CHAPTER 7

Wind loads on buildings and structures

7.1.Scope
This part of the code of practice is concerned with the
determination of the wind loads, which should be taken into
consideration in the design of buildings and structures as an
integrated unit or the design of its elements and parts separately.
7.1.1.
Buildings and structures should be designed to resist the
wind loads acting on them.
7.1.2.
In the design of any building, the effect of wind loads
should be computed for the following elements:
1The structural skeleton as an integrated unit including
foundations.
2The structural elements such as floors, walls, etc.
3Finishing and windows, etc. .
7.1.3.
In computing the effect of wind loads on walls and
partitions and all parts of the building subjected to wind
pressure or suction on its two faces, the design wind load on
these parts is the algebraic sum of the pressure or suction on
the first face, and the pressure or suction on the second face.
7.1.4.
In computing wind loads on ordinary buildings and
structures, the wind loads are to be computed according to the
technique detailed in item (7-3). As for other special buildings
and structures such as :
1- Buildings and structures of a total height larger than 60
m, except for trussed towers.
2- Buildings and structures of a total height which exceeds
4 times the smallest building dimension in plan.
3- Buildings and structures of unconventional shapes.
4- Buildings and structures which are proposed to be
constructed at unconventional locations, such as
mountain tops.
5- Buildings and structures possessing a capability for
unconventional vibration under the effect of wind loads
such as "suspension roofs".
For the above-mentioned cases, the following procedure is
recommended:

7-1

1- The maximum mean hourly wind velocity should be

obtained from the Closest weather measurement
station to the building location, for all available
measurement years. In addition, the height of the wind
measurement location from ground surface and the
nature of the measurement station surrounding area
should be specified.
2- The basic wind pressure should be computed based on
the available information described above, and its
analysis using the statistical technique for maximum
values, in order to determine the design wind speed
and basic wind pressure.
3- Use should be made of results obtained from previous
experimental tests performed on similar structures or
from tests performed on a model of the building under
consideration in a wind laboratory, under conditions
simulating the natural conditions. These results should
be used for guidance in the determination of the wind
pressure coefficients on the external and internal
surfaces of the building.
4- The dynamic structural analysis technique should be
used to determine the effect of wind loads on the
internal forces, moments, and deformations.
5- In all cases, the effect of wind on these buildings should
not be less than that caused by using the design wind
loads specified in this code of practice.
7.2.Definitions:
1- Wind loads
The wind acts in a normal direction to the surfaces of buildings
and structures with these forces. These are considered positive
when acting towards the surface (pressure), and negative when
acting away from the surface (suction).
2- Wind pressure or suction
These are the wind loads acting per unit area, to be measured in
(kN/m2) or (kg/m2).
3- Overall wind force
Is the overall wind force acting on the building, to be measured in
(kN) or (kg).
4- External wind pressure coefficients
Is the coefficient determining the distribution of the external wind
pressure on the building's external surfaces.
5- Internal wind pressure coefficients

7-2

Is the coefficient determining the distribution of wind pressure on

the building's internal surfaces.
6- Exposure coefficient
Is the coefficient determining the variation of the wind pressure
with height measured from the ground surface.
7.3.Computation of wind loads:
7.3.1.
The external pressure or suction resulting from the
effect of wind on the building surfaces as one unit or on parts of
the building using the following formula:

Pe = Ce k q
(7-1)
Where:
Pe External wind pressure, acting statically on unit area of the
external building facades.
q Basic wind pressure, which depends on the geographical
location of the building. Its value should be determined
according to item (7-4) of this code of practice.
K Exposure coefficient, which varies with height from ground
surface. Its value should be determined according to item
(7-5) of this code of practice.
The coefficient "k"
determines the vertical distribution and is to be computed
at the location at which the wind pressure is computed.
Ce External wind pressure coefficient on the building's
surfaces. It depends on the geometrical shape of building
and its value should be determined according to item (7-6)
of this code of practice.
7.3.2.
The Internal pressure or suction resulting from the effect
of wind on the building surfaces as one unit or on parts of the
building using the following formula:

Pi = Ci k q
(7-2)
Where:
Pi Internal wind pressure, acting statically on unit area of the
internal building facades, in a direction normal to the
surfaces. It is acts outwards in the direction of the surface if
Pi was "pressure", and acts inwards away from the direction
of the surface if Pi was "suction" (fig. 7-1) (kN/m2).

7-3

K Exposure coefficient, which has a constant values for the total

height of the building. Its value should be determined
according to item (7-5) of this code of practice.
Ci Internal wind pressure coefficient on the building's surfaces.
It depends on the distribution of openings in the building
facades.
q Basic wind pressure, which depends on the geographical
location of the building. Its value should be determined
according to item (7-4) of this code of practice. It is the same
"q" used in equation (7-1)
7.3.3.
In case of some buildings and structures, which do not
required the computation of wind pressure distribution on its
surfaces, especially those where the ratio of its height to its
other dimension is very high, it is recommended to compute
the overall wind force acting on the structure as a whole
instead of computing its distribution per unit area. For this type
of structures, the overall wind force acting should be computed
as follows:

F = Cf k q A
(7-3)
Where:
F
Overall wind force on the building.
k
Exposure coefficient.
q
Basic wind pressure.
Cf Overall wind force coefficient.
A
Building surface area facing wind direction.

Vertical section

7-4

Horizontal section
Figure 7-1 Distribution of internal wind pressure Ci in case of
suction and pressure
7.4.Basic wind pressure q
7.4.1.
The basic wind pressure "q" (kN/m 2), was determined in
this code of practice, based on the following equation:

q = 0.5x10-3 V2 Ct Cs
(7-4)
Where:
Is the air density, the recommended value is 1.25 kg/m3.
V Is the 3-second gust wind speed (m/sec.) at reference
height (10m) according to table (7-1) with a probability of
exceedance of 2 % in 50 years.

Ct Topographic factor of the land, which depends on the

Cs

topography of the surface of the ground surrounding the

building, Table (7-2).
Structural factor, which take into account the effect on wind
actions from the non-simultaneous occurrence of peak
wind pressures on the surface together with the effect of
the vibrations of the structure due to turbulence
(calculated according to Annex 7-A).

7.4.2.
The values of "V" should be taken from table (7-1),
according to the building's location. As for areas not specified in
the table, the basic wind speed value should be taken based on
the nearest location specified in the table.
Table (7-1) Basic wind speed "V"
Location

Basic
wind
speed "V"
m/sec.

7-5

Marsa Matrouh, El-Dabaa, El-Zafrana

42

El-Saloom, Ras Sidr , El-Ain Sokhna

39

Aswan, Assiut, Hurghada, Abu Soweir, Alexandria and all

other coastal areas
Cairo, EI-Dakhla, Siwa, Luxor

36

Fayoum, Menya, Mudiriyat EI-Tahreer,

30

33

Tanta, Mansoura, Damanhour

Table (7-2) Topographic factor of the land (Ct)

Ct

Topography (terrain) of the surface of the ground

surrounding the building
Flat, horizontal area and that with slope not increase 5% (all
extended to a circle with radius not less than 1 km. at least )

1.0

Not flat area with Slope as:

5%- 10%
10%- 15%
15%- 20%
>20%
Mountainsides, hills and similar places

1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
1.0

Mountaintops and the upper cliffs and at the confluence of

the upper sloping land.

1.8

7.5.Exposure coefficient "k"

7.5.1.
The exposure coefficient is the coefficient which
determines the variation of wind pressure with height. It
increases gradually with the increase of height from ground
surface level.
7.5.2.
The exposure coefficient "k" is calculated depend on
three representative terrain category:
Exposure "A":- includes open areas with low obstructions as
lakes or flat and horizontal area with negligible
vegetation and without obstacles.
Exposure "B":- includes suburban exposure as small villages
and suburbs of small cities.
Exposure "C":- includes areas with large and high obstacles
convergent areas such as large urban centers
7.5.3.
The exposure coefficient "k" is to be determined
according to table (7-3).
Table (7-3) Values of exposure coefficient "k"
A
B
C

Exposure area

7-6

Roughness
length
(Zo)
Building Height
(m)
0-10m
10-20m
20-30m
30-50m
50-80m
80-120m
120-160m
160-240m

0.05

0.30

1.0

exposure coefficient "k"

1.00
1.15
1.40
1.60
1.85
2.10
2.30
2.50

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.05
1.30
1.50
1.70
1.85

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.15
1.35
1.55

7.5.4.
When computing the external wind pressure, the height
"z" used for computing the coefficient "k" is the height of the
respective location from ground surface level.
7.5.5.
When computing the internal wind pressure at any
location inside the building, the height "z" used for computing
the coefficient "k" is to be determined as follows:
a) For buildings with compartmentation by internal floors,
the height for calculation of internal wind pressure is
measured from the ground surface to the mean floor level
considered.
b) For other buildings, the height for calculation of internal
wind pressure is measured from the ground surface to the
mean level of the openings in exterior walls, as follows:

z J .A J
AJ
(7-5)
z

Where:zJ
is the height of opening number (J).
AJ
is the area of opening number (J).
7.5.6.
When computing the overall wind force "F", the height
"z" used for computing the coefficient "k" is the height from
ground surface level, of the location for which the overall wind
force calculation is required.
7.6.Wind pressure coefficients
7.6.1.
General
7.6.1.1. The external wind pressure coefficient "Ce" is the
coefficient which determines the distribution of wind pressure
or suction on the external building's surfaces. This coefficient
is used in computing the wind pressure per unit area of
building surface according to equation (7-1).
7-7

7.6.1.2. It is necessary to determine the external wind pressure

coefficient when computing the effect of wind on the structural
skeleton of the building as an integrated unit, or on parts of it,
and when computing the effect of wind on the windows,
facades, .. etc.
7.6.1.3. The values of the wind pressure coefficient depend on
the geometrical shape of the building and its dimensions.
7.6.1.4. In this code of practice, it is assumed that the
distribution of "Ce'' values around the horizontal section is
constant for the total building height.
7.6.1.5. The internal wind pressure coefficient "Ci" is the
coefficient which determines the distribution of wind pressure
on the internal building's surfaces. This coefficient should be
determined in order to compute the wind effect on the internal
and external wall units, and on finishing and windows.
However, the value of this coefficient does not affect the
computation of the effect of wind on the building as a whole
(Fig. 7-1).
7.6.2.
Rectangular Buildings
For rectangular shape buildings, the values of "C e" should be
taken from figure (7-2a) and the values of "C i" should be taken
from table (7-4) and figure (7-2b).

Vertical Section

7-8

Plan
Figure (7-2a) Distribution of external wind pressure
coefficient for buildings with rectangular facades.

Figure (7-2a) Distribution of internal wind pressure

coefficient for buildings with rectangular facades.
Table (7-4) Internal wind pressure coefficient "Ci", for
buildings with rectangular facades.
Location of openings*

Ci

1. Most openings exist in the windward facade (facing the wind

+0.7

direction)
2. Most openings exist in the leeward facade

-0.5

3. Most openings exist in the side facades (parallel to wind direction)

-0.7

4. Openings are distributed among the 4 facades

0.3

7-9

5. Most openings exist in both the windward and the leeward facades

-0.2

* Openings include all doors and windows.

7.6.3.
Buildings with rectangular facades, and inclined roofs
The values of "Ce'' should be taken from figures (7-3, 7-4, and 75). As for values of "Ci", they should be taken from table (7-4).
7.6.4.
Roofs of one floor multi-span buildings
Take the values of "Ce" for roofs of one floor multi-span
buildings from figures (7-6). As for values of "C i" inside the
building, they should be taken from table (7-5).

Table (7-5) Internal wind pressure coefficient "Ci", for multispan buildings
Location of openings*

Ci

1. Most openings exist in the windward facade (facing the wind

+0.8

direction)
2. Most openings exist in the leeward facade

-0.3

3. Most openings exist in the side facades (parallel to wind direction)

-0.3

4. Openings are distributed among the 4 facades

0.3

*Note: Openings include all doors and windows.

Figure (7-3a) Distribution of external wind pressure

coefficient "Ce" on the walls and roof.

7-10

e tangent of the inclination angle ranges between 0.4 and 0.8, the wind load should be considered once as suction, and another ti

Figure (7-3b). Values of the external wind pressure

coefficient "Ce'', on the windward face.
Figure (7-3) Distribution of external wind pressure
coefficient for pitched roof buildings.

Vertical section
Figure (7-4) External wind pressure coefficient for buildings
with roofs sloping upwards.

7-11

Vertical section
Figure (7-5). Distribution of external wind pressure
coefficient for buildings with roofs sloping
downwards.

7-12

Figure (7-6). Distribution of external wind force coefficient

for multi-span building roofs.

7-13

7.6.5.
Fences and bulletin boards
For fences, bulletin boards, and similar structures, the overall
wind force should be computed using equation (7-3), and the
value of "Cf" should be taken from figure (7-7). These forces
should be considered when designing their foundations.

Figure (7-7a) Overall wind force coefficient "Cf" on fences

and bulletin boards rested on the ground.

Figure (7-7b) Overall wind force coefficient "Cf" on fences

and bulletin boards elevated above the ground.
Figure (7-7) Overall wind force coefficient "Cf" on fences and
bulletin boards

7-14

7.6.6.
Chimneys, minarets, lighthouses, and
structures.
Value of overall wind force coefficient "Cf" on
minarets, lighthouses, and cylindrical structures
taken from table (7-6). The value of "C e'' should be
table (7-7) and figure (7-8).

Figure

cylindrical
chimneys,
should be
taken from

(7-8) Distribution of external wind pressure

coefficient
"Ce"
for
chimneys,
minarets,
lighthouses, and cylindrical structures

Table (7-6) Overall wind force coefficient "C f" for chimneys,
minarets, lighthouses, and cylindrical structures

d' : depth of rib

d : diameter or least horizontal dimension projection
h : height

7-15

Table (7-7) External wind force coefficient "C e" for chimneys,
minarets, lighthouses, and cylindrical structures

External wind pressure coefficient

Ce
h/d = 1
h/d = 25
h/d =
7

+ 1.0

+ 1.0

+ 1.0

15o
30o

+ 0.8

+ 0.8

+ 0.8

+ 0.1

+ 0.1

+ 0.1

45o
60o

- 0.9

- 0.8

- 0.7

- 1.9

- 1.7

- 1;2

75o
90o

- 2.5

- 2.2

- 1.6

- 2.6

- 2.2

- 1.7

- 1.9

- 1.7

- 1.2

- 0.9

- 0.8

-0.7

- 0.7

- 0.6

- 0.5

105o
120o
135o
150o
165o

- 0.6

- 0.5

-0.4

- 0.6

- 0.5

- 0.4

180o

- 0.6

,- 0.5

-,0.4

Above values in table (7-7) are used based on:1- The external surface is moderately smooth such as ordinary
concrete surface or regular building surface

2- Value of

d q

1
< 6

Where:
d : diameter (m)
q : basic wind pressure (kN/m2)
Internal wind pressure coefficient
a) Chimneys Open
Ci=+0.10
Closed Ci=-0.80
b) Minarets
Ci=+0.30

7-16

7.6.7.
Arched roof structures
For arched roof structures, the value of "C e'' should be taken
from table (7-8) and figure (7-9a).
Table (7-8) External wind force coefficient "Ce" for arched
roof structures
Rise-to-span
Center half
Condition
r
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Roof springing0.1
0.2
from
0.3
ground
0.4
level
0.5
0.6

Roof on
elevated
structure

(A)
-0.9
(-0.9,0.0)
(-0.3,0.15)
0.4
0.675
0.95
0.15
0.3
0.45
0.6
0.75
0.9

(B)
-0.8
-0.9
-1.0
-1.1
-1.2
-1.3
-0.8
-0.9
-1.0
-1.1
-1.2
-1.3

(C)
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5
-0.5

7.6.8.
Domed roofs
The external wind pressure on domed roofs shall be computed
using table (7-8) and figure (7-9b) as follows:
- The upper half and lower half side quarters of the domed roof
correspond to the center half wind pressure value at (B).
- The windward and leeward quarters of the domed roof correspond to
the windward quarter (A) and the leeward quarter (C) respectively.

7-17

Center (B)
Wind
Leeward
quarter
(C)
Windward
(A)

Span

a) Arched roof

Top
half
Bottom
half

Wind
Leewar
d
quarter

Side
quart
er

Quarter
windward

Side

b) Domed roof

7-18

Figure

(7-9) Distribution of external wind pressure

coefficient "Ce" for arched and domed roofs

7.6.9.

Canopy roofs
For canopy roofs, the value of "Cf" should be taken from
table (7-9).
Overall wind force shall be computed in the direction of
suction or pressure, normal to the surface, and the
position center of action is shown in figure (7-10).

Table (7-9) Overall wind force coefficient "Cf" for canopy

roofs
Roof slope to
a / Coefficien
horizontal
d
t Cf
(degree)
0.3
0-10
1.10
5
0.4
20
1.2.0
5
0.5
30
1.30

a) Canopy roof slope in one direction

7-19

b) Canopy roof slope in two direction

Figure (7-10) Center of overall wind force action on canopy
roofs

7.6.10.
7.6.10.1.
table
force

Trussed towers
For trussed towers, the value of "Cf" should be taken from
(7-10), assuming that the calculated areas faces total wind
are the areas of structural elements subjected to wind load.

Table (7-10) Overall wind force coefficient "Cf" for truss

towers
Shape of tower
section in
Triangular
Square
horizontal
projection
Shape
Angles or
Angles or
of
Round
flat sided
Round
flat sided
section
members
members

2.0
1.8
1.6
1.45
1.35
1.35
1.4
1.45
1.6
1.8
2.0

3.6
3.2
2.7
2.35
2.05
1.9
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.9
2.0

2.4
2.2
1.85
1.65
1.5
1.45
1.45
1.5
1.6
1.8
2.0

4.0
3.5
3.0
2.6
2.3
2.05
1.9
1.85
1.85
1.9
2.0

7-20

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1

Where:
e
is the ratio of the projected area of the structural
elements of the tower face to the total projected area of
the tower face..

7.6.10.2.
For towers possessing a triangular shape in the horizontal
projection, the design wind force shall be assumed to act normal to
the projected tower face.
7.6.10.3.
For towers possessing a square shape in the horizontal
projection, the design wind force shall be assumed to act as follows:
a. Normal to the tower face.
b. Along a diagonal direction, and the value of "C f" should be
multiplied by a factor equal to (l+0.75e). The factor should not
exceed a maximum value of 1.20.

7.6.11. Lattice frameworks

For lattice frameworks, the value of "Cr" should be taken from table
(7-11)
Table (7-11) Overall wind force coefficient "Cf" for Lattice
frameworks
Shape of the
section in
Round
horizontal
projection
Flat sided
members
Shape
1
1
of
d q
d q
section
6
6

0.8
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.1
1.1

1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.5
1.5

2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.6

7-21

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5

1.4
2.0

1.5
2.0

1.6
2.0

0.7
1

Where:

e is the ratio of the projected area of the structural

elements of the latticed framework normal to wind
direction, to the total projected area.
d is the diameter (m)
q is the wind pressure at the required height (kN/m2)

Annex (7-a)
Structural factor Cs
a.1.Structural factor is the factor which take into account the effect
on wind actions from the non-simultaneous occurrence of peak
wind pressures on the surface together with the effect of the
vibrations of the structure due to turbulence.
a.2.Structural factor Cs is taken equal 1.0 in the following cases:1- Buildings and structures with height less than 60m.
2- Trussed towers.
3- Building and structures in height less than four times shortest
dimension in horizontal projection.

7-22

a.3.In cases not covered by item (7-1-4) and above item (a.2), C s is
calculated for structure shapes shown in figure (7-A) as follows:-

1 2gI zr B 2 R 2
1
1 7I zr
(A-1)
Cs

Where
g is the peak factor defined as the ratio of the maximum value of
the fluctuating part of the response to its standard deviation
and calculated according to item (a.4).
Izr is the turbulence intensity factor (defined in a.5).
B2 is the background factor, allowing for the lack of full
correlation of the pressure on the structure surface (defined in
a.6).
2
R is the resonance response allowing for turbulence in resonance
with the vibration mode (defined in a.7).
a.4.The peak factor "g" is given by:-

g 2 ln T

0.6
2 ln T

(A-2)
n1

(A-2a)

R2
B2 R 2

Where
T
Time length equal to 3600 sec.

Up-crossing frequency (Hz.).

ln
Logarithmic function base e.
n1
Natural frequency of the structure (Hz.), calculated using
dynamic analysis of structure or by the following empirical
formula:-

7-23

n1

30
h
(A-2b)

Where
h is building's height (m).
a.5.The turbulence intensity Izr at height zr is given by:

I zr

ln

Where

zo Roughness length (defined in table 7-3).

zr As figure (7-a).
a.6.The background factor B2 is given by:-

B2

0.63

b h

1 0.9

L zr

(A-4)
zr

L zr L t

z
t

(A-4a)

0.67 0.05 ln z o
(A-4b)
Where:
L(zr) Turbulent length scale (m).
Lt
Reference length equal to 300m.
zt
Reference length equal to 200m.
b
Building width (m).
h
Building height (m).

7-24

1
zr
z o

(A-3)

a.7.The resonance response R2 is given by:-

S zr, n1 .R h .R b
4 L
(A-5)
R2

SL zr, n1
(A-5a)
f L zr, n1

6.8 f L zr, n1

1 10.2 f L zr, n1 1.67

n1.L zr
Vm zr

(A-5b)

Vm zr 0.67 V. k
(A-5c)
Where:

SL(zr,n1)
fL(zr,n1)
Vm(zr)

V
k
R b , Rh

Non-dimensional power spectral density function.

Variance spectrum.
Main wind speed at high (zr).
Damping coefficient and taken as :Concrete structure 0.02.
Steel structure 0.01.
Composite structure 0.015.
Base wind speed (table 7-1).
Exposure factor (table 7-3).
Aerodynamic admittance function, defined by:-

7-25

1
1
2 1 e2
2
(A-5d)
RL

R Rh
L
for
(A-5e)

for
(A-5f)

RL Rb

4.6 h f L zr, n1
L zr

4.6 b f L zr, n1
L zr

Figure (7-a) General shapes of structures covered by the

design procedure

7-26

Annex 7-B

Notations
Area of the building fa9ade facing wind direction (m2)

Area of opening "J" (m2)

Aj

Width of building in plan, normal to wind direction (m)

External Wind pressure coefficient

Ce

External Wind pressure coefficient

Ci

Overall wind force coefficient on the building

Cf

Depth of building in plan, parallel to wind direction (m) (fig. 7-2), diameter

Ratio of the projected area of the structural elements to the total projected area
of the structure.

Overall wind force on the building (kN)

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Building height above ground surface (m)

Exposure coefficient, which varies with height and determines the vertical
distribution of wind loads.

External wind pressure, acting statically on unit area of the external building
facades (kN/ m2).

Pe

Internal wind pressure, acting statically on unit area of the internal building
facades (kN/ m2).

Pi

Basic wind pressure, which is determined based on the statistical analysis of

the maximum values of the mean hourly wind velocity at the location (kN/
m2), taking into consideration the dynamic effect of wind.

Height from ground surface (m)

Height of opening number "J" (m)

zj

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