Discovery learning

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Contents

1 Definition

2 Theory and models of discovery learning

3 Models of discovery learning

4 Technology

5 Advantages and disavantages of discovery learning

o 5.1 Advantages
o 5.2 Disadvantages

6 Planning a Discovery Learning Experience

7 Examples

8 Links

9 References

1 Definition
Discovery learning refers to various instructional design models that engages students in
learning through discovery. Usually the pedagogical aims are threefold: (1) Promote "deep"
learning, (2) Promote meta-cognitive skills (develop problem-solving skills, creativity, etc.), (3)
Promote student engagement.
According to van Joolingen (1999:385): Discovery learning is a type of learning where learners
construct their own knowledge by experimenting with a domain, and inferring rules from the
results of these experiments. The basic idea of this kind of learning is that because learners can
design their own experiments in the domain and infer the rules of the domain themselves they are
actually constructing their knowledge. Because of these constructive activities, it is assumed they

will understand the domain at a higher level than when the necessary information is just
presented by a teacher or an expository learning environment.
According to Borthick & Jones (2000:181): In discovery learning, participants learn to
recognize a problem, characterize what a solution would look like, search for relevant
information, develop a solution strategy, and execute the chosen strategy. In collaborative
discovery learning, participants, immersed in a community of practice, solve problems together.
According to Judith Conway's Educational Technology's Effect on Models of Instruction:
Jerome Bruner was influential in defining Discovery Learning. It uses Cognitive psychology as a
base. Discovery learning is "an approach to instruction through which students interact with their
environment-by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies,
or performing experiments" (Ormrod, 1995, p. 442) The idea is that students are more likely to
remember concepts they discover on their own. Teachers have found that discovery learning is
most successful when students have prerequisite knowledge and undergo some structured
experiences. (Roblyer, Edwards, and Havriluk, 1997, p 68).
Discovery Learning provides students with opportunities to develop hypotheses to answer
questions and can contribute to the development of a lifelong love of learning. Students propose
issues or problems, gather data and observations to develop hypotheses, confirm or refine their
hypotheses, and explain or prove their problems. Apple Teaching Methods, Discovery Learning
Discovery learning is based on this "Aha!" method. [1]

2 Theory and models of discovery learning

Discovery learning can be traced back to authors like Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Dewey. In
particular Dewey's emphasis on "experience" is in vogue again.
Modern discovery learning approaches relate to constructivist theory and therefore Bruner is
considered a father of discovery learning by many authors. E.g. in the Encyclopedia of
Educational technology one can find the following quote from Bruner "Emphasis on discovery
in learning has precisely the effect on the learner of leading him to be a constructionist, to
organize what he is encountering in a manner not only designed to discover regularity and
relatedness, but also to avoid the kind of information drift that fails to keep account of the uses to
which information might have to be put." (Bruner, 1962).
Another strong influence for some kinds of discovery learning (see microworlds is Seymour
Papert's constructionism. Donald Clark in his discovery learning page puts the following
statement: "You can't teach people everything they need to know. The best you can do is
position them where they can find what they need to know when they need to know it." Seymour Papert
Discovery learning is also strongly tied to problem solving (or learning how to solve problems
under a more meta-cognitive perspective): "Learning theorists characterize learning to solve
problems as discovery learning, in which participants learn to recognize a problem, characterize

what a solution would look like, search for relevant information, develop a solution strategy, and
execute the chosen strategy." (Borthick & Jones, 2000:181)
Some authors point out that discovery learning may increase content relevance and student
engagement (actually an argument that can be made for all sorts of project-oriented learning.
Discovery learning, like most constructivist instructional design models is not easy to implement,
since learners need to possess a number of cognitive skills and be intrinsically motivated to learn.
van Joolingen (1999:386) makes the following point:
In research on scientific discovery learning, it has been found that in order for discovery of
learning to be successful, learners need to posses a number of discovery skills (De Jong & Van
Joolingen, in press), including hypothesis generation, experiment design, prediction, and data
analysis. In addition, regulative skills like planning and monitoring are needed for successful
discovery learning (Njoo & De Jong, 1993). Apart from being supportive for learning about the
domain at hand, these skills are usually also seen as a learning goal in itself, as they are needed
in a complex information society. Lack of these skills can result in ineffective discovery
behavior, like designing inconclusive experiments, confirmation bias and drawing incorrect
conclusions from data. In its turn, ineffective discovery behavior does not contribute to creating
new knowledge in the mind of the learner.
Therefore one must try to support discovery learning processes, however with the risk of
disrupting the very nature process that should engage the learner in autonomous knowledge
construction.
Of course, there is a lot of disruption of this "pure model". A lot of research has pointed to out
that "unguided instruction" can fail to meet precise instructional goals. Therefore, in practice,
most current forms of discovery learning are guided in various ways.

3 Models of discovery learning

we should add a sort of common blueprint here maybe

Collaborative discovery learning

Discovery learning with microworlds

Experiental learning (to some extent)

Guided discovery learning

Incidental learning

Learning by exploring (exploratory learning)

Simulation-based learning

Case-based learning

Problem-based learning

inquiry-based learning

4 Technology

Cognitive tools

Simulations

Hypertext

Microworlds

A simple combination of webpages (read/write) and forums or alternatively a Wiki

5 Advantages and disavantages of discovery learning

5.1 Advantages
The discovery learning literature often claims the following advantages:

Supports active engagement of the learner in the learning process

Fosters curiosity

Enables the development of life long learning skills

Personalizes the learning experience

Highly motivating as it allows individuals the opportunity to experiment and discover

something for themselves

Builds on learner's prior knowledge and understanding

Develops a sense of independence and autonomy

Make them responsible for their own mistakes and results

Learning as most adults learn on the job and in real life situations

A reason to record their procedure and discoveries - such as not repeating mistakes, a way
to analyze what happened, and a way to record a victorious discovery

Develops problem solving and creative skills

Finds new and interesting avenues of information and learning - such as gravy made with
too much cornstarch can become a molding medium

These sorts of arguments can be regrouped in two broad categories

Development of meta cognitive skills (including some higher level cognitive strategies)
useful in lifelong learning.

Motivation

5.2 Disadvantages
Most researchers would argue that pure discovery learning as a general and global teaching
strategy for beginning and intermediary learners doesn't work. The debate on how much guiding
is needed is somewhat open. See Kirschner et al. (2006) for a good overview (or Mayer, 2004;
Feldon) and also Merrill's first principles of instruction model that does promote unguided
problem-based learning at the final stages of an instructional design.
Typical criticisms are:

(Sometimes huge) cognitive overload, potential to confuse the learner if no initial

framework is available, etc.

Measurable performance (compared to hard-core instructional designs) is worse for most

learning situations.

Creations of misconceptions ("knowing less after instruction")

Weak students have a tendency to "fly under the radar" (Aleven et al. 2003) and teacher's
fail to detect situations needing strong remediation or scaffolding.

Some studies admit that strong students can benefit from weak treatments and others
conclude that there is no difference, but more importantly they also conclude that weak
students benefit strongly from strong treatments.

DSchneider thinks that despite very strong arguments (Kirschner et al., 2006) in disfavor of even
guided discovery learning models like problem-based learning, the debate is still open. Most
really serious studies concerned high-school science teaching. Now, science is very hard and
indeed puts a very heavy load on short-term memory. In addition, in order to solve even
moderatly complex problems a person must engage many schemas. If nothing is available in
long term memory, the learner is stuck.
As an example, DSchneider (from his own experience) doesn't believe that object-oriented
programming could be taught by a discovery approach. Making web pages on the other hand
could. Students can incrementally work on their own projet and integrate independent concepts
like HTML, CSS, Ergonomics, Style, Color etc. on their own pace. A project-oriented approach
to web page making probably also would be less effective than a strategy like direct instruction.
On the positive side, students engaged in discovery with some scaffolding and monitoring
provided by the teacher will learn to find resources, to read technical texts found on the Internet,
to adapt a solution to their skill level (learn something about the economics), to decompose a
problem, etc. I.e. they learn some skill that are probably transferrable to similar autonmous
learning situation (e.g. learning SVG on their own).

6 Planning a Discovery Learning Experience

(paste by Stek, from http://members.aol.com/kitecd2/artcl_disclearn.htm#PLANNING)

select an activity. To begin pick an activity that is relatively short so that follow-up
attempts are easier to predict and plan for. Select a subject with which you are personally
familiar and comfortable. Also in the beginning it is often best to choose an activity that
does not have just one correct answer. Role-playing, creating sculptures, observing
characteristics of objects, or searching for or classifying similar items all work well.

gather materials. Remember to have enough materials for each learner to repeat the
activity at least once.

stay focused. Avoid learning tangents that may be interesting but will keep the learner
from finishing the project, unless they are truly of great curiosity and value. Instead take
notes concerning the new interest to follow-up on once the initial activity is completed.

use caution. While the idea of discovery learning is for the instructor to step back and
observe allowing the child to work independently, be sure that safety is observed.
Activities such as cooking and cutting should always be supervised by an adult and
experimenting with magnets is nice unless an important video or cassette tape is ruined.

plan extra time. Understand that children working on their own will most likely take
longer than they would with an adult moving them from step to step. Also be sure to plan
time for repeated activities in case there is a failure or other reason to repeat the activity.

record process and results. Include in the activity a requirement for older children to
record their procedure and results. For young children guide, assist, or model record
keeping.

discuss and review. After and activity is completed and before it is repeated a second
time (if needed), discuss the activity and its outcome with the child. Use the records
which were kept to assist during this step. Once the activity has been analyzed, record
any observations or mistakes.

try again. Have the child repeat the activity if necessary. Encourage her to take into
account what was done and the discussion that occurred. Allow her to use any records
that were kept to assist her in successfully completing the activity. Give assistance and
guidance as necessary.

plan for more discovery learning activities. Think over how this activity worked for the
child. As you plan more discovery activities take the answers to these questions into
consideration. What went well? What could have gone better? How can any problem
areas be corrected or alleviated?

7 Examples

See http://copland.udel.edu/~jconway/EDST666.htm#dislrn (to be inserted in

simulations.)

8 Links

http://copland.udel.edu/~jconway/EDST666.htm#dislrn

Apple Teaching Methods, Discovery Learning

http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/discovery.html

Alternative modes to delivery, Discovery Learning

9 References

Aleven, V., Stahl, E., Schworm, S., Fischer, F., & Wallace, R. (2003). Help Seeking and
Help Design in Interactive Learning Environments. Review of Educational Research,
73(7), 277-320.

Borthick, A. Faye & Donald R. Jones (2000). The Motivation for Collaborative
Discovery Learning Online and Its Application in an Information Systems Assurance
Course, Issues in Accounting Education, 15 (2). [2].

o This article presents a case study in detail

Bruner, J.S. (1967). On knowing: Essays for the left hand. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard
University Press.

Davidson, N. The Small-Group Discovery Method in Secondary- and College-Level

Mathematics, In N. Davidson (cd.) Cooperative Learning in Mathematics: A Handbook
for Teachers. Addison-Wesley (Menlo Park, Ca.). 1990.

Dunbar, K. 1993. Concept discovery in a scientific domain. Cognitive Science 17: 397434.

Feldon, David F. Perspectives on Learner-Centeredness: A Critical Review of Definitions

and Practice, University of Southern California Center for Learning, PDF, retrieved,
17:17, 15 September 2006 (MEST).

Jong, T. de, & Joolingen, W.R. van (1998). Scientific discovery learning with computer
simulations of conceptual domains. Review of Educational Research, 68, 179-202.

Joolingen, Wouter van (1999), Cognitive tools for discovery learning, International
Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 10, 385-397 [3]

Joyce, B., M. Weil, and B. Showers. (1992) Models of Teaching. Allyn and Bacon
(Boston, Ma).

Kirschner, P., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (in press). Why Unguided Learning Does Not
Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Discovery Learning, Problem-Based Learning,
Experiential Learning and Inquiry-Based Learning. Educational Psychologist.PDF
Preprint

Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006) Why minimal guidance during
instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problembased, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75-86
PDF

http://members.aol.com/kitecd2/artcl_disclearn.htm

http://www.csd.uwa.edu.au/altmodes/to_delivery/discovery_learning.html

Klahr, D., & Dunbar, K. (1988). Dual space search during scientific reasoning. Cognitive
Science, 12, 1-48.

Mayer, R. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning?
American Psychologist, 59(1):14-19 [Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure
discovery learning PDF] (Access restricted).

Njoo, M., & Jong, T. de (1993). Exploratory learning with a computer simulation for
control theory: Learning processes and instructional support. Journal of Research in
Science Teaching, 30, 821-844.

Sweller, John & Graham A. Cooper (1985) The Use of Worked Examples as a Substitute
for Problem Solving in Learning Algebra, Cognition and Instruction, 2:1, 59-89, DOI:
10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3

Tobias, S, (1991). An examination of some issues in the constructivist-ISD controversy

from an eclectic perspective. Educational Technology, 31 (9), 41-43.

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Discovery Learning

Hiero II requested that Archimedes find a method for determining whether a crown was pure
gold or alloyed with silver. When he stepped into a bath he realized that a given weight of gold
would displace less water than an equal weight of silver (which is less dense than gold); at this
point he shouted, EUREKA (I have found it!). Discovery learning is based on this Aha!
method.
Discovery Learning is an inquiry-based learning method. The concept of discovery learning has
appeared numerous times throughout history as a part of the educational philosophy of many
great philosophers particularly Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Dewey. There is an intimate and
necessary relation between the processes of actual experience and education wrote Dewey. It
also enjoys the support of learning theorists and psychologists, such as Piaget, Bruner, and
Papert. It has enjoyed a few positive swings of the educational-trend pendulum in American
education, but it has never received overwhelming acceptance.
You can't teach people everything they need to know. The best you can do is position them where
they can find what they need to know when they need to know it. - Seymour Papert
Discovery learning takes place most notably in problem solving situations where the learner
draws on his own experience and prior knowledge to discover the truths that are to be learned. It
is a personal, internal, constructivist learning environment. Bruner wrote, Emphasis on
discovery in learning has precisely the effect on the learner of leading him to be a constructionist,
to organize what he is encountering in a manner not only designed to discover regularity and
relatedness, but also to avoid the kind of information drift that fails to keep account of the uses to
which information might have to be put.
http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/5352

Discovery learning

This reference article explains the theory of discovery learning and discusses its history and its
use in the classroom.
By Heather Coffey

Learn more
Related pages

Seeing, wondering, theorizing, learning: Inquiry-based instruction with Kishia Moore: In

this article, first-grade teacher Kishia Moore shares some of the strategies she uses to
bring inquiry-based instruction into the elementary classroom. Ms. Moore teaches in
Mitchell County and is a member of the 2011 cohort of the Kenan Fellows Program.

The learning cycle: A three-part model of scientific inquiry that encourages students to
develop their own understanding of a scientific concept, explore and deepen that
understanding, and then apply the concept to new situations.

Science as a verb: Inquiry science requires active relationships between students,

teachers, and science. Building these relationships is a three-step process that involves
thinking about inquiry as a process of science, as a pedagogical strategy, and as a set of
skills and behaviors to encourage in students.

Related topics

Learn more about cognition, discovery learning, inquiry, and teaching methods.

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Discovery learning is an active process of inquiry-based instruction that encourages learners to

build on prior knowledge through experience and to search for new information and relationships
based on their interests.

History of discovery learning

Psychologist and cognitive learning theorist Jerome Bruner (1967) first outlined the principles of
discovery learning in a book about how people construct knowledge based on prior experiences.1
Similar constructivist learning theories were developed by John Dewey2, Jean Piaget3, and Lev
Vygotsky, all of whom suggested that discovery learning encourages students to become active
participants in the learning process by exploring concepts and answering questions through
experience.

Discovery learning in practice

Typically, the educational goals of discovery learning include promoting a deep understanding;
developing meta-cognitive skills; and encouraging a high level of student engagement.
According to Nadira Saab, et al., discovery learning is a process of inductive inquiry where
learners conducting experiments, a theory which closely resembles the scientific process.4 First,
learners identify variables, collect data, and interpret data. Then learners generate hypotheses in
order to better describe and understand relationships between concepts. Finally, the continuous
cyclical process of learning requires learners to interpret the data, reject hypotheses, and make
conclusions about information.5
Similarly, Faye Borthick and Donald Jones suggest, In discovery learning, participants learn to
recognize a problem, characterize what a solution would look like, search for relevant
information, develop a solution strategy, and execute the chosen strategy.6

Tracy Bicknell-Holmes and Paul Hoffman explain that discovery learning has three main
characteristics: exploration and problem-solving; student-centered activities based on student
interest; and scaffolding new information into students funds of knowledge.7
Joyce Castronova identifies five characteristics of discovery learning that differentiates it from
traditional learning models. First, learning is active and students must participate in hands-on and
problem-solving activities rather than knowledge transfer. Secondly, Castronova suggests that
discovery learning emphasizes the process instead of the end product, thus encouraging mastery
and application. Thirdly, the lessons learned from failure within this model of instruction
encourage the student to continue to search for solutions. Castronova also suggests that feedback
is an essential part of the learning process and that collaboration and discussion allows students
to develop deeper understandings. Finally, discovery learning satisfies natural human curiosity
and promotes individual interests.8

Types of discovery learning

Experiments

Exploration

Simulation-based learning

Problem-based learning

Inquiry-based learning

Webquests

Support and criticism

Proponents of discovery learning explain that this theory:

Actively engages students in the learning process

Motivates students to participate

Encourages autonomy and independence

Promotes the development of creativity and problem-solving skills

Provides a individualized learning experience.9

Critics of this discovery learning caution that this theory:

May be overwhelming for learners who need more structure

May allow for possible misunderstanding

May prevent teachers from gauging whether students are having problems.10

Notes
1. Bruner, J. (1967). On Knowing: Essays for the Left Hand. Boston: Harvard University
Press. [return]
2. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education. New York: Simon and Schuster. [return]
3. Piaget, J. (1954). To Understand is to Invent. New York: Grossman. [return]
4. Saab, N., van Joolingen, W., & van Hout-Wolters, B. (2005). "Communication in
Collaborative Discovery Learning." British Journal of Educational Psychology. 75, pp.
603-621. [return]
5. Saab, et al. (2005), p. 604. [return]
6. Borthick, A. F. & Jones, D. R. (2000). "The Motivation for Collaborative Discovery
Learning Online and its Application in an Information Systems Assurance Course."
Issues in Accounting Education. 15 (2), p. 2. [return]
7. Bicknell-Holmes, T. & Hoffman, P.S. (2000). "Elicit, Engage, Experience, and Explore:
Discovery Learning in Library Instruction." Reference Services Review. 28(4), pp. 313322. [return]
8. Castronova, J. (2002). "Discovery Learning for the 21st Century: What is it and How
Does it Compare to Traditional Learning in Effectiveness in the 21st Century?" Action
Research Exchange 1 (1). [return]
9. "Discovery Learning (Bruner)." Retrieved 20 May 2009 from Learning-Theories.com:
Knowledge Base and Webliography. Website: http://www.learningtheories.com/discovery-learning-bruner.html. [return]
10. "Discovery Learning (Bruner)." [return]
http://www.learning-theories.com/discovery-learning-bruner.html

Summary: Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction, discovery learning

believes that it is best for learners to discover facts and relationships for themselves.
Originator: Jerome Bruner (1915-)

Keywords: Inquiry-based learning, constructivism

Discovery Learning (Bruner)
Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem
solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing
knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned. Students interact
with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and
controversies, or performing experiments. As a result, students may be more more likely to
remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own (in contrast to a transmissionist
model). Models that are based upon discovery learning model include: guided discovery,
problem-based learning, simulation-based learning, case-based learning, incidental learning,
among others.
Proponents of this theory believe that discovery learning has many advantages, including:

encourages active engagement

promotes motivation

promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence

the development of creativity and problem solving skills.

a tailored learning experience

Critics have sometimes cited disadvantages including:

creation of cognitive overload

potential misconceptions

teachers may fail to detect problems and misconceptions

The theory is closely related to work by Jean Piaget and Seymour Papert.
For more information, see:

Bruner, J.S. (1967). On knowing: Essays for the left hand. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard
University Press.

Art & Science of Teaching / The Perils and Promises of Discovery Learning

Robert J. Marzano

Unassisted discovery learning is perilous to student learning, but enhanced discovery learning
can be a useful instructional tool.
In K12 education, it's almost a clich to say that discovery learning is superior to learning
derived from direct instruction. After all, constructing one's own meaning must be more
effective.
Unfortunately, research doesn't support the superiority of discovery learning over direct
instruction, as cognitive psychologist and researcher Richard Mayer pointed out in 2004.1 More
recently, a 2011 meta-analysis of 580 comparisons between discovery learning and direct
instruction found that direct instruction is superior to discovery learning in most situations.2
Some might interpret this as evidence that we should abandon discovery learning, but such an
interpretation would be inaccurate. In that same 2011 study, the researchers reported on a second
meta-analysis involving 360 comparisons of "enhanced" discovery learning with other forms of
instruction. They found that enhanced discovery learning was superior to other approaches.
These findings are consistent with what I have observed in classrooms.
A practitioner can take away two conclusions from these disparate findings: First, unassisted
discovery learning is perilous to student learning; second, enhanced discovery learning can be a
useful instructional tool.
What Is Unassisted Discovery Learning?

Unassisted discovery learning involves presenting students with a situation in which they must
discover new content while receiving little, if any, assistance. Teachers might ask students to
design their own experiment, invent their own strategy, or answer guiding questions.
For example, a science teacher might provide students with a brief demonstration of how
perceptions of color change depending on the intensity of the light source and then ask them to
design their own experiment to further examine this relationship. A mathematics teacher might
challenge students to estimate the sum of two three-digit numbers and then ask them to invent
their own strategy for doing so. Before showing students a video segment about how best to
stretch a cramped hamstring muscle, a physical education teacher might ask students the
following guided question: How would you need to modify this process for extremely cold
temperatures?
In all these approaches, students are left on their own to learn the target content. Having students
work with a partner who is no more knowledgeable about the content than they are doesn't help.
Although students might learn about their reactions to unstructured situations, they probably
won't learn content in more depth.

What Is Enhanced Discovery Learning?

Enhanced discovery learning involves preparing students for discovery learning and providing
assistance along the way. Teachers make sure that students have the necessary knowledge to
negotiate the nuances of the content. This might involve some direct instruction. For example,
before asking students to consider how best to stretch the hamstring muscle in cold weather, the
teacher might present a series of lessons that clarify basic facts about muscles and their reaction
to changes in temperature.
Periodically asking students to generate ideas along the way and then explain their thinking is
also an aspect of enhanced discovery learning. The teacher who asks students to generate their
own strategy for estimating the sum of two three-digit numbers might present students with some
problems to do as a whole class. A student might come up to the front of the room to work
through the first problem, sharing his or her thinking out loud. The teacher might question
students and help them formulate their thinking into general guidelines for estimation, such as
"start by estimating th sum of the highest place-value numbers." As others come to the front of
the room to work their way through problems out loud, students can generate and test more rules.
Along the way, the teacher might also present worked examplesthat is, problems that include a
description of the estimation process used.
It's also beneficial to properly scaffold the discovery experience. The teacher who asks students
to design their own experiments might organize her demonstration into small segments that
gradually disclose the relationship between the intensity of a light source and perceptions of
color. After each segment, she might ask students to hypothesize what's likely to occur as the
light source becomes more or less intense and then ask students to generate mini-experiments to
test their hypotheses.
An Approach That Makes Sense

When faced with the decision whether to use direct instruction or unassisted discovery learning,
a teacher should opt for the former. However, if a teacher is willing to put time and energy into
designing lessons that ensure that students have the knowledge needed to understand the content
and that provide guidance and interaction along the way, then discovery learning can be a
powerful learning experience for students.
Endnotes
1

Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The
case for guided methods of instruction. American Psychologist, 59, 1419.
2

Alfieri, L., Brooks, P. J., Aldrich, N. J., & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2011). Does discovery-based
instruction enhance learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(1), 118.

Author's note: To contact Marzano or participate in a study regarding a specific instructional

strategy, visit www.marzanoresearch.com.
Robert J. Marzano is cofounder and CEO of Marzano Research Laboratory in Denver,
Colorado. He is the author of The Art and Science of Teaching (ASCD, 2007) and coauthor, with
Tony Frontier and David Livingston, of Effective Supervision: Supporting the Art and Science of
Teaching (ASCD, 2011).
@