average transportation distances to recycling plants
and landfills in Orlando, Florida. No information was provided in ATHENA users manual for
transportation distances to landfills and recycling plants used in the program.
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GaBi 4.0 does not provide default values for energy required for demolition of CMU blocks,
concrete, and steel. Therefore, the energy per kg rates shown in Table 5 were used to define demolition
process for each assembly. The rates are based on ATHENA reports for demolition of the repair garage of
this study. The values are total primary energy, lost energy, and used energy for demolition of each
material. Not all fuel energy can be transformed into mechanical/electrical power and there is always heat
lost to the environment. Table 5 shows energy rates assuming energy efficiency of 0.33 (two units of heat
energy are lost to generate one unit of mechanical/electrical energy). GaBi also assumes approximately
twice the amount of used energy is wasted due to heat loss.
Table 5. Demolition energy for concrete, steel, and masonry retrieved from ATHENA
Demolition
Steel
Weight Primary Energy Co2

(kg)
(MJ)
(kg)
5,520
Primary
energy/weight
(MJ/kg)
Lost
energy/weight
(MJ/kg)
Used
energy/weight
(MJ/kg)
12,000
802
2.174
1.3888
0.786
Concrete + rebar 198,960
15,200
1,028
0.076
0.049
0.028
CMU
2,051
132
0.038
0.024
0.014
53,624
Figure 37. EOL plan of CMU walls in GaBi
Figure 2. EOL plans of concrete and steel in GaBi
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Based on the assumptions made, the plans were generated to model EOL phase of the repair garage
building. Figures 1 and 2 represent GaBi plans for masonry units and concrete/open web steel joists,
respectively. Based on Table 4, 100% of steel joists, reinforcing steel, and light sections were sent to
recycling plants. All concrete elements were demolished, crushed and reused at the jobsite; and 100% of
masonry units was demolished and transported to landfill. These assumptions are based on the scenarios
used by ATHENA for end of life analysis of structural materials [13].
3.4. Comparing results
As mentioned earlier, ATHENA Impact-estimator software provides limited options for modeling
EOL of building assemblies. It accounts only for demolition and transportation of debris to landfill.
Whereas, GaBi provides means of assessing every material and component of the building based on the
users defined scenario for each material. Besides, GaBi takes into account gas emissions and other
environmental burdens related to landfilling demolished materials (Table 6). Table 7 compares summary
of the results from ATHENA and GaBi. As Table 6 shows, GaBi has a different format for demonstrating
the results, which is more extended than ATHENA. In order to compare the results, only the
transportation impact and energy for demolition of steel, concrete and masonry units were taken into
account. For GaBi, this is based on the assumption that the transportation distances to landfills and
recycling plants are 80 and 300 km, respectively. As Table 7 demonstrates, the carbon foot prints of
transportation based on ATHENA and GaBi are within 10%. However, global warming potential for
demolition of materials measured by GaBi is 30% more than that of ATHENA. Figure 3 demonstrates the
results graphically.
Table 6. End-of-Life global warming impact of the repair garage modeled in GaBi (kg CO2 eq)
Transportation
Recycling
Landfill
Demolition
Total
CMU
blocks
440
0
37,047
184
37,671
Concrete
Steel joists
Total
199
2,914
0
1,367
4,480
191
2,834
0
1,080
4,105
830
5,748
37,047
2,631
46,256
Table 22. Comparing results for end of life global warming potential (kg CO2 equivalent)
END OF LIFE
Summary
Material Transport
Total
Measures
1962
1096
ATHENA GWP
3058
2631
907
GaBi GWP
3538
471

3000
2500
2000
1500
Material
1000
Transport
500
0
ATHENA GWP
GaBi GWP
Figure 3. Comparing results for end of life global warming potential (kg CO2 equivalent)
The main reason for difference in end of life global warming potential of demolition is the different
source of fuel used in generation of energy for demolition in each software.
The end of life global warming effects of the repair garage when modeled with GaBi (Table 6) are
based on the average demolition energies used in ATHENA (Table 5). These energies are based on the
assumptions that concrete assemblies would be demolished and concrete materials would be crushed and
used on the site. The reinforcing steel would be transported to a recycling facility. Steel joists would be
demolished and transported to a recycling plant, and masonry units would be demolished and transported
to landfill. As Figure 4 shows, the greatest environmental impact of the EOL phase, which is not
considered by ATHENA is the environmental impact of landfilling masonry units. Based on Table 6,
global warming effect of landfilling masonry units is more than fourteen times that of demolition of all
materials.
40000.00
35000.00
30000.00
25000.00
Transportation
20000.00
Recycling
Landfill
15000.00
Demolition
10000.00
5000.00
0.00
CMU blocks
concrete
openweb
Figure 4. End-of-Life global warming impact of Garage repair modeled in GaBi (kg CO2 eq)
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The environmental impacts of landfilling in GaBi include the energy for basic waste treatment; air
emissions of materials residing in landfill; and environmental burdens such as non-used primary energy
from wind power, non-used primary energy from water power, and occupation as forest land. The largest
portion of the impact is related to waste heat and electric power used for waste treatment. The potential
global warming for landfilling 199 tons of masonry units is equivalent to 37 tons of CO2 emission. This
implies that the environmental impacts of decommissioning buildings considering the landfilling effect
are more pronounced. The estimate that decommissioning energy is only 2% of the total embodied energy
of buildings does not provide a comprehensive evaluation of decommissioning phase.
4. Conclusions
For energy efficient and Net-Zero Energy buildings, attentions should shift from operational energy
to embodied energy of buildings. One component of embodied energy is decommissioning energy, which
due to uncertainties about the end-of-life of materials has received less attention than other components.
There are several LCA tools that may be used to measure decommissioning energy of buildings. Selection
of the appropriate LCA tool depends on availability of information about the end-of-life scenarios of a
building and its materials (demolition/deconstruction, landfill/recycle, etc.), and the capability of the LCA
tool for handling different scenarios. Whole building LCA tools such as ATHENA which works with
statistical average measures, might only consider a portion of EOL energy. While using ATHENA to
choose materials with the lowest LCA impacts, it must be taken into account that the actual
decommissioning energy might be greater and differ from what is measured by the software. In particular,
ATHENA does not include the environmental impact of landfilling. On the other hand, GaBi includes the
environmental impact of landfilling and recycling, but requires detailed information about the EOL
options and energy required for demolition and transportation of materials. Therefore, it is a challenge to
use GaBi as a decision making tool to perform the whole building LCA in early stages of design.
Meanwhile, a combination of both tools would be useful in terms of choosing materials with the lowest
impacts at their end of life. LCA assessment tools can provide opportunities to use average data for
different materials based on the region and location of a building to reduce data intensity and time of
modeling. Being able to choose among different scenarios of EOL for building components with a few
parameters to change, is another suggestion to have a more flexible and meanwhile simple modeling tool
so that the model could be made in efficient time and to be able to use the results before the construction
process begins.
5. References
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based solely on the consumption evaluation of final energy, International Journal of Electrical Power &
Energy Systems. 44 (2013) 70-77.
[2] C.J. Kibert, Sustainable construction: green building design and delivery, Wiley, New Jersey (2008)
[3] G.A. Blengini, Life cycle of buildings, demolition and recycling potential: A case study in Turin,
Italy, Build. Environ. 44, 319-330 (2009)
[4] G.A. Blengini, T. Di Carlo, The changing role of life cycle phases, subsystems and materials in the
LCA of low energy buildings, Energy Build. 42, 869-880 (2010)
[5] Junnila, S., Horvath, A., and Guggemos, A, Life-Cycle Assessment of Office Buildings in Europe and
the United States, J. Infrastruct. Syst. 12, 10 (2006)
473

[6] J.D. Silvestre, J. de Brito, M.D. Pinheiro, From the new European Standards to an environmental,
energy and economic assessment of building assemblies from cradle-to-cradle (3E-C2C), Energy Build.
64, 199-208 (2013)
[7] L.F. Cabeza, L. Rincn, V. Vilario, G. Prez, A. Castell, Life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle
energy analysis (LCEA) of buildings and the building sector: A review, Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews. 29, 394-416 (2014)
[8] A.M. Moncaster, K.E. Symons, A method and tool for cradle to grave embodied carbon and energy
impacts of UK buildings in compliance with the new TC350 standards, Energy Build. 66, 514-523 (2013)
[9] C. Scheuer, G.A. Keoleian, P. Reppe, Life cycle energy and environmental performance of a new
university building: modeling challenges and design implications, Energy Build. 35, 1049-1064 (2003)
[10] F.W. Horsley (Ed.), Means scheduling manual: On-time, on-budget construction, up-to
date computerized scheduling, MA: R.S. Means Co., Kingston, (1991)
[11] S. Shrivastava, A. Chini, Using Building Information Modeling to Assess the Initial Embodied
Energy of a Building, International Journal of Construction Management. 12.1, 51-63 (2012)
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474

Track VI
(Case Studies / Educational Facilities)
475

Understanding the challenges for low impact retrofitting case study

Azadeh Montazami1, Danny McGough2, Abdullahi Ahmed3, Mark Gaterell4, Martin Beck5
Coventry University, Faculty of Engineering and Computing Coventry CV1 5FB UK
E-mails: azadeh.montazami@coventry.ac.uk 1, danny.mcgough@coventry.ac.uk2
Abdullahi.Ahmed@coventry.ac.uk3, Mark.Gaterell@coventry.ac.uk4,
Martin.Beck@coventry.ac.uk5
Abstract
REtrofitting Solutions and Services for the enhancement of Energy Efficiency in Public Edification
(RESSEEPE) is an EU funded project that focuses on the refurbishment of existing public buildings in
Three European cities. The aim of the project is to bring together design and decision making tools and
innovative building fabric manufacturers to collaborate to improve building performance through low
impact retrofitting interventions to achieve a 50% reduction in energy consumption.
The aim of this paper was to highlight all the processes that were followed to evaluate the risks
associated with low impact retrofitting of large educational buildings. A systemic process was
implemented for the selection of interventions for each building typology with consideration for current
and future climates, which included; Envelope Retrofitting, Integration of RES, Energy Storage Systems,
Nanotechnologies, smart materials, ICT and Intelligent Building Controls.
Evaluating whole life performance was key, the life span, maintenance, operation cost and embodied
energy of the technologies was difficult, leading to uncertain cost, carbon and performance estimates over
the life of the facility. The study was carried out using desk based study that established the current
condition of the building in terms of energy and carbon emission. Qualitative interviews with
stakeholders have been carried out to assess the risk and benefits of the proposed intervention measures.
The risks associated with the selection of suitable technologies/products can be explained around the
challenges of integrating the low impact refurbishment techniques with existing organisations short,
medium to long term strategies. Major risks evaluated include procurement strategies, building standards,
certification and lack of precedent for state of art technologies. How the advanced technologies stand up
against conventional technology was also critically assessed focusing on cost, life cycle, user satisfaction
and risk.
Keywords: Retrofitting, Educational buildings, Low impact, Technology, Risk
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Introduction
REtrofitting Solutions and Services for the enhancement of Energy Efficiency in Public Edification
(RESSEEPE) is an EU funded project that focuses on the refurbishment of existing public buildings in
Three European cities. RESSEEPE aims to develop and demonstrate an easily replicable methodology
for designing, constructing, and managing public building and district renovation projects to achieve near
net-zero energy public buildings and districts. For this purpose, a demonstration and dissemination
framework will be developed with very innovative RESSEEPE project. 5 strategies and solutions for
public buildings energy renovation at building and district level, based on the following pillars:
1. Three demonstrations of public buildings district retrofitting, in different countries and climate
conditions: Coventry (UK), Barcelona (SP) and Skelleftea (SW)
2. Several studies of cost-effective solutions to the holistic improvement of the energy performance
of public buildings at building and district level.
3. A systemic process will allow the selection of the best possible retrofitting mix based on the
combination of innovative technologies
4. Analysis of the reproducibility of the proposed business models and development of a strategy for
large scaled market deployment throughout Europe.
5. A market and replication deployment plan, in order to ensure the project impact at business level,
and an exploitation strategy suitable for achieving a wide impact.
This paper is an overview about the process and challenges that Coventry university faced in this low
carbon refurbishment. The main focus of this paper is the prioritization of the building to be refurbished
and analysis of the processes involved in making refurbishment decision. The building selection such as
the building typology and energy benchmarking is explained. The process of making decision
procurement, technology, alignment with local strategy are described and evaluated.
1. Selecting Building
1.1.Building typology
Coventry is a city and metropolitan borough in the county of West Midlands in England. Coventry is
the 21st largest English district by population. It is also the second largest city in the Midlands, after
Birmingham, with a population of 316,900. The University Public District occupies a purpose built 33acre (133.346 m2) campus in the heart of Coventry city centre. The campus buildings and environment
are constantly being developed and enhanced. The Coventry City Council is investing 160m in the
campus over the next ten years (Lynch and Lucy, 2008) including construction of a new Student
Enterprise Centre and a high-tech faculty building for Engineering and Computing. The distinctive
turreted building on campus is the Library public, which has over 1,200 study areas, 450 computer
workstations and a wealth of learning materials and information services. The award-winning design
maximizes the natural light and ventilation, and there's a bookshop and caf on site too. One of the newest
additions to the campus is the Student Centre Public, which brings together a range of key student support
services under one roof. Figure 1 shows the location of Coventry and Coventry University within the
United Kingdom.
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Figure 15: Coventry University Coventry UK
The six building that are selected from this university to participate in this project are Alan Berry,
Ellen Terry, George Elliot, John Laing Building, Richard Crossman and Student Centre Building. Below
is the outline of each building. This outline consist the buildings general data, energy consumption and
carbon foot print, building construction. Coventry University have a Building Managing Systems (BMS)
managing the entire building stock of the university. Even though there is metering points on the building
and building system the capacity of the BMS server has been exceeded over time due to increase in
buildings stock owned by the university (Politecnico, 2013).
Alan Berry Building (Image.1- Figure 2) is a two storeys building constructed in 1963 and it is under
it is under consequential improvement according to PART L2B Building Regulation. The net area in
this building is 2799 m2. The electricity, gas (for heating purposes) and water consumption for each
square meter in one year are 63kWh/m2, 178 kWh /m and 732 /m respectively. Carbon foot print is
198.3 (tonnes). This building has a Curtain system with panels and 40% glazed proportion. Window
frame in this building is metal with 6mm single glazed. The source of heating in this building is from
the heat generators in the plant room with the power of 7400 KW.
Ellen Terry Building (Image.2- Figure 2) is a four storeys building constructed in 1931. The net area in
square meter in one year are 96kWh/m2, 430kWh /m and 1651/m respectively. Carbon foot print is
448 (tonnes). This building has a brick faade and 30% glazed proportion. Window frame in this
building is metal Georgian style frame with 6mm single glazed.
George Elliot Building (Image.3- Figure 2) is six storey building constructed in 1960. The net area in
square meter in one year are 89kWh/m2, 185kWh /m and 1394/m respectively. Carbon foot print is
452 (tonnes). This building has a Curtain system which was refurbished in 1993 and 30% glazed
proportion. Window frame in majority of faade is UPVC with 12 mm double glazed. Windows of
stairway and toiler is metal with 6mm single glazed. The domestic hot water to GE building is served
through a single 700 KW boiler located in Charles Ward (CW) plant room. The source of heating in this
building is from the heat generators in the plant room with the power of 7400 KW.
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John Laing Building (Image.4- Figure 2) is two storeys building constructed in 1970 and it is under it
is under consequential improvement according to PART L2B Building Regulation.. The net area in this
building is 3660 m2. The electricity, gas (for heating purposes) and water consumption for each square
meter in one year are 94kWh/m2, 129kWh /m and 957/m respectively. Carbon foot print is 282
(tonnes). This building has a brick faade and 30% glazed proportion. Window frame in this building is
metal frame with 6mm single glazed. There are 4 number 475 KW boilers installed serving both
domestic hot water and heating for John Laing and Richard Crossman Building. All 4 boilers installed
in 2005.
Richard Crossman (Image.5- Figure 2) is five storeys building constructed in 1971 and it is under it is
under consequential improvement according to PART L2B Building Regulation. The net area in this
building is 9306 m2. The electricity, gas (for heating purposes) and water consumption for each square
meter in one year are 116kWh/m2, 129kWh /m and 2462/m respectively. Carbon foot print is
841(tonnes). This building has a brick faade and 30% glazed proportion. Window frame in this
building is metal frame with 6mm single glazed. There are 4 number 475 KW boilers installed serving
both domestic hot water and heating for John Laing and Richard Crossman Building. All 4 boilers
installed in 2005.
Student Centre (Image.6- Figure 2) is two storey building constructed in 2005 accordance with
building control requirements. The net area in this building is 2837 m2. The electricity, gas (for heating
purposes) and water consumption for each square meter in one year are 85kWh/m2, 60Wh /m and
1085/m respectively. This building has a brick faade and 30% glazed proportion. Windows are
Aluminium frame with Polyester powder coated with 12 mm double glazed. There is Air Handling Unit
with thermal wheel in this building with seven Radiator Steel Panel.
Figure 16: Case Study Buildings
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1.2.
Benchmarking
Benchmarking is an important process in driving building performance management and prioritizing

various invention measures. CIBSE (2008) set out a procedure for benchmarking building performance
with similar buildings in the sector. There is always budgetary limitation in terms of the ability of
organization to invest in significant way in a large number of property portfolio over short, medium and
long term perspective. Therefore the refurbishment process have to take into consideration a process of
prioritizing the intervention using a number of indicators such as cost, energy, environment factors and
feasibility of such intervention. In organizations with large portfolio of old building it is essential to plan
and prioritise the building stock relative to the urgency for refurbishment action. The selected case study
buildings in this project have been benchmarked against each other using overall electrical and gas energy
consumption (kWh/m2/year).
Figure 3 show the energy consumption for both electricity and gas for the six case study buildings.
The results reveal Ellen Terry Building as an outlier in terms of gas consumptions, the building is the
oldest among the selected buildings and is constructed in 1931, which means it has very poor levels of
fabric insulation, initial site survey also reveals poor level of heating controls within the building. The
building is also surrounded by other commercial spaces. This building is one of the most challenging in
terms of areas of low carbon intervention. The lowest gas consumption is in the Student Center Building
which is fairly new building constructed in 2005 therefore insulation levels is based on Building
Regulation Part L 2002. The second highest gas consumption is the George Elliot Building with about
180 Kwh/m2/annum of gas consumption. Electricity consumption varies from 63 116 kWh.m2/year, the
variation in electrical energy consumption can be attributed to the difference in use and the application of
mechanical air conditions in parts of the buildings.
Figure 17: Case Study Energy Consumption
Figure 4 shows the carbon emission associated with the SIX case study buildings based on both
electricity and gas consumption using CO2 conversion factors of 0.55 and 0.19 for electricity and gas
respectively. The total CO2 emissions from these buildings reveal as expected Ellen Terry Building to
480

have the highest emissions followed by Richard Crossman and George Elliot Buildings. The energy
consumption and emissions have been used in conjunction with other factors such as available
technologies, planned investments by the Estate Department, risk of interventions in order to inform the
selection of the best option for the current intervention. George Elliot Building has been selected as the
best option for the current intervention, in the coming months full monitoring of energy consumption,
internal and external environmental conditions will be carried out before the selected intervention
measures are installed. Further monitoring will be continued after installation to evaluate the benefit of
the intervention.
Figure 18: Carbon Emissions associated with case study buildings
2. Process
2.1.
Procurement
One of the first aspects that Coventry University (CU) focused on the evaluation of how the
procurement process of the European Union funded project would relate with CUs current procurement
processes at CU. A process of qualitative interviews took place with CUs estates and procurement
department to evaluate this area [(Weston, 2013) and (Foxall and Smithson, 2013)]. The main factors here
consisted of first, ensuring that any procurement strategy for the project married up with the institutions
existing processes and standards. An important point to consider was whether the research project would
require any closed tender bids or specialist contractors to install the technologies. The reasoning behind
this concern was due to the fact that the University has strict tender policies that need to be adhered to, to
align with current University and EU policy. The University has a varied array of Procurement Rules
when inviting to tender. This can vary depending on the nature of the tender in question, such as services
or works as to what level of alignment or approval the procurement will require. The result of this
particular avenue of investigation is still in the process of clarification as the tender process is ongoing.
A significant finding throughout the process was the need to reduce risk at all areas of local
procurement. This factor will be interoperable across a multitude of similar projects as reducing risk is a
481

key concern throughout refurbishment and construction tenders worldwide. The institution went through a
detailed process of evaluation and discussion throughout the early stages of the project to establish what
the best routes of procurement will be for a varied and bespoke project as this. The target was for a
balanced process in which the localized stakeholders are able to keep a certain amount of control over the
process through self-management whilst at the same time bringing in the required expertise to complete
any specialised tasks. A balance needs to be established between the risks involved for the institution
against the overall objectives outlined by all stakeholders in the research project and University alike.
The three criteria that are considered when embarking on a project are time, cost and quality. It can
often be the case that these three objectives for a project can often be in tension with each other, resulting
in the need for balance and compromise. Between time, cost and quality all of these criteria can be looked
at independently whilst at the same time have key interactions with one and another, establishing what a
stakeholder desires early on will help to find a equilibrium between the three factors that suits the case in
hand. Three areas of procurement were considered within the CU project which was then put through a
project/institution specific SWOT analysis process. See below;
Traditional procurement process or design-bid-build can be selected to provide a degree of certainty
of cost and time. This can be achieved if CU takes on the responsibility of the design aspect. However as
this form of procurement is sequential and certain stages have to be completed before other areas can
commence the scheduling of the process can be slow.
Strength
Control over initial
design
Degree of certainty of
cost
Degree of certainty of
time
Design can be kept in

house
Weakness
Sequential schedule
Decisions and
designs will have to
match the project
timescale
Lack of control over
the building process
SWOT
Opportunity
Keep control of design at
early stage
Cost and Time can be
reasonably predicted
Up skilling of
Estate/design personnel on
new strategies, options and
materials;
There will be academic
benefit for the intervention
through knowledge share
with estates and design
team
Cost of design can be
reduced through being
completed in house
Threat
Construction phase may be
delayed
May be difficult to match the
project schedule to existing
strategy due to sequential
nature.
University will bear some of
the risk of failure of the
interventions through taking
on responsibility of the design
Table 1: SWOT analysis Traditional procurement process or design-bid-build

Design-Build can offer a degree of relative speed and cost certainty. However with this option we will
lose a certain amount of control over the design process as the responsibility of the design will be down to
the contractor. The question here is how much control does the project require?
482

Strength
Speed/Time
Degree of cost
certainty
Design carried out by

contractor
SWOT
Weakness
Opportunity
Loss of control over design Risk of design lies
with the contractor
Less in house knowledge
Lower risk in general
of the processes and
implementation of
interventions
Higher costs paid to out of

house designs and
contractors
Clear costs of project
Contractor takes on
risk of design
Threat
Loss of control of the
project and direction
University will
experience less lessons
learned from the project
as much of the tasks and
decisions will be out of
house
Tied into original design
and contractor in regards
to roll out strategy as
they will have the
experience
Lack of control of
contractor
Table 2: Table 1: SWOT analysis table Design-Build

Management contracting or construction management offers a degree relative speed to the project as a
MC or CM can get involved early on in the process and get the project going through authorising the
commencement of certain work of the project whilst certain decisions are still waiting to be clarified. One
of the disadvantages of the strategy is that costs can be difficult to establish and may not be known until
right up to completion.
SWOT
Strength
Relative increased
speed
Weakness
Difficult to attain
costs
Opportunity
Decisions can be made as
project progresses
Manager can make key

project decisions
Higher risk
Tasks can be
subcontracted out
Risk of delay lies

with Manager
Decisions can be made early

on in project before various
outputs are completed
There will be academic benefit
for the intervention through
knowledge share with estates
and design team
Threat
Costs can spiral as key
decisions affect the
project
Tasks can be spread
across multiple parties
resulting in confusion
University/Manager
will bear greater risk
Greater control of
project
Table 3: SWOT analysis for Management contracting or construction management

Moving onto the finer details of the project and in particular the installation of the technologies
themselves key points to consider were raised. Taking account of the bespoke nature of many of the
technologies there was a need to consider whether any of the installations would require specialized
483

installers or contractors to carry out the work. As discussed earlier within this paper, this possible
requirement for these specifics will have resulting consequences in area such as procurement. If
specialised contractors are required than it will limit the way in which the work can be sent out to tender,
limiting the pool of possible contractors or installers significantly. The consequence of such restrictions
on tendering is that it may become more to gain competitive tenders for the work as well as causing
further repercussions on the scheduling of works due to having to align with a limited number of
contractors schedules.
When considering state of the art refurbishment interventions with in use buildings its also important
to consider the specifics of whether the interventions are permanent, semi-permanent or temporary as this
will have consequences further down the line. If interventions are to be removed than consideration needs
to be placed on such; where will the cost lie for any removal and will there be any lasting damage to the
current structures due to any interventions or removals? These are all key factors that need to be
evaluated as any process like this evolves.
2.2.
Technology:
The technologies to be used within the project are of a state of the art nature. The result of this is
such the risk is subsequently increased within any of the procurement paths that CU explored. This
concern led the team to investigate the character of the technologies further. A significant element when
evaluating the state of the art technologies named within the project focused on the certification, quality
and life span of the technologies proposed. An evaluation then took place with an aim to establish what
certification the named technologies had and whether this was acceptable to current UK, EU or CU
standards. Certification of the technologies was extremely relevant when assessing procurement strategies
as there was a need to ensure that any technologies would come with suitable or relevant certification that
would be acceptable to University standards. This area will be continually assessed throughout the project
to ensure that any technologies that are being implemented into University buildings will be able to pass
through current procurement and purchasing policy at the University institution. An evaluation took place
with an aim to establish what certification the named technologies had and whether this was acceptable to
current UK, EU or CU standards.
The next evaluation focused on the life span of the technologies, which had to be assessed to attain
what level of risk was associated with each installation. Due to the nature of the technologies and the fact
they are on the cusp of future research it was difficult to attain total clarity on the quality and whole life of
the technologies. Much of the technologies are yet to be fully tested and approved hence the need for the
project to further evaluate this area as the research develops. When bringing this point back into focus
with CU policy the concern was how will this lack of certification, actual implementation and life span
testing effect the procurement and purchasing processes at the University? This area will be continually
assessed and developed throughout the life of the project, with an aim at establishing clearer processes
and protocols for such cases (Livesey and Bre, 2006).
The various technology which are proposed in this project are around the envelop insulation,
photovoltaic panel, storage system and distribution system.
2.3.
Alignment with current local strategy:
A significant restriction when embarking on a research project of this nature in conjunction with
in use institutional buildings is the need to align any research project strategies with an institutions
ongoing strategy. For example, when considering any refurbishment intervention the importance of
484

matching any implementation of technologies with current maintenance strategies needs to be considered.
Another aspect which has to be carefully deliberated in such a project is scheduling. Institutional
buildings are often in use when any refurbishment is due to take place. Thus if buildings are in use, any
interventions have to ensure that the minimal amount of disruption is caused as possible to day to day
activities within the buildings. To facilitate this process, conduits of people and communication protocols
between the refurbishment project, the localized installation team or contractor and the institutions estates
management need to collaborate and communicate effectively. The aim of this is to ensure that any key
decisions that affect the local or wider participants within a project are made with all parties able to input.
The fundamental aim in this aspect was to ensure that there is a cohesive alignment between the
refurbishment strategy, contractors and all relevant stakeholders.
The significance of consideration to budget and funding for such a refurbishment strategy also
needs to be carefully studied when embarking on such a project. There is a need to address early on
within internal circles where funding for a project lies which needs to be addressed for a project to move
forward. Refurbishments can be funded through multiple avenues whether that is through capital
expenditure, through maintenance expenditure or even through research funding. The consequences of
this will have an effect on how much control an organization has locally on a costing and scheduling of a
project. Capital expenditure in its very nature will require an immediate amount of investment from the
key stakeholders which may not previously have been accounted for in existing budgets. This can cause
issues in itself through the need to tie down new allocation of funding for a project to get off the ground.
If however any budget for a project is to be gained through maintenance expenditure than the requirement
to align with internal institutional strategies of maintenance is paramount as there is a high chance that
any funding for a project will need to be aligned with ongoing maintenance strategies. Aligning a
refurbishment project with an independent research project has its own hurdle which is profoundly unique
when compared to the traditional nature of procurement, budgeting and installation of low impact design.
The existence of a research project highlights areas of detail such as; match funding requirements,
ownership of installations, and appropriation of risk as well as the need for dissemination of results.
A major factor when considering any construction project is risk, which has been continually
assessed throughout this paper. The main factor when considering this factor from an institutions point of
view is to reduce risk at all times. Below is a process which reflected CUs response to analysing risk in
response to funding avenues in the early stages of a research/refurbishment project.
1.
2.
3.
STRENGTH
Coventry University can better control
intervention to the long term university
strategy;
Higher potential for energy and
environmental savings;
Opportunity to take more control of
procurement process and decisions;
OPPORTUNITIES
WEAKNESS
1. Lack of total control of procurement process;
2. Future role out may be hindered by lack of
adequate skill;
3. Cost of future interventions may be higher than
the first intervention and may not be economically
feasible to roll out, this can affect the long term
refurbishment strategy of the university;
THREAT
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Opportunity to roll out intervention to the

whole estate;
Academic benefit of the process to the low
impact building research and the university as
a whole;
Opportunity to be leaders and pioneers of
potential successful strategy;
Subsidised cost of interventions;
Up skilling of Estate personnel on new
strategies, options and materials;
1.
2.
3.
4.
Decision has to fit project timescale;

Matching funding to cover the cost of
intervention;
The intervention strategies and materials are
new in most are new in some cases and the
university will bear the risk of performance
failure, if this is done in a large scale;
Lack of control of the building;
Table 3: SWOT analysis: Coventry University to raise resources for whole building refurbishment;
1.
2.
1.
2.
STREGTH
Less significant cost outlay for the university;
Risk of failure is limited to small section of
the building and the cost of changes or
improvement will be equally limited;
OPPORTUNITIES
There will still be academic benefit for the
intervention;
Estate will benefit from the process in terms
of up-skilling and
1.
2.
1.
WEAKNESS
Missed opportunity for large scale
intervention;
Limited benefit for the possible
intervention footprint;
THREAT
Lack of control of contractor
Table 4: SWOT analysis: Limited intervention funded by the project
3. Discussions and Conclusions

The project has identified a number of very interesting dynamics of prioritizing buildings for
refurbishment and the suitability of the relevant technologies to be applied in the intervention. As a
research project was funded to trial a number of technologies some of which are still in development
stage it is essential that a clear risk management strategy is developed both for procurement, selection of
technologies and the potential impact of the proposed interventions.
The data gathering process is very time consuming and poses significant challenges with regards to
accuracy of the available for buildings such as geometry, materials thickness etc, even the building
drawings in some cases are not available or internal layout may have changes and the drawings have not
been properly updated, which means approximate measurements have been used. The feed forward nature
of the paper as well as a low impact research project as a whole as a precursor lesson in low impact
refurbishment projects. Some of these challenges suggest the need to consider retrospective BIM
modelling of refurbishment to prevent similar future problems. There are also existing technologies for
taking internal and external measures of distances.
The comparisons between low impact refurbishment with a research project aligned to it to that of a
traditional independent refurbishment project where there is less requirement to align with external
organisations. This leads to difficult bridges which need to be crossed in regards to getting all
stockholders collaborating and accepting the route forward with regards to the relative benefit of these
interventions and the willingness to the risks, now and in the future.
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It is very important to look at all the factors that affect the potential of the potential intervention, the
energy and carbon emission and the result of benchmarking will provide guidance on where the
intervention should be focused, however other factors such as budgets, building use, difficulty of
refurbishment and the impact on building use etc will all be very important issues that can influence.
Long term views should always be taking as well such as the life span of the building, whole cost
planning, and the overall building function relative to organizational activities.
4. References
[1]CIBSE (2008), TM46 Energy Benchmarks, CIBSE, UK
[2]Building Regulations (2002) Approved Document Part L1 Conservation of fuel and power for new dwellings.
Communities and Local Government Department.
[3]Livesey, K. & Bre, E.S., 2006. Advanced thermal insulation technologies in the built environment. , pp.116.
[4]Lynch, Lucy (31 July 2008). "Coventry University in 160m expansion". Coventry Telegraph. Retrieved 7
August 2013
[5]Politecnico, T., 2013. Proposal full title: Proposal acronym: REtrofitting Solutions and Services for the
enhancement of Energy Efficiency in Public Edification RESEEPE Type of funding scheme: DEMO-targeted
collaborative projects Work programme topics addressed: EeB . NMP . 2013-3 Name of the coordinating person:
Mr . Fernando Centeno // fernandocenteno@exergy.uk.com List of participants
[6]Weston, T., 2013. Discussion on procurement policy and process of Coventry University. [interview] (personal
communication, Oct 2013)
[7]Foxall, M., and Smithson, E. 2013. Discussion on estates policy and standpoint of [interview] (personal
communication, Oct 2013)
487

NZEB Enhancement for a LEED Platinum Educational Facility

Aydin Tabrizi1 and Paola Sanguinetti1
School of Architecture, Design and Planning (SADP), Department of Architecture, University of
Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045 USA
E-mail: 1a088a591@ku.edu and paolas@ku.edu
Abstract
In the US, university buildings use 17% of total non-residential building energy per year. According
to the NREL, the average lifecycle of a building in a university is 42 years with an Energy Use Intensity
(EUI) of 76 kBTU/SF/YR. Current building and energy codes limit the EUI to 55 kBTU/SF/YR for new
school buildings; this benchmark can vary depending on climate, occupancy, and other contextual factors.
Although the LEED system provides a set of guidelines to rate sustainable buildings, studies by (Scofield,
2009; Newsham, Mancini and Birt 2009) have shown that 2835% of the educational LEED-rated
buildings use more energy than their conventional counterparts. This paper examines the issues specific
to a LEED-rated design addition to an existing university building. The Forum, a lecture hall addition of
to an existing building at the University of Kansas, has been proposed as environmentally friendly and
energy-efficient building addition. Comfort and health aspects have been considered in the design in
order to obtain LEED Platinum certificate. The Forums energy performance strategies include a doubleskin faade to reduce energy consumption and photovoltaic (PV) panels to generate onsite energy. This
study considers various scenarios to meet Net-Zero Energy Building (NZEB) criteria and maximize
energy savings. The feasibility of NZE criteria is evaluated for a) seasonal comparison, b) facility
occupancy, and c) PV panels addition in relation to double skin facade. The results of NZEB approach
are compared to LEED platinum requirements, based on ROI and PV panels efficiency for this specific
educational building.
Keywords: NZEB, double skin faade, EnergyPlus, educational building, PV panels, LEED
1. Introduction
In the United States, educational buildings are the fifth most prevalent institutional building type with
approximately 309,000 buildings. Based on research conducted by the Energy Information
Administration (EIA), educational buildings consume a total of 0.19 Gigawatt hours (614 trillion BTU) of
energy per year. For a typical University building, space heating, cooling, and lighting together account
for nearly 70 percent of energy use [1]. For new school buildings, building energy codes limit the Energy
Use Intensity (EUI) to approximately 55 kBTU/SF/YR [2]. However, the current average lifecycle of a
building in a university is 42 years with a EUI of 76 kBTU/SF/YR. [3]. Based on [4] universities need to
begin reducing their greenhouse gas emissions by 3 percent per annum (pa) if they are to take any level of
leadership in addressing the enormous problem of climate disturbance. Sustainable higher educational
institutions will require efficient use of energy in educational buildings and environmental awareness
within students and institutional staff.
488

The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) rating has been adopted as the standard
for building sustainability. An analysis of measured energy use data from 100 certified buildings yielded
that on average LEED buildings use 1839% less energy per floor area than their conventional
counterparts [5]. However another study shows that 2835% of LEED buildings use more energy than
buildings without a LEED rating [6]. In addition, the United States Green Building Councils (USGBC)
research suggests that a quarter of the new buildings that have been certified do not save as much energy
as their designs predicted and that most of those buildings do not track energy consumption once in use
[7]. One problem with the LEED rating system may be the wide scope of categories used to promote the
reduction of energy use and emissions. The LEED program uses a point system based on a checklist of
features for efficient energy use, water conservation, proximity to public transportation, indoor air quality,
use of environment-friendly materials and native landscaping. The wide scope of the program could be
linked to issues in optimizing building energy use. Another problem could be that the certification relies
on deterministic energy models to predict how much energy a planned building will use, but USGBC
officials and many experts [8] agree that such models are inexact and different simulation tools may cause
different energy assessment results [9]. During the operation phase, a building may use more energy than
was predicted in the design phase [5]. The sources for these discrepancies energy consumption are rooted
in the uncertainty in the models used for predictions as well as variability in building occupancy and use
[10, 11]
In this study, the net-zero energy (NZE) evaluation is proposed to compensate for the potential
inefficiency of using a sustainability rating system to predict energy performance at the design stage and
evaluate energy improvement scenarios. The combination of active and passive sustainable strategies is
examined with the potential of achieving net zero energy (NZEB) performance for a new addition to an
educational building, the Forum, at the University of Kansas. The Forums energy performance strategies
include a double-skin faade to reduce energy consumption and photovoltaic (PV) panels to generate
onsite energy. This study considers various scenarios to meet Net-Zero Energy Building (NZEB) criteria
and maximize energy savings. The feasibility of NZE criteria is evaluated for a) seasonal comparison, b)
facility occupancy, and c) PV panels addition in relation to double skin facade.
2. LEED-rated building addition

The Forum at Marvin Hall is a new lecture hall and student commons area for the School of
Architecture, Design and Planning at the University of Kansas (Figure 19). The building addition
incorporates both passive and active sustainable systems with intention to achieve LEED Platinum
certification. A living wall with vegetation is used to purify the air in the auditorium space; a water
harvesting system is to route precipitation to a cistern; and PV panels on the roof are to generate energy
on site. A double skin faade (DSF) system mediates the heat transfer between the exterior and interior of
the building depending on the time of the year. Vertical louvers control the amount of light and solar gain
entering the space. During summer time, the dual wall is vented to allow the heated air to escape and pull
cooler air in from underneath the addition, and in the winter time, the vents is closed allowing heated air
to become trapped inside the cavity acting as a warm blanket for the addition.
489

Figure 19. The Forum Building addition with DSF Technology
2.1. Modeling approach

The software package DesignBuilder was used to simulate the Forum building addition, and evaluate
energy improvements scenarios. DesignBuilder uses as its calculation engine EnergyPlus 8.1, developed
by the US Department of Energy. The building addition was modelled as three zones, with zone 1
represented as an office building occupancy; zone 2 as a lecture hall; and zone 3 as the cavity for the DSF
(Figure 20). Two ventilation methods were considered to evaluate the energy consumption of the
building addition with the application of a DSF: a) Mechanical ventilation with the cavity space
considered part of adjacent zones and b) Mixed ventilation (Natural + Mechanical) with the cavity space
performing separately from the adjacent zones. The mixed ventilation modeling approach includes
mechanical and natural ventilation with the DSF cavity zone used as a buffer to treat the air and
ventilation load between the interior and exterior of the building. The main objective was to analyze the
environmental conditions in the DSF, zone 3, and the resulting heating-cooling loads for the adjacent
zones 1 and 2 during extreme summer and winter conditions.
It was assumed that the vents in the cavity of the DSF are closed during the winter semester to
prevent air exchange from outside and protect the inside air temperature, while the vertical louvers in the
cavity of the DSF are open during office hours during the winter semester to provide natural sunlight and
heat to the adjacent zones 1 and 2. The DSF vents are kept open during the summer semester while no
classes are in session except for staff meetings/events once a week. Similarly, the vertical louvers are kept
open during the summer semester, so daylight can be used for lighting adjacent spaces and maintain the
living wall. However, the vents and vertical louvers are closed once a week during staff meetings or
events to avoid heat and extreme summer sunlight of Kansas.
490

Figure 20. Model of the Forum in Design Builder

2.2. Design strategies to achieve NZEB
Based on the approach to model the Forum building addition, the research procedure conducted
to evaluate the efficiency of the two ventilations methods involved a period of 3 months respectively for
the
winter
and
for
the
summer
semesters
(Figure
21).
Full Occupancy
Winter
Mechanical & Mixed System

(Natural +Mechanical)
Variable
Modification
Full Use (5 days a week),

Office Hours
Closed Vent
On/Off Louver Control
Day/Night
Partial Occupancy (Staff)
Summer
Mechanical & Mixed System

(Natural +Mechanical)
Variable
Modification
Partial Use (once a

week), Shorter Hours
Closed Vent
Temp Set-Point Change
Figure 21. Research procedure

Table 23 shows the occupancy settings and ventilation modes for each season. During the winter
season, the building addition performs during normal office hours (8:00 AM- 5:00 PM) weekly from
Monday to Friday while classes are in session. During the summer semester, there are no activities in this
building addition other than weekly seminars for staff and group discussion once a week. The low
occupancy and associated operation schedule provide an opportunity to reduce energy consumption. In
order to analyze this possibility, the building addition operation schedule, occupancy and temperature set
point were modified and sensitivity analysis were conducted. Energy generation and consumption were
quantified for the winter semester when the facility would be in full occupancy use; for the summer
condition, the building operation schedule and temperature set points were modified due to the limited use
491

of building addition.
Table 23. Occupancy level and ventilation modes for each season
Occupancy
Operation
Schedule Hours
Days
per
Week
Temperature Set
Point [Cooling (F)]
Winter
Semester
Full Use
8:00 AM- 6:00 PM
off
Summer
Semester
Low Use
9:00 AM- 3:00 PM
Original: 72
Modified:78
Ventilation Mode
VAV with HR + outside air reset
+ mixed mode+ open vertical
louver
VAV with HR + outside air reset
+ mixed mode+ close vertical
louver
Table 24 shows the scenarios identified for this study. Scenarios 1 and 2 were considered to provide a
comparative picture of the energy demand during the winter semester. Scenario number 3 was used to
quantify the maximum energy demand for the facility during summer semester. Scenarios 4 to 8 were
introduced as the alternative cases to identify the optimum solution while the building is in the minimum
use in summer.
Table 24. Eight defined scenarios and variables in this study
MODELING APPROACH AND VENTILATION MODE
OCCUPANCY
LEVEL
SEASON AND TEMPERATURE

CONDITIONS
full
occupancy
full
occupancy
winter semester
without vertical
louvers in DSF
cavity
with vertical
louvers in DSF
cavity
without vertical
louvers in DSF
cavity
full
occupancy
summer semester
full
occupancy
summer semester
full
occupancy
summer semester
with vertical
louvers in DSF
cavity
full
occupancy
summer semester
with vertical
louvers in DSF
cavity
low
occupancy
summer semester
Mechanical HVAC
system
Mixed HVAC
(Natural+
Mechanical
system)
Mechanical HVAC
system
Mechanical HVAC
system
Mixed HVAC
(Natural+
Mechanical
system)
Mixed HVAC
(Natural+
Mechanical
system)
Mixed HVAC
(Natural+
Mechanical
winter semester
492

system)
8
Mixed HVAC
(Natural+
Mechanical
system)
with vertical
louvers in DSF
cavity
low
occupancy
summer semester with

adjusted temperature
set-point
2.3. Energy generation from PV panels

The solar energy system output for the state of Kansas is about 6 hours per day (EIA). When
compared to fossil fuel-generated electricity, each kilowatt of PV electricity annually offsets up to 16
kilograms of nitrogen oxides, 9 kilograms of sulfur dioxides, and 2,300 kilograms of carbon dioxide
(CO2). On average modern photovoltaic (PV) solar panels produce 8 - 10 watts/ft2 of solar panel area
[12]. In order to maximize the energy generation by the Forum building addition, two options were
considered. 1) The number of PV panels was increased 100% based on the panel modular dimension, and
2) the total roof area was considered to analyze the potential of achieving NZEB criteria. The annual
energy generation and improvement options can be seen in Table 25.
Table 25. PV panel improvement options
PV PANEL LAYOUT AND
IMPROVEMENT OPTIONS
PV Area
ENERGY GENERATION
(kBtu/Year)
Current layout (as designed)
1084 ft2
72904
Option 1 (100 % based on PV module)
2168 ft2
145806
Option 2 (full roof area)
2600 ft2
174859
3. Results
Table 26 shows the overall picture of total energy consumption for each scenario alongside predicted
energy generation and the type of generation in each case. It can be noted that scenarios 1 and 3-7 were
considered as alternative scenarios in order to predict the optimum case for this building. The PV panel
improvement options were applied to maximize the building energy performance for Scenario 2 and 8
which were considered as the optimum solutions.
Table 26. Total energy consumption and generation in each scenario
Scenario
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Predicted Total
Energy
Consumption
(kBtu)
160600.58
156889.68
341538.2
171986.4
334688.54
164089.7
68325.1
45021.52
Type
(Heating or
Cooling)
Predicted Energy
Generation
(kBtu/Yr)
Heating
Heating
Cooling
Cooling
Cooling
Cooling
Cooling
Cooling
72904
174859
72904
72904
72904
72904
72904
174859
Generation Type
(Current %, 100%
or Full Roof of
PV)
Current %
Full Roof Area
Current %
Current %
Current %
Current %
Current %
Full Roof Area
493

3.1. Winter simulation results

Table 27 and Figure 22 show the predicted winter energy consumption for Scenario 1. The mixed
ventilation outperforms the mechanical ventilation while the building is in full use in the winter semester.
Table 27. Winter Heating use for Scenario 1
District Heating [kBtu] - Winter
Mechanical Ventilation
Mixed Ventilation
34586
32730
Energy Consump on District Hea ng (Winter)
25000
HVAC Mixed (kBtu)
20000
HVAC Mech (kBtu)

15000
10000
5000
0
Jan
Feb
Mar
Oct
Nov
Dec
Figure 22. Winter monthly heating load for Scenario 1
3.2. Summer simulation results

Table 28 presents the parametric variation scenarios (Scenarios 6 to 8) as three performance
improvement strategies for site energy use and cooling load during summer season and Figure 23(a,b)
present the obtained results in each scenario.
Table 28. Defined scenarios and performance improvement strategies
Summer
Mechanical Ventilation
Blind Use
Potential
Worst Case
(Scenario 4)
(Scenario 3)
Full
Occupancy, No
Louver (Mech
FOnL)
Full
Occupancy,
Louver (Mech
FOL)
Mixed Ventilation
Base Case
(Scenario 5)
Strategy 1
(Scenario 6)
Strategy 2
(Scenario 7)
Strategy 3
(Scenario 8)
Full
Occupancy, No
Louver (Mixed
FOnL)
Full
Occupancy,
Louver (Mixed
FOL)
Low
Occupancy,
Louver (Mixed
LOL)
Low Occupancy,
Louver & Temp
SetPoint Change
(Mixed LOLT)
Site Energy (kBtu)
216453.37
125084.83
101058.44
213028.54
97110.09
36258.84
Annual Values - District Cooling: HVAC [kBtu]
70927.96
121660
66979.61
32066.26
24607.05
20414.47
494

(a)
(b)
Figure 23. (a) Site energy, (b) Cooling load

For both mechanical and mixed mode ventilation, Figure 24 shows the impact of vertical louvers on
the required site energy and the amount of cooling during summer semester. The vertical louvers in cavity
can reduce both energy and cooling demand in the mechanical mode (Scenario 4) in comparison to no
vertical louvers in the cavity (Scenario 3). The graphs show that the mixed ventilation performs better
than mechanical mode even in the absence of vertical louvers in the cavity area (Scenario 5). Accordingly
the respective performance improvement strategies (Scenarios 6 to 8/Strategy 1 to 3) to reduce the
occupancy size and modify the temperature set point have a direct impact on both site energy and district
cooling reduction. A set point is the temperature at which the HVAC system keeps the internal air
temperature of a building and it has a major impact on the amount of energy the system uses. The closer
the set point is aligned with the outside external temperature, the less energy is required for
operation. According to [13] space temperatures are targeted for 68 during the heating season and 72
during the cooling season during occupied hours which is within the range acceptable to 80 % of the
building occupants. As it mentioned earlier, the summer semester has less occupancy and this factor
provides the opportunity to modify the set point temperature to reduce the energy and cooling demand.
Figure 24 shows that the influence of three performance improvement strategies separately, and it can be
seen that the improvement strategy 3 can save almost 85% energy and 60% cooling load in comparison to
base case scenario.
(a)
(b)
Figure 24. Performance improvement strategies (a) energy use, (b) Cooling load
4. Discussion
It should be noted that, the mechanical method with and without vertical louvers in cavity for both
495

seasons was calculated to analyze the potential of mixed method for this building addition in the extreme
hot and cold temperature annually in the Kansas. Since the main focus of this paper is about the mixed
ventilation method and the possibility of DSF to fulfill this requirement, after observing results for base
case in both seasons, only mixed mode was considered as an strategic plan and optimum improvement for
summer and winter seasons.
4.1. Energy consumption vs. energy generation
The mixed ventilation was observed to perform efficiently during the winter season to reduce energy
demand and heating load and also the improvement strategy 3 was selected as the best improvement
option to reduce the summer energy demand and cooling load as seen in Table 29. The current area of PV
panels on the building addition roof can generate 72904 kBtu/year energy annually and by increasing the
numbers of PV panels to the full roof area, this number can be increased to 174859 kBtu/year. According
to Table 29, the whole energy consumption of the building addition (HVAC loading + other energy use)
accounts for 201911.2 (kBtu/year) and out of this number 174859 kBtu/year (87%) can be overlapped
by the energy generation from the onsite PV panels which defines this building addition under near netzero energy building (NNZEB) category.
Table 29. Total yearly energy use and heating/cooling load
Summer (Strategy 3)
Winter (Mixed
Ventilation)
Total Energy
Demand (kBtu)
HVAC Total (kBtu)
Total (kBtu)
Energy Consumption
(kBtu)
24607.05
Heating Load
(kBtU)
N/A
Cooling Load
(kBtU)
20414.47
123401.09
33488.59
N/A
148008.14
53903.06
201911.2
4.2. Cost analysis of the building addition

According to the US EIA, the cost of electricity for the commercial building at the state of Kansas is
10.5 cent per kWh [14]. Application of mixed ventilation method during winter season and also applying
improvement strategy 3 (scenario 8) during the summer semester, could save 9028 $ annually at this
building addition (Table 30). According to the national renewable energy laboratory (NREL) [15], the
median installed price of PV systems is $5.30/W for residential and small commercial systems smaller
than 10 kilowatts (kW) in size and $4.60/W for commercial systems of 100 kW in size. For systems
larger than 10,000 kW generally the price ranges from $2.50/W to $4.00/W and this variability in pricing
is due to the price difference across the states and various types of PV applications and system
configurations. If we consider the mean 3$/W for PV installation at this building addition, the application
of improvement option 1 will cost 7317$ and improvement option 2 (full roof area) which is the best
scenario in order to achieve NNZEB will cost 10233$ for this building addition. Therefore, the
performance improvement strategies to reduce energy consumption will save the building addition
managers 9028$ annually and installation of PV panels to generate energy will require 10233$ totally.
The difference of 1205$ can simply be paid off during the second year operation of the building addition
496

and therefore, the cost analysis provides clear picture of benefit towards using renewable energy (PV
panels) onsite after the first year (Table 30).
Table 30. Energy saving and generation cost
Energy/HVAC
Winter Saving Total
(kBtu)
Summer Saving Total
(kBtu)
Total (kBtu)
Total Saving/Annual
($)
Option 1 (100%)
Option 2 (Full Roof)
Cost (Cent/kWh)
3710.92
289667.02
293377.94 kBtu / 85981 kWh
PV Addition
72902 kBtu/ 2439 Watt
101955 kBtu/ 3411 Watt
9028
Cost
3$/W
10.5
Total
7317 $
10233 $
5. Conclusion
This paper examines the issues specific to a LEED-rated design addition to an existing university
building. The Forum, a lecture hall addition of to an existing building at the University of Kansas, was
proposed as environmentally friendly and energy-efficient building addition. Comfort and health aspects
were considered in the design in order to obtain LEED Platinum certificate. The Forums energy
performance strategies include a double-skin faade to reduce energy consumption and photovoltaic (PV)
panels to generate onsite energy. This study considered various cases to meet Net-Zero Energy Building
(NZEB) criteria and maximize energy savings. The feasibility of NZE criteria were evaluated for a)
seasonal comparison, b) facility occupancy, and c) PV panels location in relation to double skin facade.
In order to analyze the impacts of each case on building energy performance, various scenarios
were considered as alternative scenarios in order to predict the optimum case for this building. Scenario 2
and 8 were considered as the optimum solution and the performance improvement strategies of 100% and
full roof area PV panel energy generation were applied to maximize the building energy performance.
The mixed ventilation was observed to perform efficiently during the winter season to reduce energy
demand and heating load and also scenario 8 was selected as the best strategy to reduce the summer
energy demand and cooling load. The current area of PV panels on the facility roof were increased to full
roof area to overlap the energy generation with building energy consumption which categorize the
building under near net-zero energy building (NNZEB) rating system. This strategy could save 9028 $
annually at this building and achieving NNZEB costs 10233$ annually, where the difference of 1205$ can
simply be paid off during the second year operation of the building addition.
6. Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Professor Dan Rockhill and the students in Studio 804.
7. Reference
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buildings in California. Energy and Buildings, 2008. 40(4): p. 537-548.
Hutton, P.C., Zero Energy Schools--Beyond Platinum. Educational Facility Planner, 2011. 45(3): p. 43-46.
Zeiler, W. and G. Boxem, Net-zero energy building schools. Renewable Energy, 2013. 49: p. 282-286.
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of Sustainability in Higher Education, 2002. 3(2): p. 128-145.
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and Buildings, 2009. 41(8): p. 897-905.
Scofield, J.H., Do LEED-certified buildings save energy? Not really. Energy and Buildings, 2009.
41(12): p. 1386-1390.
Cotera, P.-J.N., A Post-occupancy Evaluation: To what Degree Do LEED Certified Buildings Maintain
Their Sustainable Integrities Over Time?, 2011, University of Florida.
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on BREEAM and LEED Ratings: A Case Study. Energy and Buildings, 2013.
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Building Performance Simulation, 2013(ahead-of-print): p. 1-16.
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assessment. Energy Forum, 2013: p. 233-238.
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Beyond, 2004: p. 7.
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498

Life beyond operational stage: exploring lifecycle zero energy definitions

Vanessa Gomes1, Marcella Saade1, Bruno Lima2, Ligia Mininel1 and Maristela Silva3
1
School of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Urbanism, University of Campinas, Campinas

SP, Brazil
2
Solsticio Energia, Campinas SP, Brazil
3
Technology Center, Federal University of Espirito Santo, Vitoria ES, Brazil
1
vangomes@gmail.com; marcellarms@hotmail.com; bruno.lima@solsticioenergia.com,
ligiamininel@gmail.com, margomes.silva@gmail.com
Abstract
The Net Zero concept emerged some years ago as an exciting - and challenging - reference to
establish goals and describe success towards aggressive energy use reduction. The net zero
energy/emission definitions present variations of annual balance of a grid-connected building, referring
to site or source energy, costs and emissions. As only the building operation is considered, the energy
input to deliver the building and its components or involved in any other building lifecycle stage is not
accounted for. Attempts to provide a more complete view of the energy problem, include the so-called
Lifecycle Zero Energy Building, which rather extends the boundary to add the energy embodied in
building products to the traditional operational energy input instead of actually covering the whole life of
a building. This paper aims at identifying the feasibility threshold for compensating the lifecycle
cumulative energy demand of the University of Campinas Living Labs with onsite photovoltaic
renewable generation. Previously published net zero and lifecycle zero energy building definitions are
revised; and extended concepts proposed and applied to the case study. The motivation driving this study
is to provide a more complete and meaningful perspective by detailed modeling of the cumulative energy
demand (CED) in every stage of the building lifecycle and exploration of energy compensation scenarios
beyond operation. Production cycle modeling used secondary data collected from national literature and
manufacturers brochures or adapted from SimaPro 7.3 built-in datasets. Operational (secondary) energy
consumption was simulated using Energy Plus software. Renewable and non-renewable embodied energy
components were calculated using the CED method. Construction, maintenance and EOL scenarios were
assembled based on literature and real practice data. Homer Energy software simulations supported sizing
of single-Si, multi-Si, a-Si and CIGS PV arrays necessary to offset each energy scenario investigated to
identify the maximum goal potentially achievable. Raw material supply and product manufacturing (43%)
and the use stage (52%) clearly dominate lifecycle CED. CED during use stage was increased more than
four-fold by material replacement and related CDW output transportation. The combinations of
deconstruction approach and material recovery rates tested in EOL treatment scenario simulations had
negligible effect on whole life CED. Neutralization of the total operational electricity plus the nonrenewable CED embodied in building products - NZ(E)B Plus status - is understood as the highest
achievable goal by the current Living Lab design, given by the envelope surface available for PV
mounting while keeping its architectural coherence. Beyond this threshold, all scenarios simulated would
499

require extra land use. Such PV array is able to produce 3,7 times the necessary operational electricity.
Though the CED approach results in substantial PV area demands, by expressing the whole energy
involved in delivering, using and dismantling buildings, it provides a more appropriate description of
reality and better informs decision-making by building professionals, construction and
transportation/logistic services and policy makers.
Keywords: net zero energy; net zero emissions, life cycle assessment; buildings, CED, GWP.
1. Introduction
Electricity consumption in Brazil increased 47% in the last decade [1], reaching 455.7 TWh in 2010.
The Energy Research Company (EPE) projects that this consumption will increase 55.6% by the end of
2020 [2]. In order to meet this demand, around 58 GW of new power plants are planned to increase
Brazilian installed capacity by 51% between 2010 and 2020. This electricity offer expansion plan is still
based on the centralized generation model, traditionally adopted in the country and which has welldocumented environmental and social impacts. From the technical viewpoint, despite expansion planning
and system operation advantages, the rather long distances between generation and consumption points in
centralized models lead to expressive energy transmission and distribution losses. As an illustration, such
losses summed 17.2%12 in 2010, equivalent to 88.2 TWh or enough energy to supply 47.7 million
homes13 [1, 3].
An alternative to the centralized paradigm is the distributed generation (DG), characterized by an
electric power source connected directly to the distribution network or on the customer site of the meter
[4]. From all renewable energy sources, photovoltaic (PV) solar energy is the one that currently shows the
fastest growth rate. Europe leads the way and houses 74% (29,252 GW) of the global installed capacity
[5]. Radiation levels over the Brazilian territory range between 1,500 and 2,200 kWh/m2/year, comprising
a solar potential much higher than those of most European countries [5] leading the photovoltaic market.
A considerable portion of the European installed PV comprises small grid-connected systems, attached or
integrated to buildings rooftops or faades. Such small scale DG allows electricity production from
renewable sources right next to the consumer, reducing the transmission losses and postponing new
investments in power plants and transmission infrastructure.
Distributed generation and Net Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB or ZEB) cross paths, as local energy
production form renewable sources are an intrinsic part of the latter concept. PV is considered one of the
cleanest sources of energy available; it does not emit GHG or other pollutants during operation, being the
environmental impacts basically restricted to the manufacturing and disposal phases of the equipment
lifecycle [6]. From literature reviewed, though, this embodied impact fraction is seldom acknowledged in
neutralization calculations.
1.1. Net zero energy buildings: meanings and definitions
The Net Zero concept emerged as an exciting - though challenging - reference to establish goals and
describe success towards aggressive energy use reduction centered on an overall sustainability approach
12
This value includes both technical losses, due to ohmic losses in the transmission lines and to equipment efficiency, and non-
technical losses, like frauds and theft.

13
The average annual residential consumption was 154 kWh/month, 1,848 kWh/year [1].
500

instead of on targeted proportional reductions. Goals for the implementation of ZEBs are already
discussed and proposed at the international level, e.g. within the US Energy Independence and Security
Act of 2007 [14] and the recast of the European Directive on Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD)
adopted in May 2010 [15].
In general, NZEBs are buildings with greatly reduced energy needs through efficiency gains that
produce at least as much energy from onsite renewable sources as it uses in a year [16]. Still, literature
shows a number of Net Zero approaches influenced by goals and expectations from various agents. A
critical analysis of the four net zero definitions most frequently applied to buildings (Table 31) pointed out
both the lack of a common understanding about a net zero concept, and how the way to express the net
zero goal influenced design decisions [16].
Table 31 - Most frequently applied NZEB definitions and typical interested stakeholders. Adapted from [16].
Stakeholder
Design team
Energy agencies
Definition
Net Zero Site Energy
(Site NZEB)
Net Zero Source Energy
(Source NZEB)
Building owner
Net Zero Energy Costs

(Costs NZEB)
Environmental
agencies, civil society
Net Zero Energy Emissions

(Emission NZEB)
Description
Produces at least as much energy as it uses in a year, when
accounted for at the site.
Produces at least as much energy as it uses in a year, when
accounted for at the source. Source energy refers to the primary
energy used to generate and deliver the energy to the site.
The amount of money the utility pays the building owner for the
energy the building exports to the grid is at least equal to the amount
the owner pays the utility for the energy services and energy used
over the year.
Produces at least as much emissions-free renewable energy as it uses
from emissions-producing energy sources
While it actually describes is the overall benefit of giving back clean onsite produced electricity for
the non-renewable energy intake, the Net Zero Energy emission definition delivers a confusing
message, as one might expect that the building lifecycle global warming potential resulting from
greenhouse gases emissions would be 100% neutralized during use.
The net zero energy/emission definitions present variations of annual balance of a grid-connected
building. As only the building operation is considered, the energy input to deliver the building and its
components [17] or involved in any other building lifecycle stage is not accounted for. Such line of
thought fundamentally diverges from the net energy approach adopted in fields like ecological
economics and renewable energy, which is related to whole life cycle energy accounting [17], and
provide only a partial view of the problem. Hernandez and Kenny [17] attempted to provide a more
complete approach. However, their proposal of a Lifecycle Zero Energy Building concept rather extends
the boundary to add the energy embodied in building products to the traditional operational energy input,
in terms of annualized primary energy, instead of describing a full life cycle figure.
A review of the research literature shows that, despite the non-comparability and probable
underestimation given by current analysis methods, embodied energy and carbon of buildings can be a
very significant absolute value, as well as an increasingly high proportion of the whole life figures [18],
as energy efficiency regulations become more stringent and operational energy decreases.
Portions of embodied energy are distributed across a buildings lifecycle. Based on BS EN ISO 14040
and BS EN ISO 14044, the voluntary standards developed by the European Committee for
Standardisation Technical Committee 350 (CEN/TC 350) defined a four-stage process-based life cycle
assessment method to calculate the embodied energy in construction, with a compulsory product stage
and optional further stages for construction, use and end of life (Figure 25). Though the diversity of
products used within construction implies that the LCA of individual buildings will remain complex, the
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process-based assessment approach allows the environmental impact of a building to be treated as the
sum of the environmental impacts of the products and processes that have created the building. A
theoretically sound interpretation of Lifecycle Zero Energy Building should analogously acknowledge
whole life embodied energy impacts of a building, comprising inputs from all stages.
1.2. The challenge of modeling lifecycle embodied impacts
The existing databases and much of the literature provide data for the embodied impacts in product
stage (LC stage 1). Not all countries have a national database in place; even when they do, very limited
data is available for composite components, services and innovative items.
In fact, there seems to be a consistent shortage of data across the construction sector on the energy
used during all lifecycle stages [18]. Transport to site (part of LC Stage 1) is a big grey area and its
accurate description demands continuous and close interaction with logistics and transport sectors.
Accuracy of comparison of different techniques and materials demands development of precise energy
costing methods for both on-site and off-site construction activities. Some construction projects are long
lasting and involve multiple onsite energy intensive activities. Prediction of energy use during standard
site operations (LC stage 2, construction) becomes a fundamental part of the whole life embodied energy
equation, which has been hampered by a lack of general data on energy intensity of construction
equipment and activities, as well as on energy savings related to optimized site management operations.
A clear understanding of the service life of individual components is necessary to support calculations
of maintenance/repair/replacement/refurbishment as part of LC stage 3 (in use). Given the frequent
absence of specific service life data, general recommendations from performance standards have been
adopted, but can lead to important deviation from real-life applications. There is also limited data on the
energy used by demolition, reuse and recycling processes at the end of life of a building (LC stage 4, end
of life). While these may be less important for long expected lifetime, it is a key element of short
expected lifespans, where design approaches are often required to consider deconstruction and reuse of
components [18]. Anyhow, similarly to energy embodied in products stage, to proportional share or
energy embodied in end of life processes tend to increase with higher operational energy efficiency levels.
2. Purpose and methodological approach

2.1. Overview
This paper aims at identifying the feasibility threshold for compensating the lifecycle cumulative
energy demand of the University of Campinas Living Labs with onsite photovoltaic renewable
generation. Previously published net zero and lifecycle zero energy building definitions are revised;
and extended concepts proposed and applied to the case study. The motivation driving this study is to
provide a more complete and meaningful lifecycle perspective by using the cumulative energy demand
(CED) approach to explore energy compensation scenarios beyond operation stage.
Before analyzing neutralization scenarios, though, the whole building lifecycle must be modeled, to
the best level of detail possible, considering the specificities and limitations discussed in the previous
session. This research was then developed in four main parts: (i) identification and quantification of
building products used in the selected case study, and modeling of the respective production cycles; (ii)
detailed modeling of the building lifecycle, i.e. from raw material supply to end of life (EOL) treatment;
(iii) calculation of cumulative energy demand (CED) for the different lifecycle phases, using and the CED
method and SimaPro 7.3 LCA support platform; (iv) modeling of PV systems comprising four different
technologies, using Homer Energy software simulations. Global warming potential (GWP), expressed in
502

CO2e, were also calculated for each LC stage using the CML 2001 v.2.05 baseline impact assessment
method, but are not included here due to paper length constraints.
A case study was examined to illustrate the investigations regarding PV system array area and
capacity requirements to meet the analyzed NZ goals. The selected building is the Living Lab project,
experimentally designed for the University of Campinas Brazil. The Living Lab was developed as a
sustainable construction demonstration project. The laboratorys design incorporated low-energy
strategies, integrated design, resource use optimization, onsite renewable energy technologies and storm
water management, low energy refrigerating system, online resource use and indoor monitoring, among
other best practices, ultimately aiming to reach the net zero energy status.
The overall system boundary established for lifecycle modeling in this study spans between Modules
A1 and C2, shown in darker grey in Figure 25. Transportation to EOL treatment facilities is included, but
waste processing and disposal are not reported here, as these activities were understood as part of the
mining process for a new use/project cycle.
Figure 25 - Building life cycle information stages and respective modules [23]. System boundary established
for lifecycle modeling in this study includes modules shown in darker grey (A1-C2).
Operational energy consumption was simulated using Energy Plus. Ten compensation scenarios
(Table 32) using four different photovoltaic technologies were preset, starting with neutralization of
operational electricity (net consumption) and the corresponding cumulative energy demand for supplying
it at the building site. As the NZ(CED)B Plus status was originally targeted, neutralization goals were
then increased by adding compensation of the non-renewable portion of the primary energy embodied in
raw material supply and manufacturing of building products. Finally, requirements to achieve two
LC(CED) scenarios were also checked.
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Table 32 - Compensation scenarios analyzed

Building lifecycle stage
Operation
Operational Eletricity (NRen)
NZ(Emission)EB [16]
Operational Eletricity (Total)
NZ(E)B [16]
CED of Operational Eletricity (NRen)
NZ(CEDNRen) Building
CED of Operational Eletricity (Total)
NZ(CED) Building
Beyond Operation
Operational Eletricity (NRen)
+ CED (NRen) of Building Products
Plus statuses
(+ CEDNRenPROD)
NZ(Emission)EB Plus
Operational Eletricity (Total)

NZ(E)B Plus
CED of Operational Eletricity (NRen)

NZ(CEDNRen)B Plus
CED of Operational Eletricity (Total)

NZ(CED)B Plus
Lifecycle
Lifecycle CED (NRen)
LCNZ(CEDNRen)
Lifecycle CED (Total)
LCNZ(CED)
Renewable energy generation targets

The PV system must produce enough energy to
compensate
The building annual non-renewable operational
energy consumption
The total building annual operational energy
consumption
The non-renewable portion of the cumulative
energy demand of Brazilian mix, grid-supplied
operational electricity
The total cumulative energy demand of Brazilian
mix, grid-supplied operational electricity
compensate
The building annual non-renewable operational
energy consumption plus the non-renewable
portion of the cumulative energy demand of
building products
The total building annual operational energy
consumption plus the non-renewable portion of the
cumulative energy demand of building products
The non-renewable portion of the cumulative
energy demand of Brazilian mix, grid-supplied
operational electricity plus the non-renewable
portion of the cumulative energy demand of
building products
The total cumulative energy demand of Brazilian
mix, grid-supplied operational electricity plus the
non-renewable portion of the cumulative energy
demand of building products
compensate
The non-renewable cumulative energy demand
over the whole buildings lifecycle
The total cumulative energy demand over the whole
buildings lifecycle
2.1. Building Life Cycle modeling

The CED method computes the entire primary energy demand (or cumulative energy demand) that
arises due to the production, use and disposal of an economic good [19], expressed by renewable (CEDren)
and non-renewable (CEDnren) components. CED calculation is based on the method published by
ecoinvent version 1.01 [20]. As implemented in SimaPro [21], characterisation factors are given for the
energy resources in five impact categories, expressed by the renewable (biomass, wind/solar/geothermal
and water) and non-renewable (fossil and nuclear) CED components. No normalization is applied and
each impact category is given the weighting factor 1. For being directly derived from the inventory
analysis and restricted to energy consumption instead of the typical multi-impact category consideration
inherent to life cycle assessments, some debate on CEDs relevance as a valuable help in impact
assessment has been observed within the scientific community. However, CED is the only method that
aggregates all forms of energy use [22], and its direct connection to the inventory analysis implies that the
calculations do not rely upon major assumptions or uncertainties. The CED, expressed in MJ, of each
stage of the buildings lifecycle was calculated by using Equations 2a to 6a and aggregated for whole
lifecycle figures (Equation 1a).
Equation 1a
Where:
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CEDLC stands for lifecycle Cumulative Energy Demand, in MJ

CEDPROD is the CED of extraction/manufacturing of the building products, in MJ (Equation 2a)
CEDTR is the CED of transport activities, in MJ (Equation 3a)
CEDCON is the CED of construction activities, in MJ (Equation 4a)
CEDOP is the CED of operation activities, in MJ (Equation 5a)
CEDEOL is the CED of end of life (EOL) treatment activities, in MJ (Equation 6a)
Product stage (Modules A1 and A3)

Cumulative energy demand (CEDPROD) of building products manufacturing (Modules A1 and A3)
was calculated using Equation 2a.
Equation 2a
Where:
CEDPROD stands for Cumulative Energy Demand, in MJ, of extraction/manufacturing of the
building products
Q is the consumed quantity of a given building product (in mass, volume or area)
n is the number of building products
CEDi is the specific CED, in MJ, per building product functional unit (kg, m 3 or m2)
Based on the construction drawings and bases of design (BODs) documented for the Living Lab, the
materials and components included in the design were quantified and inventory data sourced for the best
possible match (Table 33).
Data necessary for modeling production processes are listed in Table 3. With the exception of
concrete (authors data) and the green roofing system (manufacturers brochure), materials and
components production processes were adapted from Ecoinvent v.2.2, ELCD v.2.0, Industry Data v.2.0
and US LCI v.1.6 databases [21]. Ecoinvent database v.2.2 [32] offered information for most items and
was preferred for consistency sake, but merging different inventory databases and secondary sources was
unavoidable. At a minimum, the overall production processes were verified for similarity with the
national practice and the energy mix changed to reflect Brazilian conditions. Imported products were
considered as in the database and the transportation to the site in Brazil accounted for. Data quality
markers for source (general, specific), accuracy (production process exact match/similarity) and
calculation assumptions were also applied.
Table 33 - Building subsystems components, inventory data sources and processes selected for production
cycles modeling
Building
Subsystem
Structural
frame/slabs
Materials
LCI Data Source
Steel frame
ELCD v.2.0
Steel rebar CA50
ELCD v.2.0
Concrete CPIII-32a fck 30
Concrete CPIII-32a fck 60
Mix design from [24]

Components:
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Components:
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Process selected in LCI database

Steel hot rolled section, blast furnace, electric arc
furnace route, production mix
Steel rebar, blast furnace, electric arc furnace
route, production mix
Components: Gravel, crushed, at mine; Sand, at
mine and Tap water (user)
505

Faade
Partitions
Other
Steel hot rolled coil
ELCD v.2.0
Polyurethane
Architectural glass
Galvanized steel sheet
Gypsum plaster board
Plywood
Timber planks
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Ecoinvent v.2.2
US LCI v.1.6
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Aluminum
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Gypsum fibre board
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Components:
Ecoinvent v.2.2
secondary data,
manufacturer
secondary data,
manufacturer
Ecoinvent v.2.2
secondary data,
literature
Industry Data v.2.0
Industry Data v.2.0
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Industry Data v.2.0
Pervious concreteb
Green roof (US)
Roof
Adhered waterproof system (US)
PV panel type 1 - single-SI (DE)
PV system
BOS
Brown PVC tube
White PVC tube
PPR tube
PVC conduit
PVC insulation + protection layer
(wire)
EPR insulation (wire)
Building
systems
Steel hot rolled coil, blast furnace, production

mix
Polyurethane, rigid foam, at plant
Flat glass, uncoated, at plant
Galvanized steel sheet, at plant
Gypsum plaster board, at plant
Plywood, outdoor use, at plant
Sawn timber, softwood, planed, air dried, at plant
Window frame, aluminium, U=1.6W/m2K, at
plant
Gypsum fibre board, at plant
Secondary data, manufacturer
Secondary data, manufacturer
Photovoltaic panel, single-Si, at plant
Secondary data, literature
PVC pipe E
PVC pipe E
Polypropylene, granulate, at plant
PVC pipe E
Industry Data v.2.0
PVC pipe E
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Copper wire
ELCD v.2.0
Galvanized steel conduit

HVAC galvanized steel duct (#18
= 10kg/m2)
HVAC (#38mm glass wool
insulation, density =15kg/m3)
HVAC - galvanized steel conduit
HVAC - PVC insulation +
protection layer
US LCI v.1.6
Ethylene, pipeline system, at plant

Copper wire, technology mix, consumption mix,
at plant
US LCI v.1.6
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Glass wool mat, at plant
US LCI v.1.6
Industry Data v.2.0
PVC pipe E
HVAC - copper wire
ELCD v.2.0
HVAC - copper tubes
ELCD v.2.0
Copper wire, technology mix, consumption mix,

at plant
Copper tube, technology mix, consumption mix,
at plant
HVAC - galvanized steel tubes

US LCI v.1.6
using Brazilian cement type CP III-32 with 66% of ground granulated blast furnace slag (ggbs) as clinker replacement
b
using international Cement type I or II
a
Construction process stage

Freight and CDW transport
Cumulative energy demand (CEDTR) of freight transport registered within the supply chain (Module
A2, i.e. from raw material sources to manufacturing gates) and later on in the construction process stage
(Module A4, i.e. from manufacturing to construction site gate and from site gate to EOL facility gate) was
calculated using Equation 3a.
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Equation 3a
Where:
CEDTR stands for Cumulative Energy Demand, in MJ, of transport activities
M is the transported mass, in tones
D is the travel distance, in km
n is the number of freight modals used per transport functional unit
CEDi is the specific CED, in MJ, per transport functional unit (tkm) of the used type of fuel and
modal autonomy
Cumulative energy demand (CEDCON) of construction activities (Module A5, i.e. construction
equipment energy use, material wastage, CDW transport) was calculated using Equation 4a.
Equation 4a
Where:
CEDCON stands for Cumulative Energy Demand, in MJ, of construction activities
C is the construction item/activity considered, in respective functional unit
n is the number of construction items/activities
CEDi is the specific CED, in MJ, per construction item/activity functional unit
Transported mass and transportation distances were included either accurately based on actual travel
distances or on best of knowledge estimations in case of missing information. Calculations assumed oneway trips, meaning that the contracted transport agent is responsible for managing and optimizing empty
runs and return loading.
Data from Ecoinvent database v.2.2 were used for modals and fuel types (heavy oil, diesel and
diesel/electricity, for, respectively, deep sea, road and rail freight, Table 34 and Table 35). Fuel data, in
particular, were checked against Brazilian official emission reports [26; 27]. Ecoinvent data were
preferred for data source consistency, unless important discrepancies were found and more specific or
accurate national data were available. Data quality markers for source, accuracy and calculation
assumptions were also applied to allow future refining, when appropriate.
Table 34 Freight modals and fuels, inventory data sources and processes selected for transportation
modeling
Unit
Freight Modal
Rail
tkm a
Road
tkm
Water
tkm
Fuel
Diesel
kg
Heavy fuel oil
kg
a
tkm = tonnes * km
LCI Data Source
Process selected in LCI database
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Ecoinvent v.2.2
ELCD v.2.0
Transport, freight, rail, diesel/electricity (mix average)

Transport, lorry >16t, fleet average
Container ship ocean, technology mix; 27,500 dwt pay load capacity
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Ecoinvent v.2.2
Diesel, at regional storage

Heavy fuel oil, at regional storage
507

Table 35 Specific CEDren and CEDnren calculated for freight modals and fuels, input to transportation(Module A2 and A4) and construction equipment-related (Module A5) CED estimates
Rail (diesel/electric)
Ecoinvent v.2.2
CEDren
(MJ/tkm)
0.15
Deep sea vessel (heavy oil)
Ecoinvent v.2.2
0.00
0.16
0.16
Road (diesel)
Ecoinvent v.2.2
0.03
CEDren
(MJ/MJelec)
2.22
CEDnren
(MJ/MJelec)
2.25
CED total
(MJ/ MJelec)
1.22
0.55
1.77
Freight Modal
Electricity (BR)
Low-voltage electricity (BR),
at grid
LCI Data Source
LCI Data Source

Ecoinvent v.2.2
CEDnren
(MJ/tkm)
0.35
CED total
(MJ/tkm)
0.50
The original material mass and corresponding transportation and material usage impacts were
corrected using wastage factors derived by [28] or observed in actual construction practice. Though not
mentioned and possibly not accounted for in the national and international literature reviewed, this
correction is important in the Brazilian case, as some materials or services with high energy content, can
also reach high median wastage rates. For example, for cement-based services, technology-intrinsic and
execution wastage ranges from 9% (ready mix concrete) to 102% (wall-finishing mortar application) [28].
Such wastage turned into 129.09 tons of CDW, whose transportation from the construction site to the
waste processing facility was also accounted for, considering: a 90%-efficient recovery for recycling
(concrete, uncoated glass, steel and aluminum), incineration without energy recovery (untreated wood)
and landfill class I/II (gypsum). A major construction activity is the removal of around 380 m3 of earth for
laying the building to bridge two access roads at an elevation difference of roughly 7 m. The earth itself is
not considered as CDW as, according with Brazilian regulations [29], it can be reused somewhere else,
but it would have to be transported off site to a temporary storage facility.
Since the case study is not built yet, construction equipment fuel use was estimated using data for
consumption per m2 of gross floor area [30] for a high-rise building in Hong Kong. Even though
construction practices may differ significantly from the original context, as well as the fuel intensity for
high- and low-rise building construction, Brazilian data for construction activities separated from
materials usage are not readily available, and a potentially more suitable figure was not found in the
literature reviewed.
Use stage (Modules B1-B6)
Cumulative energy demand (CEDOP) of the use stage was calculated using Equation 5a, by adding
contributions from maintenance/repair/replacement (Modules B1-B5, i.e. material intake and
transportation to the building, as well as corresponding CDW transport to EOL treatment) and operational
use of energy (Module B6, 100% electricity).
Equation 5a
Where:
CEDOP stands for Cumulative Energy Demand, in MJ, of use and operation activities
Op is the operation item/activity considered, in respective functional unit
n is the number of operation items/activities
CEDi is the specific CED, in MJ, per operation item/activity functional unit
508

Operational energy consumption was simulated using Energy Plus in accordance with ASHRAE 90.1
2007 [31], as requested for LEED for New Construction 2009 certification, valid at the time of design.
Data from Ecoinvent v.2.2 [32] for low voltage electricity in the Brazilian mix (Table 35) were used for
operational electricity impact calculation.
Also, substitution of building products during the buildings service life (Use stage, in Figure 25), was
planed in accordance with the Brazilian performance standard [33], which establishes minimum design
service lives (DSL) for major building subsystems, as follows: structural frame (> 50 yrs); internal
flooring (> 13 years); facade (> 20 years); partitions (> 40 years); roof systems (> 20 years) and
water/sewage systems (> 20 yrs). A minimum 20-yr DSL was also considered for electric wire and
components. Service life and maintenance information provided by designers or manufacturers overwrote
the standard defaults, whenever more accurate.
End of life stage (Modules C1-C2)
Cumulative energy demand (CEDEOL) of the end of life stage was calculated using Equation 6a, by
adding contributions from demolition/dismantling equipment energy use (Module C1) and from CDW
transport to end of life treatment facilities (Module C2).
Equation 6a
Where:
CEDEOL stands for Cumulative Energy Demand, in MJ, of end of life (EOL) treatment activities
EOL is the end of life item/activity considered, in respective functional unit
n is the number of end of life items/activities
CEDi is the specific CED, in MJ, per end of life item/activity functional unit
Two EOL scenarios were considered (Table 36): (1) demolition as usual (BAU, 0% reuse | 76% recycling
| 23%landfill), with 90% of material recovery rate, followed by crushing of concrete, recycling of metals
as scrap and incineration of wooden material without energy recovery and landfilling of the remaining
CDW; and (2) 90%-recovery efficient selective dismantling (19% reuse | 60% recycling | 20%landfill),
followed by partial (40%) reuse of steel frame, crushing of concrete, recycling of steel rebar and 60% of
the structural frame and incineration of wooden material without energy recovery and crushing of
uncoated glass, and landfilling of the remaining CDW.
Table 36 - Description of the two EOL scenarios simulated
EOLS1 CDW transport to EOL treatment - Scenario 1
EOLS1 - Demolition equipment
CDW treatment
(BAU: 0% reuse | 76% recycling | 23% landfilling)
Recycling (90% of steel, concrete, aluminum)
Diesel
consumption
Transport
Distance (Km)
road - one way
25
2880
Mass
(ton)
1,347.49
liters
% total CDW
(in mass)
76%
Incineration w/o energy recovery (90% of wood)
25
Landfill Class I and II (100% gypsum/other)
25
26.71
2%
Landfill CDW
25
372.15
21%
1,763.52
100%
Total CDW
1%
509

EOLS2 - CDW transport to EOL treatment - Scenario 2
EOLS2 Dismantling equipment
CDW treatment after selective dismantling
(Opt: 19% reuse | 60% recycling | 20% landfilling)
Reuse (60% steel frame)
Diesel
consumption
Transport
Distance (Km)
road - one way
10
5760
Mass
(ton)
liters
% total CDW
(in mass)
19%
Recycling
60%
90% steel rebar + 30% frame (scrap)

90% concrete, uncoated glass, aluminum, gypsum
100% PV panels (glass, aluminum)
Incineration w/o energy recovery (90% wood)
10
206.52
25
803.23
100*
13.10
25
17.17
Landfill Class I and II
1%
1%
10% gypsum
100% other
Landfill CDW
25
25
25
Total CDW
*Assumed to be available in 50 years from now.
6.34
10.23
333.22
19%
1,763.52
100%
2.3. Energy demand scenarios and photovoltaic system modeling

Four technologies, pertaining to both crystalline silicon (single-Si, multi-Si) and thin film
(amorphous-Si and CIGS) photovoltaic technology generations were simulated. The PV modules actual
efficiency is reduced when the panel is subjected to outdoor temperatures above the standard test
conditions14. The extent that the efficiency is affected is described by the maximum power temperature
coefficient (PMPP), expressed in %/K (Table 37).
Table 37 - Characteristics of different photovoltaic modules. Technologies simulated in this study are
highlighted [6; 7; 8; 11; 13]
Module Efficiency
PMPP
single-Si
12% a 19%
-0.42%/K a -0.56%/K
multi-Si
11% a 15%
-0.40%/K a -0.49%/K
a-Si
4% a 8%
-0.19%/K a -0.20%/K
a-Si/-Si
7% a 10%
-0.33%/K
CdTe
CIGS
10% a 11%
7% a 12%
-0.22%/K
-0.36%/K a -0.42%/K
PV technology
Though this coefficient fluctuates considerably across technologies, panels with lower PMPP have
better energy yield (kWh produced per kWp installed), and thin film PV outperforms crystalline silicon
modules [8, 9]. As rooftop panels can easily heat up to over 60 C in warm countries like Brazil, overall
performance can be substantially compromised. The same limitation applies to BIPV applications [10].
The PV system sizing procedure using Homer Energy software took this into account, and also
discounted generation losses as the orientation and exposure angle of the computed envelope surfaces
varied for facade- and horizontal rooftop-mounted applications (Table 41). A degradation factor of 0.5%
per year was applied to account for generation loss through time, assuming a 25-year panel service life
[34], to ensure that the desired performance is maintained over the whole period of study. The calculated
14
Solar cell temperature of 25 2C; radiation level of 1,000 W/m2 normal to the surface and solar spectrum of 1,5 AM [12]
510

systems power and corresponding areas do not consider specific commercial PV modules dimensions or
power, being our estimates based on average literature values.
The effective module area needed for 1 kWp [34], as well as total and net energy produced annually
and over the PV systems service life were simulated using Homer Energy software for photovoltaic
applications at the building site (Campinas, Brazil). Total CED and GWP were calculated using Equation
2a and Equation 3a and data from [32] and [13].
Table 38 Characteristics of the different photovoltaic technologies analyzed: module efficiency () and
temperature coefficient (PMPP) [7]; effective module area needed for 1 kWp [34]; total and net energy
production, simulated with Homer Energy software for Campinas, Brazil; and embodied CED and GWP,
calculated with data from [32] and [13]
(%)
PMPP
(%/K)
single-Si
17
-0.49
5.88
4,311.06
122,199
5,188
98,314
4,174
multi-Si
14
-0.44
7.14
3,509.93
122,538
5,202
98,925
4,200
a-Si
-0.19
14.29
1,580.55
125,506
5,328
104,225
4,425
CIS
12
-0.36
8.33
2,434.20
123,471
5,242
104,365
4,431
Type
Area/kWp
(m2)
CED*
(MJ/m2)
GWP*
(kgCO2e/m2)
Energy Production
(MJ/kWp)
(in 25 yrs)
(per yr)
Net Production
(MJ/kWp)
(in 25 yrs)
(per yr)
* Includes panel and balance of the system (BoS)

3. Results presentation and discussion
Product modeling showed that the structural system (41% of total CED), partitions (34%, particularly
from galvanized steel frame), the PV system plus BOS (16%) and faade panels (7%) were the major
contributors to CED embodied in building products accounted for in the Product stage.
On its turn, modeling of the Living Lab lifecycle (Table 39) showed that raw material supply and
manufacturing (43%) and the use stage (52%) clearly dominate CED. Material replacement and
transportation of the corresponding CDW mass between the project site and EOL treatment facility
increase the CED during use stage by a factor of more than four.
EOL treatment scenario simulations proved to be very speculative, but whichever combination of
deconstruction approach and material recovery for EOL treatment tested had negligible effect on CED
(<1% CEDLC). Credits for better EOL management and EOL (recycling/reuse) potential in Scenario 2
were not considered in the calculations and could be further explored in future analysis.
Table 40 shows the results for the ten energy balance scenarios simulated. Offsetting the nonrenewable portion [Scenario 1, NZ(Emission)EB] and total operational electricity [Scenario 3, NZ(E)B];
as well as of the non-renewable portion [Scenario 2, NZ(CEDNRen)B] and total operational electricity CED
[Scenario 4, NZ(CED)B] are potentially achievable using all technologies but a-Si in the last case. This
brings important flexibility to decision-making, particularly in terms of costs and smooth integration to
architecture. Sizing of the PV array sufficient to cover the NZE Emission building (Scenario 1) makes it
very evident that such concept does not stimulate much progress in contexts with high renewable content
electricity mixes, like in Brazil.
511

Table 39 - Calculated CEDRen and CEDNRen for the building lifecycle. For reference, results for the two EOL
scenarios investigated are also presented
Product Stage (Modules A1, A3)
Raw material supply (Module A1) and manufacturing
(Module A3)
Construction Process Stage (Modules A2-A5)
Transportation to manufacturing gates within supply chain
(Module A2*) and to construction site gate (Module A4)
Construction installation (Module A5)
Material wastage during construction
CDW treatment (102.29 tones), transported 25 km
(municipal facility)
Earth (547.2 tones), transported 25 km (municipal facility)
Earth removal equipment (547.2 tones)
Construction equipment
Use stage (Modules B2-B6)
Material replaced in
Maintenance/Repair/Replacement/Refurbishment
(334.52 tones)
Module B6 - Operational use of (electric) energy
(111,157.20 MJelec/yr)
End of life stage (Module C1-C2)
EOL Scenario 1 - 90%-efficient recovery (concrete and
metals) demolition (1,763,52 tones) (76% recycled/23%
landfilled)
CDW (1,763.52 tones) transported to various destinations
Total EOL Scenario 1
CEDRen
(MJ)
3,949,090.61
CEDRen
(MJ)
CEDNRen
(MJ)
Total CED
(MJ)
14,900,974.67
18,850,065.28
CEDNRen
(MJ)
Total CED
(MJ)
13,102.47
938,082.67
951,185.13
99,955.38
606,206.21
706,161.59
65.35
5,036.75
5,102.10
393.81
30,354.46
30748.27
129.04
44,317.88
44,446.92
162,626.33
CEDRen
(MJ)
337,904.41
CEDNRen
(MJ)
500,530.74
Total CED
(MJ)
1,552,653.13
11,445,458.00
12,998,111.14
6,753,290.10
3,081,714.16
9,835,004.26
CEDRen
(MJ)
CEDNRen
(MJ)
Total CED
(MJ)
387.11
132,953. 64
133,340.75
944.14
12,532,637.46
72,773.35
31,595,776.20
73,717.50
44,128,413.66
EOL Scenario 2 90%-recovery efficient Selective

1,161.32
398,860.93
400,022.25
dismantling (19%reuse/60%recycled, including PV
panels/20%landfilled)
972.43
74,953.78
75,926.21
CDW (1,763.52 tones) transported to various destinations
Total EOL Scenario 2
12,533,052.86 31,730,910.27 44,263,963.13
a
Most material wastage factors were extracted from [28]. For items not covered, manufacturers information and observed
practice were used whenever available.
Though a-Si is most efficient technology in terms of system power demanded, and could be a good
alternative for projects with more surface available, the single-Si PV technology is the most efficient
alternative in terms of area needed to deliver each kWp. In fact, addition of the non-renewable CED
embodied in building products to the neutralization targets (Plus statuses) basically rule out surfacehungry PV technologies. NZ(Emission)EB Plus status (Scenario 1a) is still achievable by using single-Si
or multi-Si, but all remaining scenarios would only be accomplished if single-Si PV is used.
512

Table 40 Energy balance scenarios simulated and respective system power and effective area requirements
for four PV technologies
PV
Technology/scenarios
System power
(kWp)
Effective
generation area
(m2)
1. Operational electricity (NRen) [NZ(Emission)EB]

single-Si
multi-Si
a-Si
CIGS
3.5
3.49
3.41
3.47
20.59
24.94
48.73
28.87
2. CED Operational Eletricity (NRen) [NZ(CEDNRen)B]

single-Si
multi-Si
a-Si
CIGS
12.61
12.57
12.28
12.48
74.14
89.78
175.44
103.95
3. Operational electricity (total) [NZ(E)B]

single-Si
multi-Si
a-Si
CIGS
22.74
22.68
22.14
22.51
133.72
161.92
316.41
187.48
4. CED Operational Eletricity (total) [NZ(CED)B]

single-Si
40.24
multi-Si
40.13
a-Si
39.18
CIGS
39.83
5. LC CED (NRen) [LCNZ(CEDNRen)]
single-Si
129.28
multi-Si
128.92
a-Si
125.87
CIGS
127.95
236.62
286.53
559.9
331.76
760.17
920.51
1798.73
1065.81
Effective
generation area
(m2)
1a. Operational electricity (NRen) + CED (NRen) PROD
[NZ(Emission)EB Plus]
64.47
single-Si
379.10
multi-Si
64.29
459.06
a-Si
62.77
897.03
CIGS
63.81
531.52
2a. CED Operational Eletricity (NRen) + CED (NRen)
PROD [NZ(CEDNRen)B Plus]
single-Si
73.58
432.65
multi-Si
73.38
523.9
a-Si
71.64
1023.75
CIGS
72.82
606.6
3a. Operational electricity total + CED (NRen) PROD
[NZ(E)B Plus]
single-Si
83.71
492.22
multi-Si
83.48
596.04
a-Si
81.51
1164.71
CIGS
82.85
690.13
4a. CED Eletricity Operational total + CED (NRen)
PROD [NZ(CED)B Plus]
single-Si
101.21
595.13
multi-Si
100.93
720.65
a-Si
98.54
1408.21
CIGS
100.17
834.41
5a. LC CED (total) [LCNZ(CED)]
single-Si
180.56
1061.69
multi-Si
180.06
1285.63
a-Si
175.8
2512.21
CIGS
178.7
1488.57
PV
Technology/scenarios
System power
(kWp)
The desired NZ(CED)B Plus goal (Scenario 4a) could not be reached by the Living Lab design; as
this goal was missed by little, it could possibly be pursued upon slight design or modeling improvement.
Optimized usage of the current envelope area (Table 41) met the requirements for the NZ(E)B Plus status
(Scenario 3a), able to offset the total operational electricity plus the non-renewable CED embodied in
Product stages building items. This is understood as the practical feasibility limit for the present design,
given by the envelope surface available for PV mounting while keeping its architectural coherence. The
corresponding 674.30 m2 of installed single-Si PV was inserted in the buildings CED and GWP lifecycle
calculations (Table 33). Beyond this threshold, all scenarios simulated would require extra land use,
particularly the Life Cycle Net Zero CED statuses (Scenarios 5 and 5a, Table 40), which depend on
effective generation areas larger than the buildings footprint and envelope area added together.
513

Table 41 Homer Energy software simulation of effective energy production of faade and horizontal rooftop
mounted PV applications in Campinas, Brazil (22.90 S, 47.06 W), and single-Si PV technology system
characteristics and distribution of installed area for NZ(E)B Plus performance level
Single-Si PV technology system characteristics
Feasibility threshold - NZ(E)B Plus (83,71 kWp)
Effective PV
generation area
(m2)
492.22
Installed area
(m2)
674.30
Effective generation
Surface used
North facade
59.73%
0.00
East facade
56.08%
165.10
West facade
55.41%
229.30
94.54%
134.00
100,00%
145.90
Horizontal plan
Reference condition (23o tilted North)
By dividing the CEDren, CEDnren and GWP embodied in 1 m2 of a single-Si PV system (taken from
Ecoinvent v.2.2) by the electricity produced per m2 during the panels service lifetime (Table 43), the
GWP emission factor and the CED production factors for each MJ generated by single-Si PV at the
building site were obtained (Table 42) and used to calculate GWP savings brought by PV energy
production, when compared against the same amount of low-voltage electricity at grid for the Brazilian
mix also sourced from Ecoinvent v.2.2 database.
Table 42 - GWP emission factor and the CED production factors per MJ of grid-supplied electricity
(Brazilian mix) and of single-Si PV generation
Process
Unit
Data source
CEDren
(MJ)
CEDnren
(MJ)
CED total
(MJ)
GWP
(kg CO2e)
Electricity, low voltage,

production BR, at grid
MJ
Ecoinvent v.2.2
1.2151
0.5545
1.7696
0.0798
Electricity PVgen (single-Si) a
MJ
Authors
calculation
0.0251
0.1988
0.2239
0.0073
Ecoinvent v.2.2
521.87
4,131.77
4,653.64
151.54
CED and GWP Embodied in

single-Si PV system (PSL=25
m2
years)
a
at the building site, after degradation discount
Table 43 - PV generated electricity and GHG emission savings achieved by the designed envelope mounted
single-Si system
GHG emission savings
(versus Electricity, low voltage, production BR, at grid)
PV generated electricity
Average electricity generated a,
per m2 * per year of PSL25
831.28
MJ/m2 * yr
(25 years)
Electricity generated a per m2,

over PSL25
20,782.12
MJ/m2
(25 years)
CO2e saved by shifting from

grid-supplied operational
electricity, per year
Electricity generated by the whole

PV system, per year of PSL25
409,174.96
MJ/yr
Total electricity generated by the

whole PV system, over BSL50 b
20,458,748.19
MJ
(50 years)
8,06
tCO2e/yr
CO2e savings by the full PV

generation, per year of PSL25
29,67
tCO2e/yr
CO2e savings by the whole PV

system, over BSL50 b
1,483.48
tCO2e
(50 years)
BSL = building service life = 50 years | PSL= panel service life = 25years
a
at the building site, after degradation discount | b assuming an equivalent PV system for the second half of the BSL
514

The designed PV system is able to produce an average of 831.28 MJ/m2*yr (20,782.12 MJ PVgen/m2
over the assumed 25-year panels service lifetime) and 409,174.96 MJ/yr of operation, for the whole PV
effective area. This corresponds to 3.7 times the necessary operational electricity. Replacing operational
use of grid-supplied electricity with renewables avoids emission of 8.1 tCO2e/year. Other 21.6 tCO2e are
saved due to the PV electricity balance generated yearly (1,080 tCO2e saved in 50 years), totalizing
1,483 tCO2e saved over the 50-year building service life.
Due to length limitations for this paper content, our global warming potential (GWP) calculations are
not shown here. The abovementioned savings are however enough to offset, for example, 14% of the
lifecycle GWP; 29% of GWP embodied in materials replaced during the operation stage; GWP of the
construction and EOL stages, plus 53% of the GWP embodied in building products; or 90% of the GWP
embodied in building products raw material supply and manufacturing.
3. Conclusions and final remarks

The net zero energy/emission definitions present variations of annual balance of a grid-connected
building. As only the building operation is considered, the energy input to deliver the building and its
components or involved in any other building lifecycle stage is not accounted for. Hernandez and Kenny
[17] attempted to provide a more complete view of the problem. However, their proposal of a Lifecycle
Zero Energy Building concept rather extends the boundary to add the energy embodied in building
products to the traditional operational energy input, in terms of annualized primary energy. For the case
studied, consideration solely of the product stage captures only around 55% of the whole life embodied
energy, leading to considerable deviations.
Results presented in this paper are supported by detailed whole lifecycle CED and GWP calculations,
seldom available in Brazil, ultimately encouraging practices that are still embryonic nationwide. This
paper also refreshes currently used net zero and lifecycle zero energy definitions and describes a
meaningful lifecycle perspective by using the cumulative energy demand (CED) concept to explore
energy compensation scenarios beyond operation stage.
Onsite energy produced (e.g. photovoltaic) is frequently assumed as emission-free renewable energy.
This idea is also the centerpiece for the commonly used net-zero emissions building definition. However,
all PV modules, BoS, wind turbines and other renewables do have embodied energy and GWP that should
be accounted for, discounted and/or offset. We have followed this line of thought and determined the
CED production factors and GWP emission factors for the single-Si panels used in the designed PV array.
The feasibility threshold for compensating the lifecycle CED of the University of Campinas Living
Labs with an single-Si PV array proved to be the NZ(E)B Plus status, whose generation capacity
counterbalances onsite the total operational electricity plus the non-renewable CED embodied in building
products. For being a theoretical exercise, in our case, the maximum generation capacity was only limited
by the available surface for PV application, driven by architectural features. In real-life implementation
studies, however, cost would be probably a more important aspect restricting aggressive energy and GWP
reducing goals. The ubiquitous use of faade-mounted PF panels sends a powerful message for passersby
and is tuned with this particular buildings mission, but would not necessarily suit other construction
types. Also, the use of BIPV - instead of traditional rooftop- and faade-mounted PV - was not explored
and could bring material intake benefits.
The total effective generation area needed to cope with the Living Lab lifecycle cumulative energy
demand is 6% larger than its gross floor area, and 98% larger than the building footprint. This ratifies that
if experience has shown that reaching local NZEB goals can be challenging for buildings over two stories,
515

reaching local LCNZ(CED) goals would be nearly impossible even for single level facilities, and extra
land use seems unavoidable. The negative impacts of such approach are intensively discussed and well
documented. Nevertheless, CED is a procedure to actually take into account the whole energy involved in
delivering and using buildings and should be adequately considered by building professionals,
construction and transportation/logistic services and policy makers.
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517

Analysis of Meadowbrook Elementary School Performance

Towards Net Zero Energy
Charles J. Kibert1, Ravi Srinivasan2, Hamed Hakim3, Ruthwik Pasunuru4, Arati Sakhalkar5
Powell Center for Construction and Environment, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
32611-5703 USA
1
ckibert@ufl.edu, 2sravi@ufl.edu, 3hamedhakim@ufl.edu, 4ruthwik.p@ufl.edu ,
5
asakhalkar@ufl.edu
Abstract
Net zero energy is a topic that is trending in the construction industry. A part of the net zero
movement garnering the most attention is K-12 public school construction. Few state governments have
established initiatives to incorporate and implement net zero strategies in school design and construction.
There are over 15 net zero schools in United States and the number is increasing rapidly. The state of
Florida has many energy efficient schools but a net zero energy school has not been achieved in this part
of the country. Alachua Countys Meadowbrook Elementary School (K-5) is a high performance school
which can achieve net zero energy status with some proven and effective practices. In this paper, we
discuss and compare the current baseline energy usage of the school since its completion and target
opportunities to reduce energy usage. Recommendations based on the ASHRAE Advanced Energy
Design Guide (50% Energy Savings) with the help of energy modelling and simulation would close the
gap needed to make Florida schools energy self-sufficient. Further renewable energy production will be
added by taking advantage of the Florida climate zone. The suggestions reviewed and applied in this
paper will establish guidelines for prospective net zero energy schools in general and the Florida based
schools in particular.
Keywords: Net Zero Energy, Energy Efficient Schools, Energy Modeling, ASHRAE Advanced
Energy Design Guide (AEDG)
1. Introduction
The net zero movement is gaining momentum rapidly as the economic recession moved out of the
way. According to the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA, 2007) all new construction in the
United States should be net zero energy by the year 2030. As President Obama said in June 2009, By
bringing more energy efficient technologies to American homes and businesses, we wont just
significantly reduce our energy demandwell put more money back in the pockets of hardworking
Americans. The increasing number of net zero energy schools can reflect the growing demand for superefficient educational facilities. New Buildings Institute (NBI) in their current report predicts that there are
at least 35 to 50 net zero energy or net zero ready schools in the U.S. and the number is expected to grow
in the near future. Schools consume 17% of the total non-residential energy in United States. Several
government and non-profit organizations like the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), National
518

Renewable energy Laboratory (NREL), Florida Solar Research Center (FSEC), and Department of
Energy (DOE) are playing a key role in catalyzing the net zero schools movement across the country.
Importing huge amounts of foreign energy sources and plummeting energy prices are some significant
factors which contributed to this movement.
A major target of energy efficient schools is to save on high utility expenses. According to the U.S.
Department of Energy (DOE), nationally K-12 schools spend over $6 billion each year on the energy.
DOE indicates that at least 25% reduction in energy consumption can be achieved through smart energy
management. In almost all of the schools, utility costs are the second highest expenditure after employee
salaries thus taking huge toll on the schools exchequer. Based on 330 elementary and 126 high schools
throughout U.S., the Energy Use Intensity (EUI) is 68 and 80 KBtu/sf-yr respectively (DOE Building
Energy Databook, 2013). This high energy consumption reflects good opportunity to reduce the
consumption and increase the efficiency. Therefore, schools should try to reduce the operating costs by
adopting energy efficient design strategies and restricting the EUI below 30 KBtu/sf-yr, which is less than
half of the national average. Thereafter, implementing renewable energy technologies such as
photovoltaic (PV) panels, solar thermal systems, and wind turbines can offset the energy usage and lead
to a valuable net-zero facility.
Based on the studies, the average energy consumption for existing net zero energy schools is around
21 KBtu/sf-yr which shows a significant progress in case of energy efficient educational buildings.
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Schools
Average
Figure 1, Net Zero School Projects EUI(KBtu/sf-yr), Source: Hutton; Doo Consulting Firm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Projects
Prairie Hill Learning Center Earth House
Watkinson School
Marin County Day School
Putney School Field House
Hayes Freedom High School
Green Valley Ranch
Richardsville Elementary
EUI(KBTU/SF/YR)
12.6
13.8
24.7
11
23.3
25
17.5
519

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Lady Bird Johnson Middle School

Samuel Brighouse Elementary
Sangre de Cristo PK-12
P.S. 62 Richmond
Colonel Smith Middle School
Evie Garrett Dennis Pre-K - 12 School
Hood River Middle School
Locust Trace AgriScience Farm
Average:
22.8
29.5
22.1
30
15
26
27
16.2
21.1
Table 1, Net Zero School Projects EUI (KBtu/sf-yr), Source: Hutton; Doo Consulting Firm
Benefits of creating net zero energy schools are numerous. As all the renewable technologies are
purchased locally, they contribute a lot to the local economy and thereby creating employment in the
neighborhood. Furthermore, schools are spending a lot on utility costs, hence applying efficient operation
and maintenance plan will reduce those expenses drastically. This huge amount saved can be spent on
other purposes like recruiting new teachers and required supplies like books, computers, and other
materials. In addition to the saving purposes, the educational role of the school buildings and an
appropriate healthy environment for student can further promote the benefits of these schools. Education
under healthy conditions keeps mind active and improves the performance of the students in the tests.
Many studies suggest that students having good learning environment enhance their academic skills and
score higher on tests compared to others. On the financial aspect, the net zero schools perform very well
and profitable in the long run. On contrast to general perception, the initial investment cost of an energy
efficient school is on par with the conventional school building. But the savings on operations and
maintenance are quite impressive. Life cycle cost of the buildings suggests very fast payback periods and
more return on investment.
2. Meadowbrook Elementary School

Meadowbrook Elementary School is a public school located in Gainesville, FL with latitude of 29
41' 17.48" and longitude of -82 27' 38.74". This school is one of the 39 public elementary schools in
Alachua County and began operation in Fall 2012. The school serves 600 students from preschool to 5th
grade and has an overall student-to-teacher ratio of 17:1. The school with the area of 101,476 sf has a
flexible design and is adaptable to be expanded to serve 200 students for future needs. The building
creates an educational community-based facility that covers wide areas of administration, a dining / multipurpose space for community events, a media center, and classrooms.
Meadowbrook has the site area of around 20 acres and was built through proper civil, architectural
design, and preconstruction planning. The main part of the school includes a 2-story, concrete tilt wall
building with bar joists and a mixture of standing seam metal roof and modified bituminous roofing
systems. The tilt-up structure provides a fast approach mechanism with a reasonable cost and offers a
durable system that is uniform and thus energy efficient. The MEP systems feature two 150 ton chillers
outfitted with bi-polar ionization modules that allow for less outside air leading to higher efficiencies. The
school demonstrates its commitment to sustainability by designating green strategies that brought highest
level (4 Globes) of the Green Globes Certification. (Figure 3)
520

Figure 2, Meadowbrook Elementary School, Source: Schenkel Shultz Architectural Firm
Figure 3, Green Globe Certification Scores

The building is oriented toward East-West axis to guarantee the highest quality of daylight and the
least amount of heat gain through use of proper passive design. The roof is constructed of high
reflectance, high albedo materials. Tilt-up concrete wall with several internal and external layers of other
material coupled with insulation comprise the building envelope and resist the warm and humid dominant
local climate. The thermal resistance for the roof was specified as R-20 and as R-12 for the walls. The
building benefits from double-pane low-e windows that are properly shaded with outside horizontal
sunshade. In case of HVAC systems, the incorporated chilled water equipment is highly efficient and the
building conforms to the thermal comfort requirements of ASHRAE 55. The building automation system
521

is designed to control temperature and humidity levels to prevent fungus, mold, or bacteria growth.
Meadowbrook Elementary School is taking the advantage of innovative building materials with low
embodied energy and less harmful impact. Locally manufactured materials were used in concrete,
sheetrock, and masonry. The lighting system used in Meadowbrook School was designed to be compliant
with the IESNA lighting Handbook and local lighting control is available in all spaces. The indoor air
quality is very important in all educational facilities. The design aims to provide fresh air to each
classroom and control humidity, and carbon dioxide levels. Furthermore, using low-emission and nontoxic paints, sealers, coatings, and adhesives in construction phase has provided a healthy environment for
students and teachers.
Proper orientation of the building coupled with adequate amount of glazing ensure that daylight can
penetrate the building spaces. Most of the classrooms are located along the southern part to maximize the
amount of achievable light stream. The white reflective interior walls help to distribute the sunlight inside
the larger spaces. A large north-facing entrance provides adequate daylight for dining area. In addition to
natural lighting, the school benefits from energy-efficient electric lighting strategies.
3. ASHRAE Advanced Energy Efficiency Guide (50% Energy Savings)

Recommendations in this paper are based on ASHRAE Advanced Energy Design Guide. The
Advanced Energy Design Guide for k-12 schools is developed to help the schools in achieving 50%
energy savings towards achieving net zero energy school. This guide was developed by collaboration of
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), the American
Institute of Architects (AIA), the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) and the
US Green Building Council (USGBC) with the support from Department of Energy (DOE). It provides
design guidance and recommendations for elementary, middle and high school buildings based on the 8
primary climate zones of the country. The climate zones are categorized based on the seasonal metrics.
Diligent study and thorough implementation of this guide would reduce the energy usage by 50% if the
building already complies with ASHRAE/IESNA standard 90.1-2004. This guide can be applied not only
to the new schools but also to those which are undergoing partial or major renovations.
The guide has various recommendations and detailed explanation regarding implementation of energy
efficient strategies. The recommendations related to envelope, daylighting, electric lighting, plug loads,
kitchen equipment, service water heating, HVAC, and quality assurance are suggested along with
additional bonus savings. Meadowbrook Elementary School is in Climate Zone 2 as per the guide.
4. Actual Energy Usage vs Simulation Model

First and crucial step in energy modelling is to calibrate simulated data to actual energy usage of the
building. For this project monthly calibration method was adopted by comparing metered energy usage to
simulated energy usage. Several calibration standards and measurements are used to check the
authenticity of the simulated data by comparing it with metered energy usage. As operating schedules are
major assumptions in any energy model, for our study energy data from September to May is considered
as summer energy consumption of the school is inconsistent. Considering the age of the School, i.e. 2
years, it was assumed that summer energy data would not be a representative sample of the measured
usage. In this process, coefficient of variance of the root mean squared error is calculated and if it is
obtained in the tolerance range accepted by following methods, then the simulation model is valid.
Following are some of the widely used techniques:
522

ASHRAE Guidelines 14-2002: Measure of energy and demand savings (ASHRAE Standards
Committee 2002)
Measurement and verification (M&V) Guidelines for Federal Energy Projects, Federal Energy
Management Program (FEMP 2008)
International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP 2002)
As measure of calibration, all of the above standards use Coefficient of Variance (CV) derived from Root
Mean Square Error (RMSE). They are calculated based on equations 1 and 2.
[
Equation 1
(
Equation 2
Where,
M Month, is actual energy consumption of each month
S Month, is simulated energy consumption of each month
N Month, is total number of months
A Month, is the average monthly energy consumption
Month
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Total
Actual data (M)

79281
65840
55840
58960
59440
54960
54880
61840
68480
693313
Energy Consumption in KWh

Simulated data (S)
70507
59045
52701
58152
54483
48257
54610
60324
64866
656737
RMSEMonth
4928.325116
CV (RMSEMonth)
8%
(M-S)
76983076
46172025
9853321
652864
24571849
44930209
72900
2298256
13060996
13060996
Table 2, Calibration of Meadowbrook Energy Consumption 2012-2013

The range of tolerance for monthly data calibration of CV (RMSE) is 5%, 10% and 15% for
IPMVP, FEMP and ASHRAE respectively. From table 2, it is understood that the CV (RMSEMonth)
satisfies the tolerance range and thus the simulation data used in calibration is reliable. Now this model is
considered as Baseline model for carrying out further simulations and comparing the results with various
design guides. Later, an efficient model has been proposed with all the best practices and high
performance state-of-the-art technologies.
523

90000
80000
70000
60000
50000
Actual data
40000
Simulated
30000
20000
10000
0
0
10
Figure 4, Actual data vs Simulation data
5. Energy Modelling
5.1 Actual Model
Energy modelling of the school is carried out using Trane Trace 700 software. Trace 700 is a design
and analysis tool that can be used to model buildings and to compare energy consumption and operating
costs of different alternatives. The actual building drawings comprising Mechanical, Electrical and
Architectural Plans were used as a source of data to model envelope, lighting and HVAC systems. The
simulation is carried out to determine the energy consumption of various end use categories. As shown in
the figure below, auxiliary loads which include supply fans, pumps and stand-alone base utilizes consume
34% of the total energy. This is followed by plug loads at 27%, cooling at 19%, lighting at 15% and
heating at 22%. The building EUI as determined by the simulation was 27.68 KBtu/sf-yr (292.04 MJ/m2year). When compared to conventional school buildings, i.e. 68 KBtu/sf-yr or 717.43 MJ/m2-year (DOE
Building energy databook, 2013) this value is very less. This supports the fact that Meadowbrook
elementary school is highly energy efficient.
524

Heating
5%
Receptacle
27%
Primary cooling
19%
Lighting
15%
Auxiliary
34%
Figure 5, Energy end-use breakdown in the actual (existing) model

5.2 Models, Inputs and Assumptions
Four major components of a building whose properties have significant impact on energy
consumption are targeted. The components include building envelope, Lighting, HVAC system and plug
loads. Applying energy efficient strategies for above mentioned components, based on various design
guides, three additional models were developed to compare the performance of the building (Refer to
below table 3). They are as follows
1) ASHRAE 90.1- 2007
2) ASHRAE AEDG 50% Savings
3) Proposed Model (Based on State-of-the-Art)
The values recommended in the design guides were used for models 1 and 2 whereas the proposed
model was developed by considering the state of art and the best practices implemented in existing net
zero energy schools in US. The existing highly efficient systems such as bipolar ventilation is retained in
the proposed model as it is considered best possible option compared to others.
5.2.1 Envelope
Highly insulated envelope would have lower heat gains and thereby reduces cooling loads of the
building. For the Florida climate zone, insulated cool roof with high Solar Reflective Index (SRI) is
recommended to avoid heat absorption. Using R-40 with poly iso-cynurate for roof insulation will yield
better results as it already being used in some of the other net zero schools. Likewise, using Insulated
Concrete Forms (ICF) and R-28 Spray foam insulation for walls is recommended. For window glazing,
triple pane low-E windows should be preferred which has less U-value and Shading co-efficient (SC). It
should also be noted that after some level of insulation, envelope may yield diminishing results. For
example, having windows with high shading co-efficient would reduce the daylighting of the building.
Therefore, perfect balance between building envelope and daylighting should be maintained.
525

5.2.2 HVAC
Meadowbrook has two Air-cooled chillers which supply chilled water to seven AHUs located in
different parts of building. The efficiency of two chillers is 1.21kW/ton which is less in comparison to
chillers available in market. This can be improved by using high efficiency chillers with variable
frequency drives (VFD) controls having high efficiencies of about 1kW/ton. The school also uses a
Bipolar Ionization system in order to purify air, remove mold, dust, odors and reduce gaseous
contaminants like VOCs. The system is very efficient and has reduced the OA requirements to
5cfm/person. Other strategies such as energy recovery systems, demand control ventilation and dedicated
outdoor air systems can also be implemented in order to make the school consistent with the net zero
energy goal.
5.2.3 Lighting
Lighting is one of the major factors contributing towards the energy consumption of Meadowbrook.
Currently, the school uses a variety of fluorescent and high-intensity discharge (HID) lamps for internal
lighting. Existing lighting power densities (LPD) of various rooms such as classrooms, conference halls,
cafeteria, corridors, and storage rooms have been replaced with recommended LPDs from design guides.
However, energy savings can be observed in this area by retrofitting these lights with high efficient LED
lamps having high lumens to watts ratio. Also, the amount of heat generated by LED lamps is much less
than the existing ones which would further reduce the cooling loads. The lifespan of the LED lamps is
much higher as compared to fluorescent lamps and thus requires less number of replacements. Further
savings in the lighting energy use can be obtained by implementing efficient daylighting strategies and
controls. Additional 20% savings can be realized by installing tubular daylighting devices such as solar
tubes.
5.2.4 Plug Loads
Reducing plug loads in schools has been very challenging for design engineers. Based on the study
conveyed by Srinivasan et.al (2013), the plug load densities for classroom with computers can be
determined depending upon the classroom area and the number of computers used. As plug loads
constitute for 27% of the total energy consumption in the actual model, plug load density was reduced
based on the above study. Actual model of the school estimated the value to be 1.4 W/sf which is very
high. Benchmark model plug load densities were used, as existing approaches such as NREL, ASHRAE
90.1-1989, and COMNET either under or over-estimate the value for plug load density. Assuming 4
computers for each classroom, plug load density of 0.7 W/sf is considered for classrooms with computers.
Also using ENERGY STAR equipment will mitigate the energy consumption of the building
drastically. Apart from those systems which require continuous energy like refrigerators and security
cameras, other equipment such as printers, coffee machines should be turned off when not in use. A
normal school which has 180 working days with 8.00am to 3.00am schedules is unoccupied for 75% of
the year. Regulating these loads will save significant amount of energy.
526

Existing Situation
Actual Model
ASHRAE
90.1, 2007
ASHRAE
AEDG 50%Savings
Proposed Model
(State-of-the-Art)
Roof
U-0.0468
Steel Sheet 6
Insulation
U-0.048
6in. R-20 insulation
U-0.039
R-25 continuous
insulation (c.i)
R-40 with poly isocynurate insulation
Wall
U-0.0693
Tilt up Concrete Panel
2.5in. R-12 insulation
U-0.124
3.5in. R-13
Steel framed wall
U- 0.064
R-13.0 + R-7.5 c.i.
R-28 Spray foam

insulation. Insulated
Concrete Form walls
Window
U-0.85 & SC-0.37
U-0.75 & SC-0.287
U-0.64, SHGC-0.46,
SC-0.53
Low-E, Triple pane

U-0.25, SC-0.32
LIGHTING
LPD (W/sf)
Classroom-0.5
Restroom-1.36
Corridor-1.46
Office-1.01
Storage-0.8
Cafeteria- 1
Kitchen-1.2
LPD (W/sf)
Classroom-1.4
Restroom, Kitchen,
Cafeteria,
conference-0.9
Corridor-0.5
Office-1.1
Storage-0.8
Library-1.2
LPD (W/sf)
Classrooms, art rooms,
kitchens, media rooms-0.8
Cafeteria, Lobby-0.7
Offices-0.60
Rest rooms-0.5
Corridors & Mechanical
rooms-0.4
PLUG
LOADS
1.4 W/sf
1.4 W/sf
1.4 W/sf
0.7 W/sf
Ventilation
Bipolar Ventilation
5cfm/person
ASHRAE 62.12004/2007
10 cfm/person
Bipolar Ventilation
5cfm/person
Bipolar Ventilation
5cfm/person
Chillers
2 A/C Chillers
1.21 KW/ton
0.662 IPLV
No, Rooftop units
10 EER,
12.75 IPLV
11.6 EER,
19.8 IPLV with VFD
and NEMA motors
Component
ENVELOPE
Usage of LED is
recommended to
reduce energy
consumption due to
high efficacy and
life of lamps
HVAC
Table 3, Energy modeling inputs

Based on the above recommendations, a proposed model of Meadowbrook is developed which would
reduce the EUI to about 22.71 KBtu/sf-year. The remaining energy consumption can be offset using
renewable technologies like Photovoltaic systems.
527

6. Results
After simulating the models based on the above inputs, following results were obtained.
Actual Model
ASHRAE
90.1, 2007
35.83
27.68
ASHRAE
AEDG 50%Savings
25.7
Proposed Model
22.71
Table 4, Final EUI of Models (KBtu/sf-yr)

The EUI of the four models is shown in the figure below. The proposed model is the most efficient
with a EUI of 22.71 KBtu/sf-yr which is close to the average EUI of net zero energy schools in US.
Although proposed model is highly efficient, energy use can be further reduced by using efficient
strategies as discussed below.
Path to Net Zero Energy

68.00
EUI (KBtu/sf-yr)
70
60
50
40
35.89
27.68
30
25.7
21.10
22.71
20
10
0
EUI of ASHRAE Baseline AEDG Average Proposed
normal 90.1 2007 model
50%
EUI of Model
School in
Savings Net Zero
US
Schools
Figure 6, EUI of different models
7. Other Recommendations based on the AEGD Guide (50% Energy Savings)

Frequent auditing gives an opportunity to inspect all the techniques adopted. Selecting the design and
construction team is very important step in process of having a successful project. Team dynamics have a
very key role to play from start to close out of the project. Reviewing the strategies designed and executed
by other team will give broader perspective of the project. Strategies implemented on components like
building envelope construction, daylighting, electric lighting, HVAC system, renewable energy
technologies should be verified thoroughly before the final acceptance.
Most of the K-12 schools have kitchens ranging from few appliances to whole kitchen equipment. It
is recommended to have food service manager on board at design phase to reduce the energy consumption
of the kitchen. All the heat producing appliances such as broilers, griddles should be replaced with
combination oven steamers, conventional ovens, microwaves and tilting skillets. Exhaust and ventilation
design systems, reducing hot-water usage and using highly efficient refrigeration systems are other
recommended strategies.
528

Above all, a net zero energy school serves as a great educational resource for the students who can
relate it to day-to-day activities. Integrating the building design and its energy efficient strategies in the
curriculum would make a strong statement about the importance of conserving the resources and
protecting the nature. For example, Richardsville elementary school in Kentucky has themed hallways
where students can learn, play and operate with the renewable energy technologies. Students studying
under good daylighting facilities and indoor air quality score high grades in tests. Proper energy design
strategies have also proved to be enhancing the productivity of the occupants of the building. More than
anything, next generation is well educated about the depletion of natural resources and well prepared to
make this world a better place to live.
The quality of light is a crutial factor in any educational facility. The learning environment should
benefit from ample daylighting strategies. The Meadowbrook Elementary School can bring the indirect
sunlight to the central area of the building by implementing roof monitor system as shown in the below
figures.
Figures 7 & 8, Meadowbrook existing view, Meadowbrook with roof monitors.
8. Scope of PV panels to offset the energy consumption

The gap between the proposed target EUI and the net zero energy goal is eliminated by installing
photovoltaic panels on the roof of the building. Meadowbrook currently has 183 kW PV array system
consisting of 609 Hanwha panels with a capacity of 300W per panel, to produce the above mentioned
power. Based on the results obtained from NREL PV Watts calculator, our target EUI of the proposed
model requires 500 kW PV modules to completely offset energy consumption.
8.1 Potential roof area for PV array installation
From the total roof area, six potential areas suitable for PV array installation were chosen based on
their orientation which have maximum exposure to Sun. Sum of the six areas is 33,000 sf. Considering
about 85% of the available area as some space is required for creating pathways to walk, maintenance and
to avoid shading of panels, potential area for PV array installation is 28,050 sf. (Refer to Figure 9 and
Table 5).
529

Figure 9, Model showing potential areas suitable for PV array installation
Area
A
4400
SF
11700
SF
7000
SF
3100
SF
4500
SF
2300
SF
33000
SF
Total:
Ratio of panel to total area: 85%

PV Panel Area = (85%)(33000)= 28050 SF
Table 5, Potential PV array installation area

The current PV array installed on the roof has a low efficiency of about 14% and occupies
approximately 18,000 sf. Thus, roughly 10,000 sf of south facing area is available for installing additional
panels. The energy consumption of the school can be completely offset by installing an additional 317
kW array. Lesser number of panels will be required if higher efficiency modules are used. PV modules
available today are about 20% efficient. Thus, using such high efficiency panels and adopting energy
efficient strategies as suggested earlier, Meadowbrook has an opportunity to achieve a net zero energy
status within the building footprint itself. However, if the available roof area is insufficient, a Solar
carport can be created for the parking lot and could be used as PV system support. The solar carport will
also provide shade, which not only protects the vehicles from the harsh effects of the sun but minimizes
radiant heat transfer, which will require more of the cars energy to cool down.
Having flat roof has more benefits when compared to existing pitched roof. More PV panels can be
installed on a flat roof. For Meadowbrook, considering flat roof would increase the available area for PV
array installation by 60%. If a flat roof is assumed 53,000 sf of roof area is available, that provides
20,000 sf more space than the current roof area.
530

Figure 10, Model showing increased roof areas suitable for PV array installation
9. Conclusions
The models analyzed in this paper indicate good simulation results. However, it should be noted that
the results are based on the estimated inputs. Trane Trace 700 energy modelling software is used to
analyze four scenarios discussed in this paper, comprising the actual (existing) situation, ASHRAE 90.12007, ASHRAE AEDG 50%Savings, and the proposed state-of-the-art model. The existing model was
calibrated and complied with FEMP 2008 and ASHRAE Guideline 14-2002. The close distance of the
actual to simulated data is a good indication of the accuracy of the proposed model during operational
months of the building. The available data for the Meadowbrook school energy consumption over
summer was not reliable due to the remaining construction activities. Therefore, the results generated by
the software were considered for evaluating summer. Financial expenditure to implement energy efficient
strategies has not been discussed in this paper. Further studies can be undertaken to define an optimized
balance between the higher upfront costs and obtained EUI, as well as the payback period. Net Zero is
no more new to construction industry and schools are working as test platforms for implementing
technical and financial strategies. We recommend more detailed research on integrating energy and
economic policies for schools in Florida which can motivate many other schools to achieve net zero
energy status.
531
10. References
[1] American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers. (2011, September 28).
Advanced Energy Design Guide for K-12 School Buildings. Retrieved from
https://www.ashrae.org/standards-research--technology/advanced-energy-design-guides/50-percent-aedgfree-download
[2] Doo Consulting, LLC. (2013, October 1). Net Zero Schools Report. Retrieved from
http://www.abell.org/pubsitems/ed-netzeroschools1013.pdf
[3] Florida Power and Light. (n.d.). Air-Cooled Chillers. Retrieved from
http://www.fpl.com/business/savings/pdf/chiller_primer_brochure.pdf
[4] Hutton, P. C. (2011). Zero energy SchoolsBeyond platinum. Educational Facility Planner, 45(3),
4346.
[5] Pratapchandran , S. (2011). Energy Efficient Net-Zero Schools. Retrieved from
http://www.peterli.com/spm/resources/articles/archive.php?article_id=3109
[6] Smardt. (2011, December 16). Air-cooled oil-free centrifugal chillers from Smardt Chiller Group.
Retrieved from http://www.smardt.com/docs/SMARDT%20AC%20CATALOGUE%20TD-0081B.pdf
[7] Srinivasan, R. S., Lakshmanan, J., Santosa, E., & Srivastav, D. (2011). Plug-load densities for energy
analysis: K-12 schools. Energy and Buildings, 43(11), 3289-3294.
[8] Srinivasan, R. S., Lakshmanan, J., & Srivastav, D. Calibrated simulation of an existing convention
center: The role of event calendar and energy modeling software.
[9] US Department of Energy. (n.d.). Buildings Energy Data Book. Retrieved from
http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/CBECS.aspx
[10] US Department of Energy. (2002). Myths about energy in schools. Energy Smart Schools. Retrieved
from http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy02osti/31607.pdf
[11] US Environmental Protection Agency. (2011). Efficiency, E. Energy Efficiency Programs in K-12
Schools. A Guide to Developing and Implementing Greenhouse Gas Reduction Programs. Retrieved from
http://epa.gov/statelocalclimate/documents/pdf/k-12_guide.pdf

Appendix A. Meadowbrook PV System Design
Table 6, Source http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/calculators/PVWATTS/version1/US/code/pvwattsv1.cgi
533

Appendix B. ASHRAE Advanced Energy Design Guide
534

535

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iiSBE NET ZERO BUILT ENVIRONMENT

17TH RINKER INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014 Symposium

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

(Members listed alphabetically)

Dr. Charles J. Kibert (Conference chair)

Director, Master of Environmental Building Design

Director of Powell Center for Construction & Environment

Daniel Campbell, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor of Rinker School of Construction

Senior Systems Ecologist

Dru Crawley Ph.D., FASHRAE, AIA

Vanessa Gomes, Ph.D.

Daniel Nall, FAIA, P.E., LEED Fellow,

Robert Ries, Ph.D., AIA

Dr. Ravi Srinivasan

Dr. James Sullivan

Dr. Lantz Holzhower

Powell Center Students:

Group Manager for Commercial Buildings Research

Director of Powell Center for Construction & Environment

Llewellyn Van Wyk, Ph.D.

Koshy Varghese, Ph.D.

Professor of Building Technology & Construction

Graduate Research Assistant, Powell Center Affiliate

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Track I (NZW/ Water Efficeincy)

Track II (NZE/ Net Zero Energy Concepts)

Track III (Energy Efficient Strategies/Technologies)

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Toward a 3D Heat Transfer Analysis in Dynamic-BIM Workbench ........................................................................ 356

Track IV (Impacts/ Assessment Methods)

Track V (Case Studies / Residential-Commercial)

Track VI (Case Studies / Educational Facilities)

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Nils Larsson, FRAIC

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Track I (NZW/ Water Efficiency)

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Value and Limits of Net Zero Energy, Water, and Agriculture

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Figure 2. Precipitation distribution across the contiguous United States.

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

3.1 Urban area level

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

dependent on climate, rainfall and land.

Land Area Required

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

5.1 Sensitivity Analysis

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

6. Discussion, Limitations, and Conclusions

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014

An optimization model for scaling distributed DPR systems

Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami,

Proceeding of iiSBE Net Zero Built Environment 2014