Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
The distance between any two random points in three dimensional space is a spatial
distance. There are several methods of determining distance, the choice of which
depends on the accuracy required, the cost, and other conditions. The methods in
ascending order of accuracy are estimation, scaling from a map, pacing, odometer,
tacheometry, taping, photogrammetry, and electronic distance measurement.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
Scale Mapping
The scale of a map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding
distance on the ground.
Pacing
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps, or paces, in a required
distance. The length of an individuals pace must be determined first. Pacing
furnishes a rapid means of approximately checking more precise measurements of
distance. It is used on reconnaissance surveys and, in small-scale mapping, for
locating details and traversing with the plane table. Pacing over rough country has
furnished a relative precision of 1/100; under average conditions, a person of
experience will have a little difficulty in pacing with a relative precision of 1/200.
somewhat greater than the true horizontal distance, but in hilly country a rough
correction based on the estimated average slope may be applied.
Tacheometry
Tacheometry includes stadia with transit and stadia rod; stadia
with alidade, plane table, and rod; distance wedge and horizontal rod; and subtense
bar and theodolite.
Taping
Taping involves direct measurement of the distance with steel tapes
varying in length from 3ft (1 m) to 1000 ft (300 m). Graduations are in feet, tenths,
and hundredths, or metres, decimeters, centimeters, and millimeters.
The precision of distance measured with tapes depends upon the degree of
refinement with which measurements are taken. On the one hand, rough taping
through broken country may be less accurate than the stadia. On the other hand,
when extreme care is taken to eliminate all possible errors, measurements have
been taken with a relative precision of less than 1/1,000,000. In ordinary taping over
flat, smooth ground, the relative precision is about 1/3000 to 1/5000.
Electronic distance measurement
Recent scientific advances have led to the
development of electro-optical and electromagnetic instruments which are of great
value to the surveyor for accurate measurements of distances. Measurement of
distance with electronic distance measuring (EDM) equipment is based on the
invariant speed of light or electromagnetic waves in a vacuum. EDM equipment
which can be used for traverse, triangulation, and trilateration as well as for
construction layout is rapidly supplanting taping for modern surveying operations
except for short distances and certain types of construction layout.
Choice of methods
Most boundary, control, and construction surveys involving
long lines and large areas can be performed most accurately and economically
using modern EDM equipment. Where the distances involved are relatively short or
specific construction layout requirements are present, taping the distances can be
more practical. Stadia is still unsurpassed for small topographic surveys and
preliminary surveys for projects of limited extent.
Each of the methods mentioned in the preceding sections has a field of usefulness.
On the survey for a single enterprise, the surveyor may find occasion to employ a
combination of methods to advantage.
TapesTapes are made in a variety of materials, lengths, and weights. Those more
commonly used by the surveyor and for engineering measurements are the steel
tapes, sometimes called the engineers or surveyors tape, and woven nonmetallic
and metallic tapes.
Errors in measurement of Distances
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
6. Normal Tension:
It is the tension which is applied to a tape supported over two supports which
balances the correction due to pull and due to sag. The application of the
tensile force increases the length of the tape whereas the sag decreases its
length, the normal tension neutralizes both corrections, therefore no
correction is necessary.
PN = 0.204 WAE
PN P1
P= applied normal tension
P1= tension at which the tape is standardized
W= total weight of tape
Sample Problem 2:
A 50-m tape of standard length has a weight of 0.05 kg/m, with a cross sectional
6
area of 0.04 sq.cm. It has a modulus of elasticity of 2.10x10 kg/cm2. The tape is of
standard length under a pull of 5.5 kg when supported throughout its length and a
temp of 20C. This tape was used to measure distance between A and B and was
recorded to be 458.65 m. long. At the time of measurement the pull applied was 8
kg with the tape supported only at its end points and the temperature observed was
18C. Assuming the coefficient of linear expansion of the tape is 0.0000116 m/C.
a. Compute the total correction due to the applied pull of 8 kg.
b. Compute the total correction due to the weight of the tape.
c. Compute the true length of the measured line AB due to the combined
effects of tension, sag
and temperature.
Sample Problem 5:
A line is recorded as 472.90 m long. It is measured with a 0.65 kg tape which
is 30.005 m long at 20C under a 50 N pull supported at both ends. During
measurement, the temperature is 5 C and the tape is suspended under a 75 N pull.
The line is measured on 3% grade. E = 200 Gpa, cross-sectional area of tape is 3
mm2 and the coefficient of thermal expansion is 0.0000116 m/ C.
a. Compute the actual length of tape during measurement.
b. Compute the total error to be corrected for the inclined distance.
c. What is the true horizontal distance?
Any other lengths in the proportions of 3, 4, and 5 can also be used such
as 6:8:10, 9:12:15, and 12:16:20.
3:4:5 Method
b. If unequal lengths are laid out, as AB and AC in the figure shown, then
upon measuring the distance BC, the angle BAC (or < A) can be computed
using law of cosine.
AB = (AC2 + BC2)
b. By Swing Offsets
c. By Parallel Lines
If the necessary distance
from line AB is short,
perpendicular line AA = BB
are erected by either using
the chord-bisection method
or the 3:4:5 method to clear
the obstacle. The line AB is
then taped, and its length is
taken as that of AB.
d. By Similar Triangles
The method illustrated in the figure is one where two line, BD and CE, are
established perpendicular to the line ABC. The distance between the two
perpendiculars (or BC) is measured and with points D and E both line up
with A, the length of AB can then be determined by similarity of triangles
or:
AB = (AB + BC)
BD (AB + BC)
BD
CE
AB (CE) =
BD (BC)
1. Determining Areas
To determine the area of a rectilinear field, the rectilinear field is subdivided
into series of connected triangles. The sides of these triangles is then
measured using a tape. Having the dimensions of these triangles measured,
the area of each triangle is then computed.
The total area of the field is the sum of the calculated areas of the series of
connected triangles into which the field is subdivided.
b
c
A2
A33+ A4 + A5
A = A1 + A2 + A
A1 =
A1
(s - a)(s - b)(s - A
c)
4
a
A5
S =
a + b + c
2
SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. The angle between two intersecting fences is to be determined with a tape. A
point on each fence line is established 30.0 m from the point of the
intersection. If the distance between the established points is 12.20 m, what
is the intersection angle?