Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
14MBA23
SYLLABUS
IA Marks : 50
Exam Hours : 03
Exam Marks : 100
Objectives:
To provide an understanding on the basic concepts of research methods
To expose the students to the role that statistics plays in business decisions
Module 1: (6 hours)
Business Research Meaning, types, process of research- management problem, defining the
research problem, formulating the research Hypothesis, developing the research proposals, research
design formulation, sampling design, planning and collecting the data for research, data analysis and
interpretation. Research Application in business decisions, Features of good research study.
Module 2: (8 hours)
Types of Business Research Design: Exploratory and Conclusive Research Design
Exploratory Research: Meaning, purpose, methods secondary resource analysis, comprehensive
case methods, expert opinion survey, focus group discussions.
Conclusive research Design - Descriptive Research - Meaning, Types cross sectional studies and
longitudinal studies.
Experimental research design Meaning and classification of experimental designs- Pre
experimental design, Quasi-experimental design, True experimental design, statistical experimental
design.
Observation Research Meaning Uses Participation and Non-participation Evaluation
Conducting an Observation study Data collection
Module 3: (6 hours)
Sampling: Concepts- Types of Sampling - Probability Sampling simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling -Non Probability Sampling
convenience sampling- judgemental sampling, snowball sampling- quota sampling - Errors in
sampling.
Module 4: (6 hours)
Data Collection: Primary and Secondary data
Primary data collection methods - Observations, survey, Interview and Questionnaire, Qualitative
Techniques of data collection, Questionnaire design Meaning - process of designing questionnaire.
Secondary data -Sources advantages and disadvantages
Measurement and Scaling Techniques: Basic measurement scales-Nominal scale, Ordinal scale,
Interval scale, Ratio scale. Attitude measurement scale - Likerts Scale, Semantic Differential Scale,
Thurstone scale, Multi-Dimensional Scaling
Module 5: (8 hours)
Preparing the Data for Analysis: Editing, Coding, Classification, Tabulation, Validation
Analysis and Interpretation
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Module 7: (6 hours)
Report writing and presentation of results: Importance of report writing, types of research report,
report structure, guidelines for effective documentation.
Practical Components:
Students are expected to write the research design on Exploratory and Descriptive Research.
Students are asked to prepare the questionnaire on brand awareness, effectiveness of training in
public sector organization, Investors attitude towards Mutual funds in any financial institutions.
Students are asked to conduct Market survey to know the consumer perception towards any FMCG.
Identify the problem and collect relevant literatures and data for analysis
Data Interpretation and report writing: Short and Long reports.
Report presentation methods, ex: Power Point Presentation, etc
RECOMMENDED BOOKS
Research Methodology- C R Kothari, Vishwa Prakashan,2002
Business Research Methods. Donald R. Cooper & Pamela s Schindler, 9/e, TMH /2007
Research Methodology concepts and cases Deepak Chawla and Neena Sondhi -Vikas
Publication - 2014
Research Methods for Business, Uma Sekaran & Roger Bougie, 6th Edition, Wiley, 2013
Business Research Methods-SL Guptah and Hetesh Guptha, McGraw hill - 2012
Marketing Research- Naresh K Malhotrs- 5th Edition, Pearson Education /PHI 2007
Business Research Methodology J K Sachdeva 2nd Edition - HPH, 2011
REFERENCE BOOKS
Research Methods- William M C Trochi,- 2/e, Biztantra, 2007
Methodology of Research in social Sciences- O R Krishnaswami, M Ranganatham, HPH,
2007
Research Methodology C Murthy- Vrinda Publication 2011
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Index
Module
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
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Particulars
Business Research
Types of Business Research Design
Page No.
04 -07
08 13
Sampling
14 17
Data Collection
18 25
26 28
Hypothesis
29 41
42 46
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Module 1
Business Research Meaning
Business research involves establishing objectives and gathering relevant information to obtain the
answer to a business issue. or
Business research can be defined as the systematic and objective process of gathering, recording and
analysing data for aid in making business decisions.
Pure Research: Pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention
to apply it in practice. Pure research is also known as basic or fundamental research. Pure
research helps to find the critical factors in a practical problem .Pure research develops many
alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best solution.
Applied Research: Applied research is conducted when decision must be made about a
Specific real life problem.It is thus problem oriented and action directed.
Contribution of Applied Research:
1. Applied research can contribute new facts.
2. Applied research can put theory to the test.
3. Applied research study offers an opportunity to test the validity of existing theory.
4. Applied research may aid in conceptual clarification.
5. Applied research may integrate previously existing theories.
Exploratory Research: Exploratory Research is also known as formulative research. It is the
first stage of a three stage process of exploration, description and experimentation.
Exploratory research is a preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the researcher
has little or no Knowledge. It is similar to a doctors initial investigation of a patient.
The need for exploratory studies: The exploratory research is necessary to get initial insight into
the Problems for the purpose of formulating them for more precise investigation and so called as
formulative research.
Descriptive Research: Descriptive study is a fact finding investigation with adequate
Interpretation. It is the simplest type of research. It is more specific than an exploratory study.
This study aims to identify the characteristics of a community.This study employs simple
statistical techniques.
Causal Research: Causal research (also referred to as explanatory research) is the
investigation of (research into) cause-and-effect relationships. In order to determine causality, it
is important to observe variation in the variable that is assumed to cause the change in the other
variables, and then measure the changes in the other variables
Action Research: Action research is either research initiated to solve an immediate problem
or a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in
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teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they address issues and solve
problems.
Process of research
The research process is the step-by-step procedure of developing one's research.
1. Management problem
It is the most important step, because only when a problem has been clearly and accurately
identified can a research project be conducted properly. It is a concise description of the
issues that need to be addressed by a problem solving team and should be presented to
them (or created by them) before they try to solve the problem. It asks what the decision
maker needs to do. Mostly action oriented and Focuses on symptoms.
2. Defining the research problem
The research problem is a general statement of an issue meriting research. Its nature will
suggest appropriate forms for its investigation
Problem definition involves stating the general marketing research problem and identifying
its specific components. Only when research problem has been clearly defined can research
be designed and conducted properly.
3. Formulating the research Hypothesis
A good hypothesis relates and explains the known facts. It should also predict new facts.
It must be stated in such a way that we can test it by experimentation or further
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observation, or it is of no scientific value. Also, it must stated in a way that would allow
us to show if it is incorrect, i.e., it must be "falsifiable." A scientist must be willing to
accept the possibility that his or her hypothesis is incorrect, and this point often separates
true science from pseudoscience. (In fact, most scientists work hard to develop good
hypotheses, and then spend a great deal of effort trying to disprove them. Pseudo
scientists tend to settle on a hypothesis that suits their needs or expectations, and then
spend a great deal of effort trying to prove that they are "true".
4. Developing the research proposals
Research proposal is a specific kind of document written for a specific purpose. Research
involves a series of actions and therefore it presents all actions in a systematic and scientific
way. In this way, Research proposal is a blue print of the study which simply outlines the
steps that researcher will undertake during the conduct of his/her study.Proposal is a tentative
plan so the researcher has every right to modify his proposal on the basis of his reading,
discussion and experiences gathered in the process of research.Even with this relaxation
available to the researcher, writing of research proposal is a must for the researcher.
5. Research design formulation
A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project.
It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the required information, and its purpose is
to design a study that will test the hypotheses of interest, determine possible answers to the
research questions, and provide the information needed for decision making. Decisions are
also made regarding what data should be obtained from the respondents (e,g,, by conducting
a survey or an experiment). A questionnaire and sampling plan also are designed in order to
select the most appropriate respondents for the study. The following steps are involved in
formulating a research design:
Secondary data analysis (based on secondary research)
Qualitative research
Methods of collecting quantitative data (survey, observation, and experimentation)
Definition of the information needed
Measurement and scaling procedures
Questionnaire design
Sampling process and sample size
Plan of data analysis
6. Sampling design
Sampling is a means of selecting a subset of units from a target population for the purpose of
collecting information. This information is used to draw inferences about the population as a
whole. The subset of units that are selected is called a sample. The sample design
encompasses all aspects of how to group units on the frame, determine the sample size,
allocate the sample to the various classifications of frame units, and finally, select the sample.
Choices in sample design are influenced by many factors, including the desired level of
precision and detail of the information to be produced, the availability of appropriate
sampling frames, the availability of suitable auxiliary variables for stratification and sample
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selection, the estimation methods that will be used and the available budget in terms of time
and resources.
7. Planning and collecting the data for research
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest,
in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. Generally there are three types of data collection and
they are
1.Surveys: Standardized paper-and-pencil or phone questionnaires that ask predetermined
questions.
2. Interviews: Structured or unstructured one-on-one directed conversations with key
individuals or leaders in a community.
3. Focus groups: Structured interviews with small groups of like individuals using
standardized questions, follow-up questions, and exploration of other topics that arise to
better understand participants
8. Data analysis and interpretation
Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with
the goal of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decisionmaking. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques
under a variety of names, in different business, science, and social science domains.
Research Application in business decisions
Research can answer questions for a variety of issues, from getting a grip on industry trends,
determining new products to develop and deliver to the market, or deciding on which site to
locate an outlet, to better understanding what it takes to satisfy customers to keep them loyal
to business
Features of good research study.
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Module 2:
Types of Business Research Design: Exploratory and Conclusive Research Design
Exploratory Research: Meaning
Exploratory research is research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. It often
occurs before one knows enough to make conceptual distinctions or posit an explanatory
relationship. Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data collection method
and selection of subjects. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution. Given its
fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem does not actually
exist.
Purpose
The purpose of exploratory research is to gather preliminary information that will help define
problems and suggest hypotheses
to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or acquire new insight into it in order to formulate a
more precise problem or develop hypothesis
Methods
Secondary resource analysis/ Review/Survey of concerned Literature: When the investigator
proceeds on the path of research he has to take advantage of his predecessors. This technique will
save time, cash, and effort. This kind of data can be obtained from professional research
organisations, websites, newspapers, magazines, journals of the government, etc.
Expert opinion survey /Experience Survey: It is better to interview those individuals who know
about the subject. The objectives of such survey is to obtain insight into the relationship between
variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. The respondents picked are interviewed by
the researcher. The researcher should prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of
informants. Thus an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more
consciously and help in the formulation of hypothesis.
Focus Groups discussions: This is certainly the most used method in research. In a focus group,
only a few individuals (e.g., 8-12) are brought together to speak about some topic of interest. The
dialogue is coordinated by a moderator. The majority of the organizations engaging in the focus
groups, first screen the candidates to find out who will compose the particular group. Organizations
also make sure to avoid groups, in which some of the participants have their relatives and friends, as
this results in a one-sided discussion. Group interaction is the key factor that differentiates focus
group interviews from experience survey that are conducted with one respondent at a time.
Furthermore it is the key advantage of the focus group over the majority of exploratory techniques.
Due to their interactive nature, ideas sometimes drop out of the blue in a focus group discussion.
Comprehensive case methods
Analysis of Insight Stimulating Cases: This includes the study of one or a few situations. It is focused
on complex situations and problems; this kind of situations occurs when the interrelations of several
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individuals are important. In this method of Exploratory Research, some units are analyzed; each unit
is called Case. Study of relationships between different factors of each case is more important and
not the number. It is specifically helpful in situations where there is little experience to serve as a
guide. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the investigator and the ability of the researcher to
draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this
method a suitable procedure for evoking insights.
Conclusive research Design
Conclusive research aims to verify insights and to aid decision makers in selecting a specific course
of action. Conclusive research is sometimes called confirmatory research, as it is used to "confirm" a
hypothesis.
Descriptive Research Meaning
Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied.
It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred.
A statistical study to identify patterns or trends in a situation, but not the causal linkages among its
different elements
Types cross sectional studies
A cross-sectional study (also known as a cross-sectional analysis, transversal study, prevalence
study) is a type of observational study that involves the analysis of data collected from a population,
or a representative subset, at one specific point in timethat is, cross-sectional data.
Cross-sectional studies are carried out at one time point or over a short period. They are usually
conducted to estimate the prevalence of the outcome of interest for a given population, commonly for
the purposes of public health planning. Data can also be collected on individual characteristics,
including exposure to risk factors, alongside information about the outcome. In this way crosssectional studies provide a 'snapshot' of the outcome and the characteristics associated with it, at a
specific point in time.
Cross-sectional research studies all have the following characteristics:
Takes place at a single point in time
Variables are not manipulated by researchers
Provide information only; do not answer why
Longitudinal studies
A longitudinal survey is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the
same variables over long periods of time often many decades. It is a type of observational study.
Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the life span,
and in sociology to study life events throughout lifetimes or generations. The reason for this is that,
unlike cross-sectional studies, in which different individuals with same characteristics are
compared, longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore the differences observed in those
people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across generations. Because of this
benefit, longitudinal studies make observing changes more accurate, and they are applied in various
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other fields. In medicine, the design is used to uncover predictors of certain diseases. In advertising,
the design is used to identify the changes that advertising has produced in the attitudes and behaviors
of those within the target audience who have seen the advertising campaign.
Experimental research design Meaning
Is a systematic and scientific approach to research in which the researcher manipulates one or more
variables, and controls and measures any change in other variables.
Classification of experimental designs
Classified as:
1. Pre experimental design,
2. Quasi-experimental design,
3. True experimental design,
4. Statistical experimental design
Pre experimental design
Pre-experimental designs are so named because they follow basic experimental steps but fail to
include a control group. In other words, a single group is often studied but no comparison between
an equivalent non-treatment group is made.
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Quasi-experimental design
A quasi-experiment is an empirical study used to estimate the causal impact of an intervention on its
target population. Quasi-experimental research shares similarities with the traditional experimental
design or randomized controlled trial, but they specifically lack the element of random assignment to
treatment or control. Instead, quasi-experimental designs typically allow the researcher to control the
assignment to the treatment condition, but using some criterion other than random assignment (e.g.,
an eligibility cutoff mark)
The first part of creating a quasi-experimental design is to identify the variables. The quasiindependent variable will be the x-variable, the variable that is manipulated in order to affect a
dependent variable. X is generally a grouping variable with different levels. Grouping means two
or more groups such as a treatment group and a placebo or control group (placebos are more
frequently used in medical or physiological experiments). The predicted outcome is the dependent
variable, which is the y-variable. In a time series analysis, the dependent variable is observed over
time for any changes that may take place. Once the variables have been identified and defined, a
procedure should then be implemented and group differences should be examined
True experimental design,
True experimental design is regarded as the most accurate form of experimental research, in that it
tries to prove or disprove a hypothesis mathematically, with statistical analysis.
For some of the physical sciences, such as physics, chemistry and geology, they are standard and
commonly used. For social sciences, psychology and biology, they can be a little more difficult to set
up.
For an experiment to be classed as a true experimental design, it must fit all of the following criteria.
The sample groups must be assigned randomly.
There must be a viable control group.
Only one variable can be manipulated and tested. It is possible to test more than one, but such
experiments and their statistical analysis tend to be cumbersome and difficult.
The tested subjects must be randomly assigned to either control or experimental groups.
Statistical experimental design
The term Statistical experimental design refers to a plan for assigning experimental units
to treatment conditions. A good experimental design serves three purposes.
Causation. It allows the experimenter to make causal inferences about the relationship
between independent variables and a dependent variable.
Control. It allows the experimenter to rule out alternative explanations due to
the confounding effects of extraneous variables (i.e., variables other than the independent
variables).
Variability. It reduces variability within treatment conditions, which makes it easier to detect
differences in treatment outcomes.
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Uses
1. Data obtained through participant observation serve as a check against participants
subjective reporting of what they believe and do.
2. Participant observation is also useful for gaining an understanding of the physical, social,
cultural, and economic contexts in which study participants live;
3. the relationships among and between people, contexts, ideas, norms, and events; and peoples
behaviors and activities what they do, how frequently, and with whom.
Participant observation is one type of data collection method typically done in the qualitative
research paradigm. Its aim is to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of
individuals (such as a religious, occupational, sub cultural group, or a particular community) and
their practices through an intensive involvement with people in their cultural environment,
usually over an extended period of time.
Some observations are carried out without the researcher participating. There are several reasons the
researcher might choose to do this, one because it eliminates the risk that people will be affected by
the presence of a researcher, or it could be that the groups might be unwilling to cooperate in
research if one participate in the experiment.
Advantages compared to participant observations
By reducing the level of interaction between the researcher and the participants one can
reduce the risk of the Hawthorne effect. However, this only happens if the observation is
covert.
It is also easier to record information and observations if people are not participating, so one
can record data more easily
Some observations are carried out without the researcher participating. There are several reasons the
researcher might choose to do this, one because it eliminates the risk that people will be affected by
the presence of a researcher, or it could be that the groups might be unwilling to cooperate in
research if one participates in the experiment.
Advantages compared to participant observations
By reducing the level of interaction between the researcher and the participants you can
reduce the risk of the Hawthorne effect. However, this only happens if the observation is
covert.
It is also easier to record information and observations if are not participating, so one can
record data more easily
Conducting an Observation study and Data collection
There are many different ways to design an observation study, depending on the objective of your
study, the type of data one are trying to collect, and the resources one have available for your study.
Following are five different features that one should consider when designing the ideal observation
study for your project:
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Module 3
Sampling: Concepts
Sampling is the process by which inference is made to the whole by examining a part.
a) Population
The collection of all units of a specified type in a given region at a particular point or period of time
is termed as a population or universe. Thus, one may consider a population of persons, families,
farms, cattle in a region or a population of trees or birds in a forest or a population of fish in a tank
etc. depending on the nature of data required.
b) Sampling Unit
Elementary units or group of such units which besides being clearly defined, identifiable and
observable, are convenient for purpose of sampling are called sampling units. For instance, in a
family budget enquiry, usually a family is considered as the sampling unit since it is found to be
convenient for sampling and for ascertaining the required information. In a crop survey, a farm or a
group of farms owned or operated by a household may be considered as the sampling unit.
c) Sampling Frame
A list of all the sampling units belonging to the population to be studied with their identification
particulars or a map showing the boundaries of the sampling units is known as sampling frame.
Examples of a frame are a list of farms and a list of suitable area segments like villages in India or
counties in the United States. The frame should be up to date and free from errors of omission and
duplication of sampling units.
d)Sampling and Non-sampling error
The error arising due to drawing inferences about the population on the basis of observations on a
part (sample) of it is termed sampling error. The sampling error is non-existent in a complete
enumeration survey since the whole population is surveyed.
The errors other than sampling errors such as those arising through non-response, in- completeness
and inaccuracy of response are termed non-sampling errors and are likely to be more wide-spread
and important in a complete enumeration survey than in a sample survey. Non-sampling errors arise
due to various causes right from the beginning stage when the survey is planned and designed to the
final stage when the data are processed and analyzed.
Types of Sampling
Probability Sampling
A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form of random
selection. In order to have a random selection method, one must set up some process or procedure
that assures that the different units in selected population have equal probabilities of being chosen.
Types of Probability Sampling include Simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified
random sampling, cluster sampling
Simple random sampling
A simple random sample is a subset of individuals (a sample) chosen from a larger set (a population).
Each individual is chosen randomly and entirely by chance, such that each individual has the
same probability of being chosen at any stage during the sampling process, and each subset
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of k individuals has the same probability of being chosen for the sample as any other subset
of k individuals
Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling is a random sampling technique which is frequently chosen by researchers for
its simplicity and its periodic quality. Systematic sampling is a statistical method involving the
selection of elements from an ordered sampling frame. The most common form of systematic
sampling is an equal-probability method. In this approach, progression through the list is treated
circularly, with a return to the top once the end of the list is passed. The sampling starts by selecting
an element from the list at random and then every kth element in the frame is selected, where k, the
sampling interval (sometimes known as the skip): this is calculated as:[1]
Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling refers to a sampling method that has the following properties.
The population is divided into N groups, called clusters.
The researcher randomly selects n clusters to include in the sample.
The number of observations within each cluster Mi is known, and M = M1 + M2 + M3 + ... +
MN-1 + MN.
Each element of the population can be assigned to one, and only one, cluster.
two types of cluster sampling methods.
One-stage sampling. All of the elements within selected clusters are included in the sample.
Two-stage sampling. A subset of elements within selected clusters are randomly selected for
inclusion in the sample.
Non Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that
does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.
Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected because
of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher.
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A statistical method of drawing representative data by selecting people because of the ease of their
volunteering or selecting units because of their availability or easy access. The advantages of this
type of sampling are the availability and the quickness with which data can be gathered.
The disadvantages are the risk that the sample might not represent the population as a whole, and it
might be biased by volunteers. For example, a study to determine the average age of gamblers at a
casino that is conducted for three hours on a weekday afternoon might be overrepresented by elderly
people who have retiredand underrepresented by people of working age.Also called accidental
sampling.
Judgemental sampling
Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where the researcher selects units to be
sampled based on their knowledge and professional judgment.
This type of sampling technique is also known as purposive sampling and authoritative sampling.
Purposive sampling is used in cases where the specialty of an authority can select a more
representative sample that can bring more accurate results than by using other probability sampling
techniques. The process involves nothing but purposely handpicking individuals from the population
based on the authority's or the researcher's knowledge and judgment.
Example of Judgmental Sampling
In a study wherein a researcher wants to know what it takes to graduate summa cum laude in college,
the only people who can give the researcher first hand advise are the individuals who graduated
summa cum laude. With this very specific and very limited pool of individuals that can be considered
as a subject, the researcher must use judgmental sampling.
Snowball sampling
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by researchers to identify
potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate.
To create a snowball sample, there are two steps: (a) trying to identify one or more units in the
desired population; and (b)using these units to find further units and so on until the sample size is
met.
Quota sampling
A sampling method of gathering representative data from a group. As opposed to random sampling,
quota sampling requires that representative individuals are chosen out of a specific subgroup. For
example, a researcher might ask for a sample of 100 females, or 100 individuals between the ages of
20-30.
Step-by-step Quota Sampling
The first step in non-probability quota sampling is to divide the population into
exclusive subgroups.
Then, the researcher must identify the proportions of these subgroups in the population; this
same proportion will be applied in the sampling process.
Finally, the researcher selects subjects from the various subgroups while taking into
consideration the proportions noted in the previous step.
The final step ensures that the sample is representative of the entire population. It also allows
the researcher to study traits and characteristics that are noted for each subgroup.
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Module 4
Data Collection
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses,
and evaluate outcomes.
Primary and Secondary data
There are many ways of classifying data.
A common classification is based upon who collected the data.
Primary data: Data collected by the investigator himself/ herself for a specific purpose.
Examples: Data collected by a student for his/her thesis or research project.
(In movies) The hero is directly told by the heroine that he is her ideal man.
Secondary data: Data collected by someone else for some other purpose (but being utilized by the
investigator for another purpose).
Examples: Census data being used to analyze the impact of education on career choice and earning.
Primary data collection methods
Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end of this
continuum are quantatative methods and at the other end of the continuum are Qualitative methods
for data collection.
Observations
Observation is a process of recording the behaviour patterns of people, objects, and occurrences
without questioning or communicating with them. Observation can take the place in a laboratory
setting or in a natural setting. Generally there are two ways to conduct observation, namely nonparticipative observation and participative observation.
The researcher in non-participative observation does not involve in the activities of the people being
observed. He or she merely record whatever happens among the people , including their actions and
their behaviour, and anything worth recording. On the one hand, the researcher in a participative
observation involves fully with the people being observed, with the objective of trying to understand
the values, motives and practices of those being researched.
The main advantage of observation as compared to questionnaire survey is one can obtain richer and
more in-depth information. One can able to catch phenomena, characteristics, activities and other
things impossible to detect by questionnaire survey . However,there are some weaknesses associated
with observation method as shown below:
Cannot control variables in the natural setting
Researcher own values and ethics might affect his objectivity and give rise to observer bias
Failure to observe some activities due to distractions.
Survey
Survey research is often used to assess thoughts, opinions, and feelings. Survey research can be
specific and limited, or it can have more global, widespread goals.
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difficult to understand, or beyond their knowledge and experience, or embarrassing in some way,
they are likely to break off immediately. If, on the other hand, they find the opening question easy
and pleasant to answer, they are encouraged to continue.
Question flow: Questions should flow in some kind of psychological order, so that one leads easily
and naturally to the next. Questions on one subject, or one particular aspect of a subject, should be
grouped together. Respondents may feel it disconcerting to keep shifting from one topic to another,
or to be asked to return to some subject they thought they gave their opinions about earlier.
Question variety:. Respondents become bored quickly and restless when asked similar questions for
half an hour or so. It usually improves response, therefore, to vary the respondent's task from time to
time. An open-ended question here and there (even if it is not analysed) may provide much-needed
relief from a long series of questions in which respondents have been forced to limit their replies to
pre-coded categories. Questions involving showing cards/pictures to respondents can help vary the
pace and increase interest.
Physical appearance of the questionnaire
The physical appearance of a questionnaire can have a significant effect upon both the quantity and
quality of marketing data obtained. The quantity of data is a function of the response rate. Illdesigned questionnaires can give an impression of complexity, medium and too big a time
commitment. Data quality can also be affected by the physical appearance of the questionnaire with
unnecessarily confusing laonets making it more difficult for interviewers, or respondents in the case
of self-completion questionnaires, to complete this task accurately. Attention to just a few basic
details can have a disproportionately advantageous impact on the data obtained through a
questionnaire.
Piloting the questionnaires
Even after the researcher has proceeded along the lines suggested, the draft questionnaire is a product
evolved by one or two minds only. Until it has actually been used in interviews and with respondents,
it is impossible to say whether it is going to achieve the desired results. For this reason it is necessary
to pre-test the questionnaire before it is used in a full-scale survey, to identify any mistakes that need
correcting.
The purpose of pretesting the questionnaire is to determine:
whether the questions as they are worded will achieve the desired results
whether the questions have been placed in the best order
whether the questions are understood by all classes of respondent
whether additional or specifying questions are needed or whether some questions should be
eliminated
whether the instructions to interviewers are adequate.
Secondary data Sources
Secondary sources are data that already exists
1. Previous research
2. Official statistics
3. Mass media products
4. Diaries
5. Letters
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6. Government reports
7. Web information
8. Historical data and information
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages of Secondary data
1. It is economical. It saves efforts and expenses.
2. It is time saving.
3. It helps to make primary data collection more specific since with the help of secondary data,
we are able to make out what are the gaps and deficiencies and what additional information
needs to be collected.
4. It helps to improve the understanding of the problem.
5. It provides a basis for comparison for the data that is collected by the researcher.
Disadvantages of Secondary Data
1. Secondary data is something that seldom fits in the framework of the marketing research
factors. Reasons for its non-fitting are:a. Unit of secondary data collection-Suppose one want information on disposable
income, but the data is available on gross income. The information may not be same
as we require.
b. Class Boundaries may be different when units are same.
Before 5 Years
After 5 Years
2500-5000
5000-6000
5001-7500
6001-7000
7500-10000
7001-10000
c. Thus the data collected earlier is of no use.
2. Accuracy of secondary data is not known.
3. Data may be outdated
Measurement and Scaling Technique
Measurement is a process of mapping aspects of a domain onto other aspects of a range according to
some rule of correspondence.
Scaling is the assignment of objects to numbers or semantics according to a rule. In scaling, the
objects are text statements, usually statements of attitude, opinion, or feeling.
Basic measurement scales
Nominal scale
Nominal Scale is the crudest among all measurement scales but it is also the simplest scale. In this
scale the different scores on a measurement simply indicate different categories. The nominal scale
does not express any values or relationships between variables. The nominal scale is often referred to
as a categorical scale. The assigned numbers have no arithmetic properties and act only as labels. The
only statistical operation that can be performed on nominal scales is a frequency count. We cannot
determine an average except mode. For example: labeling men as 1 and women as 2 which is the
most common way of labeling gender for data recording purpose does not mean women are twice
something or other than men. Nor it suggests that men are somehow better than women.
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Ordinal scale
Ordinal Scale involves the ranking of items along the continuum of the characteristic being scaled. In
this scale, the items are classified according to whether they have more or less of a characteristic. The
main characteristic of the ordinal scale is that the categories have a logical or ordered relationship.
This type of scale permits the measurement of degrees of difference, (i.e. more or less) but not the
specific amount of differences (i.e. how much more or less). This scale is very common in
marketing, satisfaction and attitudinal research. Using ordinal scale data, we can perform statistical
analysis like Median and Mode, but not the Mean. For example, a fast food home delivery shop may
wish to ask its customers: How would you rate the service of our staff? (1) Excellent (2) Very Good
(3) Good (4) Poor (5) Worst
Interval scale
Interval Scale is a scale in which the numbers are used to rank attributes such that numerically equal
distances on the scale represent equal distance in the characteristic being measured. An interval scale
contains all the information of an ordinal scale, but it also one allows to compare the
difference/distance between attributes. Interval scales may be either in numeric or semantic formats.
The interval scales allow the calculation of averages like Mean, Median and Mode and dispersion
like Range and Standard Deviation. For example, the difference between 1 and 2 is equal to the
difference between 3 and 4. Further, the difference between 2 and 4 is twice the difference
between 1 and 2. Measuring temperature is an example of interval scale. But, we cannot say 40C
is twice as hot as 20C.
Ratio scale
Ratio Scale is the highest level of measurement scales. This has the properties of an interval scale
together with a fixed (absolute) zero point. The absolute zero point allows us to construct a
meaningful ratio. Ratio scales permit the researcher to compare both differences in scores and
relative magnitude of scores. Examples of ratio scales include weights, lengths and times. For
example, the number of customers of a banks ATM in the last three months is a ratio scale. This is
because you can compare this with previous three months. For example, the difference between 10
and 15 minutes is the same as the difference between 25 and 30 minutes and 30 minutes is twice as
long as 15 minutes
Attitude measurement scale
Attitudes are composed of 1) Beliefs about the subject 2)Emotional feeling (like-dislike) 3)
Readiness to respond behaviourally - i.e. buy7."Attitude is defined as the predisposition to respond to
an idea or object, and in marketing it relates to the consumers predisposition to respond to a
particular product or service".
Likerts Scale
Likert, is extremely popular for measuring attitudes, because, the method is simple to administer.
With the Likert scale, the respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they
agree or disagree with carefully worded statements that range from very positive to very negative
towards the attitudinal object. Respondents generally choose from five alternatives (say strongly
agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree). A Likert scale may include a
number of items or statements. Disadvantage of Likert Scale is that it takes longer time to complete
than other itemised rating scales because respondents have to read each statement. Despite the above
disadvantages, this scale has several advantages. It is easy to construct, administer and use.
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Module 5
Preparing the Data for Analysis
Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data with the goal
of discovering useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision-making.
Editing
Editing is the process of checking and adjusting the data for omissions, legibility, and consistency.
Editing may be differentiated from coding, which isthe assignment of numerical scales or classifying
symbols to previously edited data.
The purpose of editing is to ensure the completeness, consistency, and readability of the data to be
transferredto data storage. The editor's task is to check for errors and omissions on the questionnaires
or other data collection forms.
Information gathered during data collection may lack uniformity. Example: Data collected through
questionnaire and schedules may have answers which may not be ticked at proper places, or some
questions may be left unanswered. Sometimes information may be given in a form which needs
reconstruction in a category designed for analysis, e.g., converting daily/monthly income in annual
income and so on. The researcher has to take a decision as to how to edit it.
Types :
1. Field Editing
Preliminary editing by a field supervisor on the same day as the interview to catch
technical omissions, check legibility of handwriting, and clarify responses that are
logically or conceptually inconsistent.
2. In-house Editing
Editing performed by a central office staff; often dome more rigorously than field
editing
Pitfalls of Editing
Allowing subjectivity to enter into the editing process.
Data editors should be intelligent, experienced, and objective.
Failing to have a systematic procedure for assessing the questionnaires developed by
the research analyst
An editor should have clearly defined decision rules to follow.
Pretesting Edit
Editing during the pretest stage can prove very valuable for improving questionnaire
format, identifying poor instructions or inappropriate question wording.
Coding
Coding is translating answers into numerical values or assigning numbers to the various categories of
a variable to be used in data analysis. Coding is done by using a code book, code sheet, and a
computer card. Coding is done on the basis of the instructions given in the codebook. The code book
gives a numerical code for each variable.
Manual processing is employed when qualitative methods are used or when in quantitative studies, a
small sample is used, or when the questionnaire/schedule has a large number of open-ended
questions, or when accessibility to computers is difficult or inappropriate. However, coding is done
in manual processing also.Ex: Male- Code 1,female Code2
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Classification
Distribution of data as a form of classification of scores obtained for the various categories or a
particular variable. There are four types of distributions:
Frequency distribution
Percentage distribution
Cumulative distribution
Statistical distribution
Tabulation
After editing, which ensures that the information on the schedule is accurate and categorized in a
suitable form, the data are put together in some kinds of tables and may also undergo some other
forms of statistical analysis.Table can be prepared manually and/or by computers. For a small study
of 100 to 200 persons, there may be little point in tabulating by computer since this necessitates
putting the data on punched cards. But for a survey analysis involving a large number of respondents
and requiring cross tabulation involving more than two variables, hand tabulation will be
inappropriate and time consuming.
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Uses of tables
Tables are useful to the researchers and the readers in three ways:
1. The present an overall view of findings in a simpler way.
2. They identify trends.
3. They display relationships in a comparable way between parts of the findings.
By convention, the dependent variable is presented in the rows and the independent variable in the
columns.
Validation
Data validation ensures that the survey questionnaires are completed and present consistent data.
In this step, should not include the questions that were not answered by most respondents in the
data analysis as this would result to bias in the results. However, in the case of incomplete
questionnaires, must count the actual number of respondents that were able to answer a particular
question. This should be the same for the rest of the questions.
Analysis and Interpretation
The process by which sense and meaning are made of the data gathered in qualitative research,
and by which the emergent knowledge is applied to problems.
Types: Descriptive and inferential analysis
Statistical inference is the process of deducing properties of an underlying distribution by
analysis of data. Inferential statistical analysis infers properties about a population: this includes
testing hypotheses and deriving estimates. The population is assumed to be larger than the
observed data set; in other words, the observed data is assumed to be sampled from a larger
population.
Inferential statistics can be contrasted with descriptive statistics. Descriptive statistics is solely
concerned with properties of the observed data, and does not assume that the data came from a
larger population.
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Module 6
Hypothesis: Meaning
An assumption about certain characteristics of a population
If it specifies values for every parameter of a population, it is called a simple hypothesis; if not,
a composite hypothesis. If it attempts to nullify the difference between two sample means (by
suggesting that the difference is of no statistical significance), it is called a null hypothesis.
It is a tentative and formal prediction about the relationship between two or more variables in the
population being studied, and the hypothesis translates the research question into a prediction of
expected outcomes.
Hence a hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between two or more variables that we
set out to prove or disprove in research.
To be complete the hypothesis must include three components:
The variables.
The population.
Simple hypothesis - this predicts the relationship between a single independent variable
(IV) and a single dependent variable (DV)
For example:
Lower levels of exercise postpartum (IV) will be associated with greater weight retention
(DV).
NB.
IV = independent variable
D V = dependent variable
Complex hypothesis - this predicts the relationship between two or more independent
variables and two or more dependent variables.
believe that engaging in health promoting behaviours will result in positive outcomes;
are more likely than other women to attend pregnancy-related education programmes
(DV).
2. Example of a complex multiple dependent variable hypothesis:
The implementation of an evidence based protocol for urinary incontinence (IV) will result in (DV):
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Hypotheses can be stated in various ways as long as the researcher specifies or implies the
relationship that will be tested.
For example:
Lower levels of exercise postpartum are associated with greater weight retention.
There is a relationship between level of exercise postpartum and weight retention.
The greater the level of exercise postpartum, the lower the weight retention.
Women with different levels of exercise postpartum differ with regard to weight retention.
Weight retention postpartum decreases as the woman's level of exercise increases.
Women who exercise vigorously postpartum have lower weight retention than women who
do not.
Directional hypotheses
These are usually derived from theory.
They may imply that the researcher is intellectually committed to a particular outcome.
They specify the expected direction of the relationship between variables i.e. the researcher predicts
not only the existence of a relationship but also its nature.
Non-directional hypotheses
Used when there is little or no theory, or when findings of previous studies are contradictory.
They may imply impartiality.
Do not stipulate the direction of the relationship.
Null hypotheses
These are used when the researcher believes there is no relationship between two variables or when
there is inadequate theoretical or empirical information to state a research hypothesis
Null hypotheses can be:
simple or complex;
associative or causal.
Testable hypotheses
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Source
1. General Culture:
The general pattern of culture helps not only to formulate a hypothesis, but also to guide its
trend. The culture has a great influence upon the thinking process of people and hypothesis
may be formed to test one or more of these ideas.
2. Scientific Theory:
The knowledge of theory leads to form further generalizations from it. These generalizations
form the part of hypothesis.
3. Analogies:
Sometimes a hypothesis is formed from the analogy. A similarity between two phenomena is
observed and a hypothesis is formed to test whether the two phenomena are similar in any
other respect.
Formulation of Hypothesis
Hypothesis Formulation
Once having identified research question, it is time to formulate hypothesis. While the
research question is broad and includes all the variables one want to consider, the hypothesis is a
statement that specific relationship one expect to find from examination of these variables. When
formulating the hypothesis(es), there are a few things one need to keep in mind. Good hypotheses
meet the following criteria:
1) Identify the independent and dependent variables to be studied.
2) Specify the nature of the relationship that exists between these variables.
3) Simple (often referred to as parsimonious). It is better to be concise than to be
long-winded. It is also better to have several simple hypotheses than one
complicated hypothesis.
4) Does not include reference to specific measures.
5) Does not refer to specific statistical procedures that will be used in analysis.
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T-Test
A t-test is
any statistical
hypothesis
test in
which
the test
statistic follows
a Student's t distribution if the null hypothesis is supported. It can be used to determine if two
sets of data are significantly different from each other, and is most commonly applied when the
test statistic would follow a normal distribution if the value of a scaling term in the test statistic
were known. When the scaling term is unknown and is replaced by an estimate based on
the data, the test statistic (under certain conditions) follows a Student's t distribution.
A two-sample t-test examines whether two samples are different and is commonly used when the
variances of two normal distributions are unknown and when an experiment uses a small sample
size. For example, a t-test could be used to compare the average floor routine score of the U.S.
women's Olympic gymnastic team to the average floor routine score of China's women's team.
The t-test, and any statistical test of this sort, consists of three steps.
1. Define the null and alternate hyptheses,
2. Calculate the t-statistic for the data,
3. Compare tcalc to the tabulated t-value, for the appropriate significance level and degree of
freedom. Iftcalc > ttab, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis.
Otherwise, we accept the null hypothesis.
The t-test can be used to compare a sample mean to an accepted value (a population mean), or it
can be used to compare the means of two sample sets.
t-test to Compare One Sample Mean to an Accepted Value
t-test to Compare Two Sample Means
t-test to Compare One Sample Mean to an Accepted Value
In the example, the mean of arsenic concentration measurements was m=4 ppm, for n=7 and,
with sample standard deviation s=0.9 ppm. We established suitable null and alternative
hypostheses:
Null Hypothesis H0: = 0
Alternate Hypothesis HA: > 0
where 0 = 2 ppm is the allowable limit and is the population mean of the measured soil
(refresher on the difference between sample and population means).
We have already seen how to do the first step, and have null and alternate hypotheses. The
second step involves the calculation of the t-statistic for one mean, using the formula:
where s is the standard deviation of the sample, not the population standard deviation. In our
case,
For the third step, we need a table of tabulated t-values for significance level and degrees of
freedom, such as the one found in your lab manual or most statistics textbooks. Referring to a
table for a 95% confidence limit for a 1-tailed test, we find t=6,95% = 1.94. (The difference
between 1- and 2-tailed distributions was covered in a previous section.)
We are now ready to accept or reject the null hypothesis. If the tcalc > ttab, we reject the null
hypothesis. In our case, tcalc=5.88 > ttab=2.45, so we reject the null hypothesis, and say that our
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sample mean is indeed larger than the accepted limit, and not due to random chance, so we can
say that the soil is indeed contaminated.
t-test to Compare Two Sample Means
The method for comparing two sample means is very similar. The only two differences are the
equation used to compute the t-statistic, and the degrees of freedom for choosing the tabulate tvalue. The formula is given by
In this case, we require two separate sample means, standard deviations and sample sizes. The
number of degrees of freedom is computed using the formula
and the result is rounded to the nearest whole number. Once these quantities are determined, the
same three steps for determining the validity of a hypothesis are used for two sample means.
Z-Test
A Z-test is any statistical test for which the distribution of the test statistic under the null
hypothesis can be approximated by a normal distribution. Because of the central limit theorem,
many test statistics are approximately normally distributed for large samples. For each
significance level, the Z-test has a single critical value (for example, 1.96 for 5% two tailed)
which makes it more convenient than the Student's t-test which has separate critical values for
each sample size.
Therefore, many statistical tests can be conveniently performed as approximate Z-tests if the
sample size is large or the population variance known. If the population variance is unknown
(and therefore has to be estimated from the sample itself) and the sample size is not large (n <
30), the Student's t-test may be more appropriate.
If T is a statistic that is approximately normally distributed under the null hypothesis, the next
step in performing a Z-test is to estimate the expected value of T under the null hypothesis, and
then obtain an estimate s of the standard deviation ofT. After that the standard
score Z = (T ) / s is calculated, from which one-tailed and two-tailed p-values can be
calculated as (Z) (for upper-tailed tests), (Z) (for lower-tailed tests) and 2(|Z|) (for twotailed tests) where is the standardnormal cumulative distribution function.
F-Test
The f statistic, also known as an f value, is a random variable that has an F distribution.
An F-test is any statistical test in which the test statistic has an F-distribution under the null
hypothesis. It is most often used when comparing statistical models that have been fitted to
a data set, in order to identify the model that best fits the population from which the data were
sampled. Exact "F-tests" mainly arise when the models have been fitted to the data using least
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squares. The name was coined by George W. Snedecor, in honour of Sir Ronald A. Fisher.
Fisher initially developed the statistic as the variance ratio in the 1920s.
steps required to compute an f statistic:
Select a random sample of size n1 from a normal population, having a standard deviation
equal to 1.
Select an independent random sample of size n2 from a normal population, having a
standard deviation equal to 2.
The f statistic is the ratio of s12/12 and s22/22.
The following equivalent equations are commonly used to compute an f statistic:
f = [ s12/12 ] / [ s22/22 ]
f = [ s12 * 22 ] / [ s22 * 12 ]
f = [ 21 / v1 ] / [ 22 / v2 ]
f = [ 21 * v2 ] / [ 22 * v1 ]
where 1 is the standard deviation of population 1, s1 is the standard deviation of the sample
drawn from population 1, 2 is the standard deviation of population 2, s2 is the standard deviation
of the sample drawn from population 2, 21 is the chi-square statistic for the sample drawn from
population 1, v1 is the degrees of freedom for 21, 22 is the chi-square statistic for the sample
drawn from population 2, and v2 is the degrees of freedom for 22 . Note that degrees of
freedom v1 = n1 - 1, and degrees of freedom v2 = n2 - 1 .
U-Test
The MannWhitney U test (also called the MannWhitneyWilcoxon (MWW), Wilcoxon ranksum test(WRS), or WilcoxonMannWhitney test) is a nonparametric test of the null
hypothesis that two populations are the same against an alternative hypothesis, especially that a
particular population tends to have larger values than the other.
It has greater efficiency than the t-test on non-normal distributions, such as a mixture of normal
distributions, and it is nearly as efficient as the t-test on normal distributions.
The Wilcoxon rank-sum test is not the same as the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, although both are
nonparametric and involve summation of ranks.
A very general formulation is to assume that:
1. All the observations from both groups are independent of each other,
2. The responses are ordinal (i.e. one can at least say, of any two observations, which is the
greater),
3. The distributions of both groups are equal under the null hypothesis, so that the
probability of an observation from one population (X) exceeding an observation from the
second population (Y) equals the probability of an observation from Y exceeding an
observation from X. That is, there is a symmetry between populations with respect to
probability of random drawing of a larger observation.
4. Under the alternative hypothesis, the probability of an observation from one population
(X) exceeding an observation from the second population (Y) (after exclusion of ties) is not
equal to 0.5. The alternative may also be stated in terms of a one-sided test, for example:
P(X > Y) + 0.5 P(X = Y) > 0.5.
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K-W Test
The KruskalWallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks (named after William
Kruskal and W. Allen Wallis) is a non-parametric method for testing whether samples originate
from the same distribution It is used for comparing two or more samples that are independent,
and that may have different sample sizes, and extends the MannWhitney U test to more than
two groups. The parametric equivalent of the Kruskal-Wallis test is the one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA). When rejecting the null hypothesis of the Kruskal-Wallis test, then at least
one sample stochastically dominates at least one other sample.
1. Rank all data from all groups together; i.e., rank the data from 1 to N ignoring group
membership. Assign any tied values the average of the ranks they would have received
had they not been tied.
2. The test statistic is given by:
where:
is the number of observations in group
is the rank (among all observations) of observation from group
is the total number of observations across all groups
and
is
. Thus
The last formula only contains the squares of the average ranks.
4. A correction for ties if using the short-cut formula described in the previous point can be
made by dividing
by
, where G is the number of groupings of
different tied ranks, and ti is the number of tied values within group i that are tied at a
particular value. This correction usually makes little difference in the value of K unless
there are a large number of ties.
5. Finally, the p-value is approximated by
. If some
values are small
(i.e., less than 5) theprobability distribution of K can be quite different from this chisquared distribution. If a table of the chi-squared probability distribution is available, the
critical value of chi-squared,
, can be found by entering the table atg 1 degrees
of freedom and looking under the desired significance or alpha level.
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Bivariate analysis is one of the simplest forms of quantitative (statistical) analysis. It involves the
analysis of two variables (often denoted as X, Y), for the purpose of determining the empirical
relationship between them. In order to see if the variables are related to one another, it is
common to measure how those two variables simultaneously change together (see
also covariance).
Bivariate analysis can be helpful in testing simple hypotheses of association andcausality
checking to what extent it becomes easier to know and predict a value for the dependent
variable if we know a case's value of the independent variable.
Chi-Square
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6. Compare the computed chi-square statistic with the critical value of chi-square; reject the null
hypothesis if the chi-square is equal to or larger than the critical value; accept the null
hypothesis if the chi-square is less than the critical value.
7. State a substantive conclusion, i.e., describe the meaning and importance of the test results in
terms of the historical problem under investigation.
Multivariate Analysis (Theory Only)
Multivariate Data Analysis refers to any statistical technique used to analyze data that arises
from more than one variable. This essentially models reality where each situation, product, or
decision involves more than a single variable. The information age has resulted in masses of data
in every field. Despite the quantum of data available, the ability to obtain a clear picture of what
is going on and make intelligent decisions is a challenge. When available information is stored in
database tables containing rows and columns
Multivariate analysis methods typically used for:
Consumer and market research
Quality control and quality assurance across a range of industries such as food and
beverage, paint, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, energy, telecommunications, etc
Process optimization and process control
Research and development
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dfwithin = N-r
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x
=
individual
r=
number
of
N = total number of observations
n = number of observations in group
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observation
groups
(all groups)
The two-way ANOVA is an extension of the one-way ANOVA. The "two-way" comes because
each item is classified in two ways, as opposed to one way.
For example, one way classifications might be: gender, political party, religion, or race. Two
way classifications might be by gender and political party, gender and race, or religion and race.
Each classification variable is a called a factor and so there are two factors, each having several
levels within that factor. The factors are called the "row factor" and the "column factor" because
the data is usually arranged into table format. Each combination of a row level and a column
level is called a treatment.
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Assumptions
The populations from which the samples were obtained must be normally or
approximately normally distributed.
Hypotheses
There are three sets of hypothesis with the two-way ANOVA.
The null hypotheses for each of the sets are given below.
1. The population means of the first factor are equal. This is like the one-way ANOVA for
the row factor.
2. The population means of the second factor are equal. This is like the one-way ANOVA
for the column factor.
3. There is no interaction between the two factors. This is similar to performing a test for
independence with contingency tables.
Factors
The two independent variables in a two-way ANOVA are called factors. The idea is that there
are two variables, factors, which affect the dependent variable. Each factor will have two or more
levels within it, and the degrees of freedom for each factor is one less than the number of levels.
Two-Way ANOVA Table
It is assumed that main effect A has a levels (and A = a-1 df), main effect B has b levels (and B =
b-1 df), n is the sample size of each treatment, and N = abn is the total sample size. Notice the
overall degrees of freedom is once again one less than the total sample size.
Source
SS
df
MS
Main Effect A
given
A,
a-1
SS / df
MS(A) / MS(W)
Main Effect B
given
B,
SS / df
MS(B) / MS(W)
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b-1
Interaction Effect
given
A*B,
(a-1)(b-1)
Within
given
N - ab, SS / df
ab(n-1)
Total
sum of others
N
abn - 1
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SS / df
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Module 7
Report writing and presentation of results
A document prepared by an analyst or strategist who is a part of the investment research team. A
research report may focus on a specific stock or industry sector, a currency, commodity or fixedincome instrument, or even on a geographic region or country. Research reports generally, but not
always, have "actionable" recommendations
Importance of report writing
Report-writing is an indispensable part of any profession. Almost every important decision in
business, industry or government is taken on the basis of information presented or recommendation
made in reports. Every member of the executive staff of an organisation is made to write a report at
one time or another because without making report no analysis of their work is possible. Reports
keep record which are used if the same situation recur. Reports also provide objective
recommendations on any problem. Hence the skill of report-writing is as important as good raw
material and equipment for running an industry or a business efficiently. An efficient executive need
to possess this skills, if he wants to rise up the corporate ladder. It helps him to perform his functions
of planning and evaluating men and material resources efficiently.
Types of research report
Two types of reports: Technical Report: suitable for a target audience of
researchers, research managers or other people familiar with and interested in
the technicalities such as research design, sampling methods, statistical details
etc.,
Popular Report: suitable for:
a more general audience, interested mainly in the research findings as it is
non-technical in nature.
The writing style is designed to facilitate easy and rapid reading and understanding of
the research findings and recommendations.
Other forms
Dissertations and theses
Dissertation and theses proposals
Journal articles
Conference papers
Conference paper proposals
Reports for policy makers and schools
Report structure
A. Preliminary Section
1. Title Page
2. Acknowledgments (if any)
3. Table of Contents
4. List of Tables (if any)
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Summary and Conclusions: This section condenses the previous sections, succinctly presents the
results concerning the hypotheses, and suggests what else can be done.
Restatement of the Problem: This is a short reiteration of the problem.
Description of the Procedures: This is a brief reiteration of important elements of the design of
the study.
Major Findings: The final results from the analysis are presented, the hypothesis stated, and the
decision about the rejection or the failure to reject the hypothesis is given.
Conclusions: Comments about the implication of the findings are presented.
Recommendations for Further Investigation: From the knowledge and experienced gained in
undertaking this particular study, how might the study have been improved or what other
possible hypotheses might be investigated?
End Notes: These are like footnotes but are located at the back rather than the bottom of each
page. These would include all of the references for all works cited in the Review of Related
Literature or any other sections of the report as well as the references for quotations, either direct
or indirect, taken from other sources, or any footnote comments that might have been included.
These are listed in numeric order as presented in the text.
Bibliography or Literature Cited: These are the bibliographic reference for each of the works
cited in the End Notes.
Appendix: Any tables, figures, forms, or other materials that are not totally central to the analysis
but that need to be included are placed in the Appendix.
Guidelines for effective documentation
Documentation is a set of documents provided on paper, or online, or on digital or analog media,
such as audio tape or CDs. Example are user guides, white papers, on-line help, quick-reference
guides. It is becoming less common to see paper (hard-copy) documentation. Documentation is
distributed via websites, software products, and other on-line applications.
The following is a list of guides dealing with each specific field and type:
thesis writing
As the research and field work progress, files of notes, sketches, reproduced reference
materials, and photographs should be compiled. If an aid to navigation has changed over time,
chronologically arranged files of plans, photographs, and notes will help to understand the
progression and nature of the alterations. Color slides of the aid to navigation may be useful in
preparing the National Register nomination when returning to the site is not possible.
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Black and white photographs of the aid to navigation should be taken. The quality of the
photographs actually included in the nomination will benefit from selecting among a wide choice
of photographs. Historic photographs and graphics may be located and copied for inclusion with
the nomination. Historic plans may be copied in photographs to aid in documentation. If historic
plans do not exist, modern plans may be prepared.
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