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Figure 1: Percentage of dependent employment in thirteen developed economies with the 1-14
working hours
band in 2005, 2009, 2013 (age 15+, men and women)
Figure 1: Percentage of dependent employment in thirteen developed economies with the 1-14 working hours band in 2005, 2009, 2013 (age
15+, men and women)
14.0%
12.0%
10.0%
8.0%
6.0%
4.0%
2.0%
0.0%
2005
2009
2013
Australia
Austria
9.2%
9.2%
9.1%
4.8%
6.2%
6.4%
Czech
Republic
0.8%
1.2%
1.7%
France
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
3.5%
3.8%
4.6%
8.1%
9.9%
9.0%
4.6%
5.6%
6.1%
2.4%
2.6%
3.3%
12.4%
12.4%
12.7%
1.2%
1.7%
3.3%
3.3%
3.4%
4.6%
5.0%
5.8%
5.7%
United
Kingdom
7.0%
7.1%
6.7%
United States
4.2%
4.8%
4.3%
Figure 2: Percentage
of men and
women
in dependent
employment
working
1414
hours
Figure 2: Percentage
of men
and women
in dependent
employment
working
hoursororless per
week in thirteen
(Age 15+,
most recent
yearmost
available)
less developed
per week in economies
thirteen developed
economies
(Age 15+,
recent year available)
18.0%
16.0%
Share of employees (% )
14.0%
12.0%
10.0%
8.0%
6.0%
4.0%
2.0%
0.0%
men
women
Australia
Austria
Czech
Republic
France
Germany
Italy
Ireland
Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
United
Kingdom
United
States
5.8%
12.8%
3.4%
9.6%
1.2%
2.4%
3.0%
6.3%
4.9%
13.4%
1.6%
5.5%
3.7%
8.4%
9.0%
16.6%
1.9%
4.6%
2.3%
7.0%
4.5%
7.1%
3.8%
9.7%
3.7%
5.0%
Regarding the gender dimension of marginal part-time work, the share of female marginal part-time
employees is substantially higher than for male employees in every observed country (in many instances at
least double cf. Figure 2). Any regulation of short hours part-time work needs to take this reality into account,
as otherwise the existing gender inequalities will be further reinforced. While numerous employees are
likely to be working very short hours by choice due to their personal responsibilities and commitments (e.g.,
household tasks, care duties, higher education, social and community activities etc.), a look at the time-related
underemployment (TRU) rate can be a useful gauge of the extent to which very short hours are imposed and
thus may create difficulties for employees.
10.0%
8.0%
6.0%
4.0%
2.0%
0.0%
Australia
Austria
Czech
Republic
France
Germany
Ireland
Italy
Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
United
Kingdom
United
States
2005
7.2%
3.0%
0.4%
7.3%
1.6%
2.1%
1.9%
1.6%
1.7%
5.1%
4.4%
3.5%
3.1%
2009
8.0%
4.1%
0.7%
7.1%
7.0%
8.5%
4.0%
1.3%
2.0%
7.2%
5.1%
6.9%
6.4%
2013
7.9%
4.2%
0.9%
9.6%
5.0%
10.5%
4.9%
2.1%
10.2%
11.2%
5.1%
7.9%
5.5%
3. Case examples
3.1 Australia
3.3 Germany
In the early 2000s, a continuing long-term
unemployment problem in Germany led the first
Schrder administration to the political decision
that the development and expansion of a lowwage sector might help to reduce unemployment.
The so-called Hartz reforms were the result,
which included the creation of geringfgige
Beschftigung, colloquially referred to as minijobs (i.e., jobs paid a maximum of 450 a month,
the threshold above which jobs are liable for social
security contributions); these mini-jobs are almost
always marginal part-time employment. Migrant
workers, women and youth are overrepresented
among workers with this employment arrangement
(Integrationsreport 2011). According to recent
calculations of the German Federal Labour Market
Authority, 4.86 million people had a mini-job in
January 2015, which constitutes a reduction of 2.4%
compared to 2014with a tendency to further
decrease due to the introduction of the minimum
wage at the beginning of the year7. This trend has its
roots in the fact that the wage levels of mini-jobs
have always been rather low, and with a minimum
wage of 8.50 per hour many mini-jobs have
become less economically viable.
3.2 France
In 2013, the French institute Direction de lanimation
de la recherche, des tudes et des statistiques
(Dares) published a study depicting a steep rise in
involuntary part-time work, with over 22% of all
part-time employees unable to accumulate more
than 12 hours per week5. According to this study,
such marginal part-time employment in France is
associated with a high risk of becoming unemployed,
low wages, regular weekend work, and a lack of
job training opportunities. This fragmentation of
working-time left particularly single parents, women
and young adults in vulnerable situations6.
3.4 Italy
In Italy the incidence of marginal part-time
employment, as well as the extent of time-related
underemployment, have been continuously rising
during the last decade, albeit from relatively low
levels (see Figures 2 and 3 in Section 2). The 2003
Biagi Labour Reform introduced lavoro a chiamata
(job on-call), which facilitates marginal part-time
employment. Under lavoro a chiamata, workers
accept to be available to an employer during a preestablished period of time with no minimum working
hours on only one working day of advance notice10.
This is a form of casual employment that allows for
very short hours of work and also highly variable
hours. If employees accept the obligation to answer
to all of the employers calls, they are entitled to
receive a monthly availability indemnity even for
unworked periods, in addition to payment for the
actual time worked. Employees lose the right to the
indemnity for 15 days and are potentially subject
to dismissal if they do not promptly justify to the
employer any failure to respond to a request for
service11. In terms of payments, Italian legislation
5
Part-time work in the Netherlands is generally wellregulated. Under the Equal Treatment Act of 1993,
employers are required to provide the same benefits,
wages and training opportunities to part-time and
full-time workers on a pro-rata basis. Additionally,
through the Adjustment of Working Hours Act
(2000), part-time workers have the right to request
change in their weekly working hours, periodically
asking for more or fewer hours. Thus, it is perhaps
no surprise thatdespite high levels of marginal
part-time employmentthe Netherlands has very
low levels of time-related underemployment, and
workers with very short working hours generally do
not report lower job satisfaction than standard fulltime contract workers, except for highly-educated
male workers (De Graaf-Zijl 2012: p.197 ff.).
Nonetheless, there are some concerns about the
three contractual categories discussed above, such
as irregular minimum wage payments and a lack of
paid sick and annual leave for employeesdespite
the fact that these are required by law15. Moreover,
mechanisms designed to promote a transition to
regular employment may also provide firms with
incentives to hire workers for only a few hours
per week to avoid the progression to a permanent
contact, or in the case of zero-hours contracts, to
hire workers for less than 3 months.
119
147
166
143
189
168
190
252
586
624
697
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.8
1.9
2.0
2.3
Different working definitions of marginal part-time employment can be established based on different hours thresholds,
e.g., less than 15 hours a week or less than 20 hours per week. This policy brief uses a 15-hour threshold for statistical
purposes, although the discussion of working-time arrangements in the brief is not limited only to arrangements with hours
of work below this threshold. In fact, the weekly hours of such arrangements may vary substantiallyfrom none at all up to
full-time hours in some weeks. Nonetheless, the key characteristic of these arrangements is that they have very short hours
of work, on average, as contrasted with regular part-time employment, which has longer working hours (but less than the
full-time threshold).
1
Marginal part-time employment constitutes roughly a quarter of all part-time employment in the countries analysed in
this policy brief, ranging from 12.1% In Italy to 30.4 % in Germany (ILOSTAT 2014).
2
http://www.arbeitsagentur.de/web/wcm/idc/groups/public/documents/webdatei/mdaw/mjyy/~edisp/
l6019022dstbai738120.pdf (Accessed April, 2015).
7
10
11
http://documenti.camera.it/apps/nuovosito/attigoverno/Schedalavori/getTesto.ashx?file=0158.
pdf&leg=XVII#pagemode=none (Accessed April, 2015).
13
https://www.fnv.nl/site/migratie-sectoren/943571/flex/880851/Conclusies_meldpunt_kruimelcontracten_
samenvatting_juli_2013.pdf (Accessed April, 2015).
15
17
Under the proposed Universal Credit system, which would harmonize benefits paid to those out of work and those in
work, benefit claimants might potentially be at risk of sanctions if they do not apply for and accept zero-hours jobs
(Eurofound 2015a: p.9).
18
19
21
http://www.hrmagazine.co.uk/hro/features/1077828/legal-implications-zero-hours-contracts?WT.rss_f=Home&WT.
rss_a=Legal+implications+of+zero+hours+contracts (Accessed April, 2015).
22
23
6. References
Australian Council of Trade Unions (2011): The
future of work in Australia: dealing with
insecurity and risk, Working Australia Papers.
Melbourne.
Australian Industry Group (2014): Economics Fact
Sheet: Forms of Employment in Australia.
Casual workforce is stable but self-employed
has declined, 10/2014. AIG, Australia. Sydney.
Adams Z. and Deakin S. (2014): Re-regulating Zero
Hours Contracts, Institute for Employment
Rights.UK. Liverpool.
10
WSI
Statistical Databases:
Integrationsreport
(2011):
Migranten
am
Arbeitsmarkt in Deutschland. Bundesamt fr
Migration und Flchtlinge. Working paper 36.
Nrnberg.
Keller, M., Bamberg, E., Dettmers, J., Friedrich,
N., Vahle-Hinz, T. & Schulz, A. (2012): Bei
Anruf Arbeit - Anstze zur Gestaltung von
Rufbereitschaft, Personal quarterly, 64(1), pp.
30-33.
Luce S., Hammad S., Sipe D. (2014): Short-shifted,
New York City: Murphy Institute City University
of New York.
Report
(2014):
Arbeitszeiten
in
Deutschland.
Entwicklungstendenzen
und Herausforderungen fr eine modern
Arbeitszeitpolitik, Dsseldorf: Wirtschaftsund Sozialwissenschaftliches Institut der
Hans-Bckler-Stiftung.
11
ILOSTAT 2014
Australian Bureau of Statistics 2013
Dutch National Statistical Office 2013
UK Office of National Statistics 2014
US Bureau of Labor Statistics 2015
Further information
Inclusive Labour Markets, Labour Relations and
Working Conditions Branch (INWORK)
International Labour Office
4, route des Morillons
CH-1211 Geneva 22, Switzerland
Tel: +41 22 799 6754
Fax: +41 22 799 8451
E-mail: inwork@ilo.org
www.ilo.org/inwork