Premature bearing failures in

wind applications & white

etching cracks (WEC)

Presented by

Kenred Stadler

Presented to

NREL seminar, October 2014 at Argonne Lab

30.10.2014

Content

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Background
White etching structures
Hypotheses
Known conditions that can trigger WEC
Summary & remedies

1
Background

October 30, 2007 SKF Group Slide 3

K.Stadler

Premature bearing failures definition

1. Failed bearing have an extensive crack system with WE decorations.
2. Bearings in a specific machine have a systematically short service life. Bearing
failures reoccur if no design changes in bearings, bearing systems or application
conditions are made.

3. Bearing, bearing system and running conditions seem to be technically

reasonable without trivial obvious mistakes.

Early cracks have

occurred commonly
within the first 1-3
years of operational
time, or at 5-10% of
the calculated rating
life.

Slide 4

K. Stadler

Where premature crack failure may occur?

Wind

CVT
Continuous variable drive

Crane lifting
gearboxes

Cracks / WEC

PODs

Alternators

Crusher mills

Paper mills

Occurrence mostly found in larger industrial gearbox applications,

but also in automotive applications possible!
Slide 5

Compressors

K. Stadler

Where in WTs do premature failures & WEC occur?

Main
bearings

Gearbox
bearings
Planet wheel
High Speed
Intermediate Shaft (HSIMS)
High Speed Shaft
(HSS)

SKF Group

Slide 6

K. Stadler

Generator

Which bearing types can be affected?

Taper Roller Bearing

(TRB)

Cylindrical Roller Bearing

(CRB)

All bearing types can be affected...

Slide 7

K. Stadler

Spherical Roller Bearing

(SRB)

Deep Groove Ball Bearing

(DGBB)

Crack appearance & propagation depending on HT

Martensite

Bainite

Case Carburized

+50 to +100MPa

-50 to -100MPa

-100 to -200MPa

tensile at surface

compressive at surface

compressive at surface

Through hardened as well as case hardened can fail!

Slide 8

K. Stadler

Classification of premature failures still unclear

Normal failure versus Premature failure
ISO 15243
by accelerated fatigue?

Sub-surface initiated fatigue

Surface initiated fatigue

Premature failure
(multiple spalls/cracks with WEC)

A L10 calculation (ISO 281, ISO/TR 1281-2) will

cover nominal fatigue life only, but not premature
failure with WEC! not yet

Slide 9

K. Stadler

WEC = irregular network of ultra fine

nano-recrystallized carbide-free ferrite

2
White etching structures

October 30, 2007 SKF Group Slide 10

K.Stadler

Known white etching formations...

3.

1.

re-hardened and re-tempered area

by smearing damage

A.Voskamp
Phases in fatigue life:
Shakedown (microplastic deformation, work
hardening, RS build-up)
Steady-State
Instability (austenite,
martensite, cementite
decay; texture
development, volume
increase, RS build-up)

1. early Dark Etching Area (DEA) 1x107 rev

2. strong DEA 6,3x107 rev
3. strong DEA, LAB & HAB 6,6x108 rev

2.
BF (>1,4 GPa loading)

1. martensite
decay, ferritic
bands by cyclic
plastic
deformation
2. by repeated
local plastic
deformation at
inclusions
3. by reaustenization
4. by TTS
5. by ASB

4.
Podgornik, B, Kalin, M, Vizintin, J, and
Vodopivec, F, "Microstructural changes and
contact temperatures during fretting in steelsteel contact." Journal of tribology 123, no.
4 (2001): 670-675

5.

T.W. Wright, The physics and Mathematics of Adiabatic

Shear Bands, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
U.K. 2002

Slide 11

K. Stadler

From known WE formations...

The white etching structure in failed rings:
is nano-crystalline ferrite, supersaturated with carbon
may contain fine Fe carbides of varying morphology up to nearly
carbide free (carbide dissolution). It is often associated with voids
and cavities
WE is hard and brittle phase
results from local cyclic plastic deformation
may be caused by crack face rubbing

is quite different from scuffing, grinding burns (which are untempered martensite)

no tempered / heat influence zone around the cracks

is similar to, but distinct from banding like LAB/HAB (because it is

harder and finer grained) and adiabatic shear bands
WE features very irregular along cracks

Slide 12

K. Stadler

3
Hypotheses

October 30, 2007 SKF Group Slide 13

K.Stadler

Many hypotheses on WEC

1. Hydrogen enhanced WEC

3. Adiabatic shear bands
4. Hydrogen & stress
enhanced WEC

6. Normal stress
hypothesis

5. Multiple influences
lubrication
loading
current
Slide 14

2. Stress enhanced WEC

K. Stadler

Cracks / WEC hypotheses & more...

Influencing parameters

c
SKF:

No matter if surface
or sub-surface
initiated WEC are
a consequence, not
a root cause!!

According A

According B

Not sure (A&B)

1. Hydrogen enhanced WEC

3. Adiabatic shear bands
5. Multiple influences

2. Stress enhanced WEC

4. Hydrogen & stress enhanced WEC
6. Normal stress hypothesis

1. Hydrogen enhanced WEC

Slide 15

K. Stadler

Simple philosophy similar to weakest link

Crack initiation, small crack growth rate, crack arrest, and propagating
long crack growth at least one is changed compared to normal
failing bearings

Cracking parameters must be altered in premature failing bearings

Only two things are possible (or combination):

1. Stress related pure mechanical loading in application leads to (local)

stresses that exceed the material strength

(e.g. peak stress levels followed by low stress, structural stresses...)

2. Environmental weakening non-mechanical loading effects allows

bearings to fail already at lower stresses (reducing material strength)
weakening

(e.g. moisture corrosion, electrical chemical corrosion, electrical erosion, stray currents,
tribocorrosion...)

Bearings dont commit suicide!

Slide 16

K. Stadler

4
Known conditions that can
trigger WEC

October 30, 2007 SKF Group Slide 17

K.Stadler

1. Hydrogen (artificial charging)

Hydrogen will generate sub-surface WEC
DGBB hydrogen charged bearing tests:
A number of bearing inner rings were charged with
hydrogen and mounted back in the bearing. This
bearing was tested simultaneously with a nontreated bearing. The results of the tests show in a
very convincing way that the presence of hydrogen
has a strong effect on bearing life.

SKF:
Vegter, R.H., Slycke, J.T., Hydrogen, The Role of Hydrogen on Rolling
Contact Fatigue Response of Rolling Element Bearings, Journal of ASTM
International, Vol. 7, No. 2, Paper ID JAI102543

White-etching area development in a bearing inner ring cross-section. The

bearing was charged with hydrogen and tested for 1.9106 revolutions (= 5.2
hours) under a contact pressure of 3.3 GPa

H-charged

Slide 18

K. Stadler

2. Electrical current damage (hydrogen accelerated RCF?)

Stray currents can produce WEC
from field:

raceway

section

DGBB generator bearing

J.Gegner, Mat-Sci-Forum Vol-681 2011 (SKF)

test:
Example of H-measurement of one washer after 24h test
Test

Average from 3
measurements [ppm]

DC

0,7 (increase)

no current

typical value

Tendency only: Hydrogen could be entrapped from the lubricant while it

is locally decomposing and/or measured as part of the surface oxidation
layer...more work needs to be done!...

Slide 19

K. Stadler

3. Corrosion damage (hydrogen accelerated RCF?)

Moisture corrosion can produce WEC
test:

1.Slight

2.Moderate

3.Severe

Stand-still corrosion test:

Bearing type = 22220E
(Martensite, Bainite, Case Carburized)
Test conditions:

from field:

Fr = 42.5 kN C/P ~10

Contact pressures: 1.6 GPa.
Test cycle: 120 h running
followed by 48 h standstill
Bearings are re-greased after
each 240 h running period
test stopped after around 3 %
of L10 life
SKF:
Strandell, I., Fajers, C., Lund, T., Corrosion One root cause for
premature failures, 37th Leeds-Lyon Symposium on Tribology, 2012

Slide 20

K. Stadler

Example from customer storage

4. Mixed friction & lubrication (hydrogen accelerated RCF?) (1)

Mixed friction conditions can produce WEC
LAD test rig with 81212
Test conditions:
kappa = 0,5
PHz = 1,9 GPa
T = 90C
speed = 500 rpm
running = 50-70 h

H-insitu measurement
both tribocomponent
tests provoke
wear and
fresh metallic
contacts and
can be
correlated to
the
generation of
hydrogen

Slide 21

K. Stadler

C-rig test

4. Mixed friction & lubrication (stress related parameters) (2)

(special design)

Wind oil A + preservative A

Wind oil A
Wind oil A + preservative B

parameters:
time to failure
(surface crack)
friction force

lubricant

friction force

Wind oil A + preservative A

Wind oil A
Wind oil A + preservative B

45 N
< 40 N
50 N

Although the what & why is not always understood with respect to chemistry & reaction layer composition, it
is still possible to measure parameters that have a significant impact with respect to stress and related
performance!

Slide 22

K. Stadler

5. Short period high loads & local stresses

Short term high loads can produce WEC

Outer ring

Bearing 23024CC
Pure mineral oil VG100
Heavy/Peak load:
revs = 3000

Running at constant high load

will not cause WEC, but
spalling.
Life is as theory describes.

pHz = 3.5 GPa

+ hoop stress

Peak load followed by

low load is needed to
generate large crack
systems.

Continues load:
revs = around 16 Mio
pHz = 1.3 to 1.6 GPa
no hoop stress

Slide 23

K. Stadler

6. Local structural/tensile stresses

Excessive tensile stress can produce WEC
bearing = CRB, bore diameter 220 mm
modified set-up sleeve induces local
tensile stress by form deviations

oil = VG 68
speed = 2000 rpm
t 1500h
pHz = 2000 MPa

WEC development in region

of tensile stresses

Slide 24

K. Stadler

WEC conditions & remedies general (not Wind only)

WEC In the lab

Observations when WEC in field

Remedies

Bearings abused by
Moisture Corrosion
Electrical erosion
Structural bending of
rings
Short term heavy
loads in combination
with + nominal loads
Mixed friction / low
kappa conditions in
combination with slip
and high AW/EP oils
Others*

In parallel to WEC, one often finds

Roller distance marks (via
standstill corrosion or mechanical
damage)
Erosion pits
Measureable structural
deformation of components or
raceways
Signs of transient loss of
operational clearance
Discolored, polished surfaces
Mounting errors
Fretting corrosion
Dynamically loaded applications
Humid/moisture environment
Others*

Eliminating root causes in bearing

system - review:
Avoid water in system
(condensation, etc.)
Higher kappa (temperature,
viscosity)
Avoid stray currents
Good bearing support (avoid
misalignment, ring & raceway
deformation, clamping of rings,
fits)
Correct transport conditions (avoid
humidity, vibrations)
Correct mounting procedures
Correct radial or axial preload (T
during startup, clearance
selection, free floating bearing)
Increase bearing robustness
Black oxidising (improvement
only)
Special steels & treatments &
finish, compressive res stresses

* crack growth with WE decorations seems also possible to

enhance under specific conditions with parameters as electrical
potentials without erosion (e.g. studies Schaeffler & NSK), very
poor steel quality, grinding burns, etc.

October 30, 2007 SKF Group Slide 25

K.Stadler

5
Summary & remedies
(in wind)

October 30, 2007 SKF Group Slide 26

K.Stadler

Summary & remedies in Wind

Environmental related
Conditions

1. Hydrogen

(factors)

by artificial
charging

Physical
understanding

Stress related

2. Current

3. Corrosion

4. Mixed friction

5. High load

6. Tensile stresses

high

low/medium

medium

low/medium

medium/high

medium/high

Relation to
Wind
Application

none

likely

likely

likely
(depending on
bearing position)

unclear
(non-steady state
conditions)

unclear
(structural stresses)

Improvements
for
bearing

n.a.

Improvements
in wind
application

n.a.

(related to WEC)

wind field experience, measurements & tests indicate relevance

wind field experience, measurements & tests indicate less relevance

Slide 27

K. Stadler

Summary & remedies in Wind

Environmental related
Conditions

1. Hydrogen

(factors)

by artificial
charging

Physical
understanding

Stress related

2. Current

3. Corrosion

4. Mixed friction

5. High load

6. Tensile stresses

high

low/medium

medium

low/medium

medium/high

medium/high

Relation to
Wind
Application

none

likely

likely

likely
(depending on
bearing position)

unclear
(non-steady state
conditions)

unclear
(structural stresses)

Improvements
for
bearing

n.a.

Insocoat, hybrid
bearings

black oxide, special

corrosion resistant
steels (VC 444)

black oxide,
improved surface
topography, hybrid
bearings, NoWear,
different stabilization

increase capacity,
compressive residual
stresses, increase
clearance (where
appropriate e.g. when
large T)

compressive residual
stresses, if bearing
according to
specification, then mostly
n.a.

ensure optimum bearing

running conditions,
ensure correct
mounting, smooth
starting-up procedure to
avoid large T, avoid
thermal stresses

check if static and

alternating tensile stresses
are possible (e.g. form/shaft
deviations, housing
deformation, structural
stresses)

(related to WEC)

(higher wear resistance)

Improvements
in wind
application

n.a.

insulation solutions,
slip rings / brushes
avoid stray currents

avoid water ingress &

condensation,
review transport &
mounting, avoid
standstill periods,
sealing solutions

improve lubrication
conditions, reduce
operating temperature,
improve surface
topographies (where
applicable)

wind field experience, measurements & tests indicate relevance

wind field experience, measurements & tests indicate less relevance
Slide 28

K. Stadler

Conclusions
Premature failures in wind turbines are likely driven by multiple factors:

Environmental factors: e.g. corrosion, stray current, friction&lubricant (additives, water

contamination), etc.

Stress factors: e.g. structural stress / shape deviations (shaft, etc.), transient heavy
loads (dynamics), preload due to large T, mounting and transport, etc.

The exact combination of influencing factors that explain the failures on

different bearing positions is not yet understood

Field experience and measurements seem to indicate higher relevance for environmental factors
Good field experience of black oxidized gearbox bearings indicates relevance of environmental factors
More than 90 000 Black Oxide (BO) bearing supplied for wind gearboxes

99% Through Hardened rings and rollers

all type of positions in gearbox (large volume before 2009)

Turbine power range from < 1 MW to > 6 MW

Bearing bore 50-950 mm

Total premature failures of BO bearings with WEC indications so far negligible (< 50 ppm)

In each BO failure case which was investigated the failure was not WEC related

Hypotheses and tests must account for this field experience

Black oxide helps to improve premature failure resistance in gearboxes
Slide 29

K. Stadler

Thank you for your attention !!!