Curs 2

Ship manoeuvring and directional control. Be, Have, Do

2.1. Ship manoeuvring and directional control
A ship is said to be directionally stable if a deviation from a set course increases only
while an external force or moment is acting to cause the deviation. On the other hand, it is
said to be unstable if a course deviation begins or continues even in the absence of an
external cause. A directionally unstable ship is easy to manoeuvre, while a stable ship
requires less energy expenditure by its steering gear in maintaining a set course. A
compromise between extremes is therefore desirable. In a rough sense, directional
stability or instability can be determined by examination of the ship's underwater profile.
If the area of the hull and its appendages is concentrated toward the aft end, then the ship
is likely to be directionally stable. Neither stability nor instability obviates the need for
devices to maintain a course or to change it on command.
A rudder is a movable blade, attached at or near the rear of a vessel, that is used to
steer it. The first rudders were crude paddles held aft over the sides of log canoes. These
crude paddles evolved into long steering oars that were tied to the sides of the vessel and
were controlled by levers called tillers attached to their upper ends. Viking long ships and
medieval trading vessels were steered with a single large steering oar. This oar was on the
helmsman's right as he faced forward--the steerboard (starboard) side of the vessel. (The
left side, which was always brought against a dock, was the port side.) In 12th-century
Europe, a board hung on hinges attached to a vessel's sternpost replaced the steering oar
and was controlled by a large tiller. This tiller was needed to increase leverage on the
rudder, especially on vessels with large sail areas rigged to sail into the wind. As ships
got bigger and more powerful, various mechanical arrangements were used to provide the
even greater leverage required to turn the rudder. Rudders of modern ships may be moved
by cables, gears, or hydraulic lines, which are controlled by automatic electronic devices.
Rudders controlled by rudder bars or pedals are also used to provide directional control of
many aircraft.
The near-universal gear for such directional control is a rudder (or rudders) fitted to
the stern and activated by an electro-hydraulic steering engine mounted within the hull
just above. The rudder is an appendage that has a cross section much like an airfoil and
that develops lift when it is turned to produce a nonzero angle of attack relative to the
water. The lift produces a turning moment around a point that is located somewhere along
the mid-length of the hull. For a given angle of attack, rudder lift is proportional to the
square of the water velocity relative to the rudder. Therefore, the preferred position for a
rudder is within the high-velocity wash generated by a propeller.
In the case of a multi-propeller ship, multiple rudders may be fitted (one behind each
propeller) in order to take advantage of high water velocity. In addition, a ship that must
manoeuvre well while backing is often fitted with a pair of "flanking rudders" for each
propeller. These are positioned forward of the propeller, one on each side of the shaft.
Manoeuvring at very low speeds is a special problem, since low water velocity means
insufficient lift developed by the rudder. If the rudder is positioned directly behind a
propeller, then a few seconds of high propeller speed can develop lift sufficient to push
the stern sideways before generating significant forward motion of the hull. Pushing the

stern sideways is tantamount to changing the direction of the hull, but this expedient is
often not sufficient for low-speed manoeuvring. For this reason, many ships are fitted
with a "bow thruster," a propeller mounted in a transverse tunnel near the bow. This
thruster can push the bow sideways without producing forward motion. If a similar
thruster is fitted near the stern, a ship can be propelled sideways, or even rotated in place,
if the two thrusters act in opposite directions.

2.2. Be, Have, Do

2.2.1. Be, Have and Do as auxiliary verbs:
Be, have, do, full verbs and auxiliary verbs:
Be is a full verb when it combines with adj. and nouns; have is a full verb when it is
used to mean possess etc.; do is a full verb when it is used to mean perform an
activity. The three verbs are auxiliary (or helping) verbs when they combine with
other verbs to help them complete their grammatical functions.
A. Uses of be as an auxiliary verb
a. Be on its own or in combination with have, is used for progressive tense forms:
I am/ He is/ We are working.
I have been working.
b. Be combines with the past participle to form passives:
It was taken;
It cant be done.
B. Uses of have as an auxiliary verb
a. Have + past participle forms simple perfect tenses
I have/ He has eaten.
I had eaten.
b. Have + been + present part forms perfect continuous
I have/ I had been eating.

c. Have + been + past part forms passives

It has been eaten.
She must have been delayed.
Questions/ negatives with be and have as auxiliary verbs follow the same pattern as
those for be as a full verb. Have can function as an auxiliary and full verb in the same
sentence.
C. Uses of do as an auxiliary verb
a. The most important use of do as an auxiliary verb is that it combines with the
base form of verbs to make questions and negatives in the simple present and
simple past tenses, and is used in place of a verb in short answers and question
tags. Note that do can function both as an auxiliary verb and as a full verb in the
same sentence.
Do (auxiliary verb) you do ( full verb) your shopping once a week?
b. Do is also used for emphasis
Do sit down.
I did turn the gas off.
Drive carefully I do drive carefully.
c. Do is used in place of a verb in Present Simple:
I like ice- cream and Ann does, too.
2.2.2. Be, have, do, full verbs
A. Be as a full verb
Uses of be in the imperative
The imperative of be is restricted to the following combinations:
a. Be + noun
Many combinations of be (affirmative) + noun are idiomatic
Be a man!
Be an angel and fetch my glasses, please.
Dont be + noun is much more common and very often refers to (foolish) behaviour.
Don t be a clown/ a fool/ an idiot/ an imbecile!

Be can have the sense of become especially in advertisements:

Be a better cook!
Be the envy of everybody!
Be is also used to mean pretend to be, especially after you:
(You) be the fairy good mother and Ill be Cinderella.
b. Be + adjective
Only adjectives referring to passing behaviour can be used after be/ don t be
Be quiet! (I wont)
Don t be so impatient! (Im not!)
c. Be + past participle
Be prepared! (please)
Be seated!
Be warned!
The simple present form of be
Notes on the present form of be.
Short forms never occur at the end of the sentence:
I dont know where they are.
There are two negative short forms (you arent or you re not) and there is no difference
in their use. The short negative forms can stand on their own (Im not/ They arent). The
affirmative short forms (Im etc,) cannot stand on their own. Only the full affirmative
forms can do this:
Are you ready?

Yes, I am.
No, Im not.

The formation of negative questions and negative question tags. The full form is Am I
not? but this contracts to Arent I ?
- negative question:
Am I not late? Arent I late?
- negative Wh - question:
Why am I not invited? Why arent I invited?
- Negative question tag:
Im late, am I not? I m late, arent?
The non standard form aint, in place of am not, is not and are not, is frequently heard
in all persons and is avoided by educated speakers (except perhaps in joking):

Aint you late?

I aint late.

He aint late.
They aint late.
There + be

Notes on the form and pronunciation of there + be

The singular form theres is often used informally in place of there are to refer to the
plural:
There are lots of cars on the roads these days.
Theres a dog and a man in our garden.
When we are talking about existence, there is/ there s and there are are unstressed.
When we use there +be combinations
We use there+be combinations when we are talking or asking about the existence of
people, things, etc. It is more idiomatic and natural to say
Theres a man at the door than to say A man is at the door.
The construction with there allows important new information to come at the end of the
sentence for emphasis. We use there:
- when it is a natural choice:
Theres been an accident. (An accident has occurred)
Is there a new hotel here? Theres one on the corner.
-

to announce or report events, arrangements, facts, etc.:

Therell be a reception for the Master at 3 pm.
Theres been a damage at the main engine.

for scene setting in story telling:

There hadnt been any rain for months.
There wasnt a blade of grass growing anywhere.

There is, etc. compared with e.g. It is

Once existence has been established with there, we must use personal pronouns + be
(or other verbs) to give more details:
Theres a bus coming, but its full.
Theres a man at the door. Its the fitter.
Theres a man at the door. He wants to speak to you.
There are some cadets at the door. They want to see the Chief Engineer.
Theres a van stopping outside. Its someone delivering something.
Theres to be a concert at the Albert Hall tonight. Its to be broadcast live.
(going to be)

B. Have as a full verb = possess; have got = possess

Notes on the forms of have and have got = possess
Have and have got (= possess) are often interchangeable, but there are differences
between British and American usage.
Have got is basically a perfect form. Compare the following:
a) get (obtain)
b) have got (= possess)
A. Go and get the tickets.
What have you got?
B. Ive got the tickets.
(= I have obtained them)

A. Have you got the tickets?

B. Yes, Ive got the tickets
(= I possess them)

In British English have got can be used as the perfect form of get to mean have
obtained, as in a) above. This meaning is emphasized in the American English form
have gotten, which always means have obtained. However, in British English (more
rarely in American English) have got can also mean possess as in b) above, so that I
have the tickets = I have got the tickets.
In British English, questions and negatives with have = possess can be formed in the
same way as for be.
Are you ready?
Have you a pen?
Arent you ready?
Havent you a pen?
You arent ready?
You havent a pen.
Have (= possess) is a stative verb. It cannot be used in the continuous, though it can be
used in all simple tenses: present, past, present perfect, past perfect, future, with modals.
Have (= possess) is not normally used in the passive. The imperative (never with got) is
rare:
Have patience!
Have got (= possess) is normally used only for present reference:
Ive got a Ford.
The affirmative had got is sometimes possible in the past, but had on its own is generally
preferred:
The officer looked lovely. His uniform had (got) a nice coat.
We can never use had got for certain states:
He had (not had got) long hair when he was a teenager.
Had got is generally used in its original sense of had obtained
By May I will have got a new car.
Have got in the passive is impossible.

Hadnt got is usually possible as an alternative to didnt have.

I didnt have (hadnt got) an appointment, so I made one for 4 p.m.
In questions, the usual form is Did you have ?
Did you have an appointment?
When did you have one?
Some forms of have (= possess) are rare or not encountered at all:
- the short form of the affirmative especially in the third person (hes/ shes). The full
form is used:
He/ She has a pen.
- the uncontracted negative. The contracted form is normal.
I haven t (or hadnt) a pen.
- some question forms, except when formed with do.
Compare:
My bags old. Its old (= My bag is old/ It is old)
My bags got a hole in it. Its got a hole in it. (= My bag has got a hole in it/ It has got
a hole in it.)
The non-standard form aint got is commonly heard in a place of haven t got or hasnt
got
I aint got my bag. She aint got her bag.
Similarly, have and has are often omitted before got:
I got my car outside (for I have got)
When we use have and have got = possess
In all the examples below have can be replaced by have got in the present and
sometimes in the past. Short forms with got (Ive got) are much more common than full
forms (I have got), especially in speech:
In the sense of own or possess
I have (got) a new briefcase.
In the sense of be able to provide:
Do you have/ Have you (got) any ink? (= Can you let me have some?)
Have (got) + number (of things)/ quantity of a substance
I have (got) fourteen springs.
I have (got) a lot of lubricating oil.
Possession of physical characteristics Have or Have got combine with nouns like: a
beard, blue eyes, long hair, a scar, a slim figure, to describe appearance:
You should see our baby. He has (got) big brown eyes.
Our ship has (got) five holds.

Possession of mental and emotional qualities.

Have and have got combine with nouns like: faith, a good mind, patience, a quick temper,
to describe character:
She has (got) nice manners, but she has (got) a quick temper.
Family relationships:
I have (got) two sisters.
Contacts with other people:
I have (got) a good dentist. (i.e. whom I can recommend to you)
In the sense of wear
That s a nice shirt you have/ youve got.
Illnesses
Have and have got combine with nouns describing pains and illnesses. For the use of a/
an with such nouns.
I have (got) a cold/ a bad headache.
The baby has (got) measles.
Arrangements
Have and have got combine with nouns like: an appointment, a conference, a date, an
interview, a meeting, time, etc.
Sally has (got) an interview for a job today.
Options
Have and have got combine with nouns like: an idea, influence, an objection, an opinion,
a point of view, a proposal, a suggestion
I have (got) an idea!
Have you (got) any objection to this proposal?
In the sense of there is:
You have (got) a stain on your tie (= there is a stain on your tie)
You have (got) sand in your hair (= there is sand in your hair)
C. Do as a full verb
Use of do as a full verb
Do = perform an activity or task
Do often has the sense of work at or be engaged in something. Doing something can
be deliberate or accidental. We can use other verbs than do to answer questions like What
are you doing?

What are you doing?

- Im reading (i.e. that is what Im doing)
What did you do this morning?
- I wrote some letters (i.e. thats what I did)
What have you done?
- Ive broken this plate. (i.e. thats what Ive done)
The use of do to avoid repeating a previous verb
We can use do to avoid repeating a previous verb.
Antonia works 16 hours a day. I dont know how she does it.
Take the dog for a walk. Ive already done it/ done so.
We can avoid repeating the verb in short answers, such as:
Shall I take the dog for a walk? Yes, do/ No, dont.
Do = be in the wrong place
Used in this sense, do often conveys disapproval
= of present results of past actions
What are those clothes doing on the floor? (i.e. they shouldnt be there)
= of people
What are those boys doing in our shipyard? (i.e. we disapprove of their presence
not their actions)
Do before gerunds
We can use do + gerund to refer to named tasks
Ive done the shopping/ the ironing/ the washing up.
Do and make compared
Make conveys the sense of create; Do (often suggesting be engaged in an activity) is a
more general term:
What are you doing?
I m making a cake.
What are you making?
A cake.
Both do and make can be used in a variety of fixed combinations. Here is a brief
selection:
Do + one s best; business with someone; damage to something; one s duty; an
experiment; someone a favour; good etc.
Make + an accusation against someone; an agreement with (someone); an
appointment; an arrangement; the bed etc.
Do in fixed expressions
Do occurs in numerous fixed expressions such as:
What does he do? (i.e. What work does he do for a living?)
Thatll do! (i.e. That will be enough!)
How many miles does it do to the gallon? (i.e. do = go)
This simply wont do. (Its unacceptable)
How did you do? (How did you manage?)

I could do with a drink. (I would like a drink)

It's got nothing to do with me (i.e. It doesnt concern me)
I can do without a car. (manage without a car)
I was done! (i.e. cheated)
Shall I do your room out. (i.e. clean it)
You did me out of my share (i.e. cheated me)
Vocabulary
airfoil = profil
appendages = proeminen, apendice
backing = deplasare napoi
bow thruster = propulsor prova
directionally unstable = instabil direcional
electro-hydraulic steering engine = motor de guvernare electrohidraulic
flanking rudder = elice lateral
gear = mecanism, dispozitiv
hull = corpul navei, coca
lift = for ascensional
maintain a course = a menine cursul
manoeuvre = a manevra
manoeuvring = manevr, manevrare
mid-length of the hull = centrul corpului
multi-propeller ship = nav cu mai multe elice
nonzero angle of attack = unghi de inciden diferit de zero
rudder = crm
set course = a lua un drum
shaft = ax al elicei
steering gear = instalaie de guvernare
turning moment = moment de giraie
underwater profile = proiecie lateral a carenei
velocity = vitez