Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Electrical and
electronic systems. Chapter 10 in Off-Road Vehicle Engineering Principles, 205-254. St. Joseph,
Mich.: ASAE. American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
CHAPTER 9
COOLING
SYSTEMS
9.1 Introduction
The temperature of the combustion gases in an internal combustion engine exceeds
the melting point of the piston and cylinder walls. Thus, a cooling system is necessary
to prevent failure of the engine. Excessive engine temperatures can cause many
problems, including head cracking, ring sticking, and piston seizure. The cooling
system must be able to function in an environment of high ambient temperatures, dirt
and chaff, and vibration. Engines may be air cooled or liquid cooled. Among larger
engines, liquid cooling is more common and most of this chapter will deal with liquid
cooling. The liquid used in cooling is a blend of water and antifreeze. In this chapter,
we will also use the term, water cooling, even though half of the coolant volume may
be liquid other than water.
(9.1)
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(9.2)
where
RW = heat transport rate, kW
QW = coolant flow rate, L/min
W = coolant density = 1.0 kg/L
CW = specific heat of coolant, kJ/kg .C
TW = temperature drop as water moves through radiator, C
As shown in Section 9.3.4, the specific heat of the coolant is a function of the
coolant formulation and temperature. Equation 9.2 can be used to estimate the coolant
flow needed to handle the heat transport from the engine for a specified temperature
drop across the radiator. Typically, a temperature drop of 3 to 8C can be achieved in
the coolant temperature. Typical coolant flow rates are 1.3 to 2.5 L/min per kW of
brake power.
The water pump must be large enough to handle the required coolant flow rate.
Typically, a centrifugal pump is used to pump the coolant and its discharge rate will
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vary with the amount of back pressure on the pump. Normally, the pump is arranged
to discharge into the engine water jacket surrounding the cylinders in the engine
block. The coolant tends to rise as it is heated and moves through holes in the head
gasket to the engine head, where it can cool the valves. Coolant collected at the front
of the head is then routed to the top of the radiator for cooling and exits the bottom of
the radiator to return to the water pump inlet. Cooling in the radiator creates a natural
flow downward in the radiator. The coolants natural circulation thus assists the water
pump in circulating coolant in the cooling system. The pump must deliver the required
flow volume against the flow resistance imposed by the engine water jacket, the
thermostat, the radiator and the hoses connecting the radiator to the engine. The lowest
coolant pressure occurs at the pump inlet and must be kept close to or above
atmospheric pressure to prevent vaporization and cavitation in the pump. Minimizing
the flow restriction in the radiator and pressurizing the cooling system help to maintain
higher pressures at the pump inlet. The engine manufacturer normally specifies to the
radiator supplier the required conditions at the pump inlet to avoid cavitation.
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reasonable assumptions for design purposes. The liquid temperature entering the
radiator is 98C. The ambient air temperature is shown as 40C, i.e., a hot day is
assumed for a conservative design. If the drop in coolant temperature, Tw, is 8C and
the rise in air temperature, Ta, is 15C, then the heat transfer difference, Tr, will be
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192
The radiator cap (Figure 9.3) includes two valves to control pressure within the
radiator. The boiling point of the coolant can be estimated using
TBP = 100 0.053 Conc + 0.00367 Conc 2 + p/4
(9.3)
where
TBP = boiling point of coolant, C
Conc = concentration of ethylene glycol, %
p = radiator pressurization, kPa
As the equation shows, the boiling point of water is 100C at atmospheric pressure,
but increases with antifreeze concentration and also increases approximately 1C for
every 4 kPa pressure increase. A radiator may be pressurized as much as 100 kPa but
50 kPa overpressure is more common. The pressure valve in the cap must open and
allow coolant to escape when the pressure reaches the maximum safe level for which
the radiator is designed. When the engine cools and the pressure falls, a vacuum valve
in the cap opens to relieve the vacuum and prevent implosion of the radiator. An
overflow tank (Figure 9.4) can be used to collect escaping coolant when the pressure
valve opens and to return the coolant to the radiator when the vacuum valve opens.
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There are many soldered joints in radiators, and they may not be able to maintain
integrity when subjected to the vibration and jolting that can occur on many vehicles.
Thus, radiators should be isolated from the vehicle frame by means of flexible radiator
mounts.
9.3.3 Airflow
The airflow through the radiator must be sufficient to carry away the heat
transferred from the liquid coolant. The following equation can be used to calculate
the heat-carrying capacity of the air:
Ra = Qa a Cpa Ta
(9.4)
where
Ra = heat transport rate, kW
Qa = airflow rate, m3/s
a = density of air, kg/m3
Cpa = specific heat of air = 1.0 kJ/ kg .C
Ta = temperature rise as air moves through radiator, C
The air density may be calculated by using an equation derived from the ideal gas law,
i.e.,
a =
3.49p a
Ta
(9.5)
where
pa = absolute pressure of air passing through radiator, kPa
Ta = absolute temperature of air passing through radiator, K
A reasonable choice for air temperature rise, Ta, is 15 to 20C. For a selected air
temperature rise, Equation 9.4 can be used to calculate the airflow rate, Qa , needed to
transport the heat from the radiator.
The next step is to select a fan to move the air. Figure 9.5 illustrates performance
curves for a specific fan, i.e., a nine-bladed fan of 700 mm diameter with a 30 blade
angle. The lower family of curves relates the fan static pressure to airflow at various
fan speeds. The resistance curve shows static pressure versus airflow for a specific
radiator installation. The upper set of curves show fan power requirements at various
speeds. The designer can follow the resistance curve to find the fan speed needed to
provide the required airflow. Then the designer uses the upper set of curves to find the
fan power requirement at the selected speed and airflow. Figure 9.5 is for a specific
fan, which might or might not be ideal for the required airflow needs of the installation
being designed. The designer would have a set of such curves for fans of different
capacities and would choose the fan best suited to the specific installation.
Alternatively, fan performance equations could be used to calculate performance of
geometrically similar fans, as explained later in this section.
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Power, kW
Air flow, m /s
Figure 9.5. Performance curves for a nine-blade, 700-mm fan with 30 blade angle.
(Data courtesy of Crowley Co., Inc.)
The curves of Figure 9.5 are for the fan performance at standard atmospheric
conditions at sea level (pa = 101.2 kPa and Ta = 20C). The standard air pressure at
other elevations can be calculated by
p atm = 101.1 0.01116 h
(9.6)
where
patm = atmospheric pressure, kPa
h = altitude, m
The fan power can be corrected to the new conditions by
Pfo =
294.1p o
Pfc
101.3 To
(9.7)
where
Pfo = fan power observed at non-standard conditions, kW
po = observed absolute pressure, kPa
Pfc = fan power from performance curve at standard conditions, kW
To = observed air temperature, K
Equations 9.6 and 9.7 show that the observed fan power decreases at higher air
temperatures and/or higher elevations. As Equation 9.5 shows, however, the air
density also decreases under such conditions, thus decreasing the heat-carrying
capacity of the air (see Equation 9.4). If the vehicle were to be used consistently at
higher elevations, it would be necessary to increase the fan capacity accordingly.
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Equations 9.6 and 9.7 also show the observed fan power increases as the ambient
temperature falls below the standard 20C. It is prudent to calculate the correction
factor and observed fan power for the lowest temperature at which the vehicle is likely
to be used.
The curves on Figure 9.5 are for a given fan diameter and for six constant speeds.
Fan performance for other diameters and speeds can be calculated by using fan
performance equations. The first fan equation adjusts flow, i.e.,
Q fn N fn D fn 3
=
(
)
Q fc N fc D fc
(9.8)
where
Qfn, Nfn, and Dfn = fan airflow, speed and diameter of the new point to be calculated
Qfc, Nfc, and Dfc = fan airflow, speed and diameter of current point on the curves
Note that additional subscripts, c, refer to current points on the curves of Figure 9.5.
Additional subscripts, n, refer to new performance points to be calculated using the fan
equations.
The second fan equation adjusts static pressure, i.e.,
p fn
N
D
= ( fn ) 2 ( fn ) 2
p fc
N fc
D fc
(9.9)
where pfc and pfn = static pressures at a current point on the curves and at a new
point to be calculated.
The third fan equation adjusts the fan power, i.e.,
Pfn
N
D
= ( fn ) 3 ( fn ) 5
Pfc
N fc
D fc
(9.10)
where Pfc and Pfn = fan power at a current point on the curves and at a new point to be
calculated.
An example will illustrate the use of the fan equations. In Figure 9.5, the fan
diameter is 700 mm. The curve for 1800 rpm passes through the point where the flow
is 6.5 m3/s and where static pressure is 0.24 kPa; the corresponding fan power is 10
kw. Thus, Dfc = 700 mm, Nfc = 1800 rpm, Qfc = 6.5 m3/s, pfc = 0.24 kPa and Pfc = 10
kW. If the fan diameter was kept at 700 mm, but the speed was increased to 1875 rpm,
then Dfn = 700 mm, Nfn = 1875 rpm and application of the fan equations would give
Qfn = 6.77 m3/s, pfn = 0.26 kPa and Pfn = 11.3 kW. The fan equations could also be
used to calculate the performance of a fan of a different diameter if the fan was
geometrically similar, i.e., had the same number of blades, same blade angle, etc.
If the fan efficiency was known, the fan power could be calculated by using the
equation
Pf =
Q a p a
ef
(9.11)
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where
Qa = airflow rate through fan, m3/s
pa = static pressure rise across fan, kPa
Pf = fan power, kW
ef = fan efficiency, decimal
The torque required to drive the fan can be calculated by
Tf =
60,000 Pf
2 N f
(9.12)
where
Tf = fan torque, N.m
Nf = fan speed, rpm
Some fans are equipped with a modulating drive that allows them to turn more
slowly when less cooling is required. The total power required to drive the fan is
Pft = Pf +
2 Tf ( N fd N f )
+ Pdl
60,000
(9.13)
where
Pft = total power required to drive fan, kW
Nfd = input speed to the modulating drive unit, rpm
Pdl = power loss in fan belt drive, kW
The viscosity of the special liquid in a modulating drive unit increases with
increasing temperature, thereby causing the fan speed, Nf, to approach the input speed,
Nfd, and move more air. Conversely, the fan runs slower at cooler temperatures, thus
reducing fan power. A belt drive is typically used to allow the fan shaft to be
positioned higher than the engine crankshaft and to rotate faster than the engine
crankshaft. The power loss in the belt drive, Pdl, is typically small i.e., 1 or 2% of the
power transmitted by the belt.
A transition shroud is needed between the rectangular (or square) frontal area of the
radiator and the circular area traced by the fan tips. Ideally, the fan circular area will
provide a reasonably close match to the radiator frontal area. The fan to radiator
clearance should be 10 cm or more. The clearance between the fan tips and the shroud
is very important. In an off-road vehicle, some relative movement between the fan
shroud and fan can occur. To avoid interference, the fan-to-shroud clearance should be
at least 0.6 cm, but fan efficiency will suffer if the clearance is more than 1.25 cm. The
depth of penetration of the fan into the shroud affects fan performance. Fan suppliers
may provide performance curves for various depths of penetration, e.g., 30%, 50%, or
70% penetration into the shroud. Some manufacturers use suction fans, which pull air
through the radiator; others use blower fans, which push air through the radiator. A
blower fan helps to prevent accumulation of trash on the radiator front. Typically a
suction fan will have greater penetration into the shroud than a blower fan. A cowling
or grille between the radiator and the ambient air may restrict airflow into the radiator
and an engine cover may restrict the flow of air leaving the fan. Since such restrictions
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increase the static pressure on the fan and decrease the airflow, care must be taken to
avoid excessive restriction. The resistance curve of Figure 9.5 must include the effect
of all such restrictions on the fan. Care must be taken to prevent re-circulation of
warm air from the engine compartment back through the radiator, since the higher
temperature of re-circulated air reduces the heat transfer rate from the liquid coolant to
the air. Re-circulation is more likely to be a problem with blower fans if the radiator is
ahead of the engine and vehicle movement tends to carry the exhausted air back
toward the fan inlet.
The mean velocity of air movement through the radiator can be estimated by
va =
Qa
A FR
(9.14)
where
va = mean air velocity, m/s,
AFR = frontal area of radiator, m2
Typically, mean air velocities range from 5 to 7.5 m/s.
9.3.4 Coolants
Its high specific heat and ready availability makes water a natural choice for a
liquid coolant, but water alone has several limitations. Vehicles are often parked
outdoors at ambient temperatures below the 0C freezing point of water. The resulting
expansion when water freezes could break the radiator or engine block. Also, water
could cause severe rusting of metal parts in the engine. Thus, other liquids have been
used with water to provide a suitable engine coolant.
Ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is among the antifreeze compounds that have been
adopted for engine cooling systems. As shown in Figure 9.6, adding ethylene glycol
reduces the freezing point of the solution until the glycol reaches a concentration of
68%v. Typically, a solution of 50% water and 50% ethylene glycol is used. The
ethylene glycol also raises the boiling point of the coolant, as indicated by Equation
9.3. Several additives are used with the ethylene glycol to improve its properties.
Chemical inhibitors containing an alkaline base help to neutralize any acids that may
enter the cooling system from exhaust gas leakage and thereby protect metal surfaces.
Before such additives were used, cavitation sometimes caused pitting on the outer
walls of the combustion chambers. Foam suppressors help to reduce surface tension
and bubble formation. Rust inhibitors form a chemical film over metal parts to retard
rust formation. Water softening agents help to minimize scale formation on the outer
walls of the cylinders; scale formation retards heat transfer through the cylinder walls.
A dye is normally added to the antifreeze to give it a distinctive color. Engine
manufacturers often specify coolant formulations to be used in their engines. Note in
Figure 9.6, the specific gravity of the coolant varies with the glycol concentration and
thus with the freezing point of the coolant. This property is used in designing
hydrometers to determine the freezing point of the coolant in an engine cooling
system.
198
199
The specific heat is a function of the coolant formulation and temperature. The
following equations can be used to calculate the specific heat of the coolant. For water
alone, the specific heat is
C W = 4.127 + 0.0002892 TW
(9.15)
For a 50:50 blend of ethylene glycol in water (a typical concentration), the specific
heat is
C W = 3.409 + 0.003897 TW
(9.16)
where
CW = specific heat, kJ/kgC
TW = average temperature of coolant in radiator core, C
The inclusion of ethylene glycol has the detrimental effect of lowering the specific
heat of the coolant and must be considered in calculating the required coolant flow
rate. However, this disadvantage is far outweighed by the advantages of including
ethylene glycol.
200
201
202
Homework Problems
9.1
You are to plan the cooling system specifications for a 120 kW, liquid-cooled
engine. The coolant is a 50:50 blend of water and ethylene glycol. Assume that
the heat rejected to the coolant is equal to 91% of the brake power and that the
coolant cools 8C and the air temperature rises 15C in passing through the
radiator. Assume the coolant enters the top of the radiator at a temperature of
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
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98C. Assume the radiator has 1.6 cm tube spacing and three rows of tubes.
Design for ambient air temperature at 40C and 100 kPa barometric pressure.
Calculate (a) the specific heat of the coolant, (b) the required coolant flow rate,
(c) the required number of tubes in the radiator, (d) the radiator width, (e) the
radiator frontal area assuming a height 15% greater than the width, and (f) the
required airflow rate through the radiator.
(g) Select the required fan speed of the fan whose performance is shown in
Figure 9.5, assuming the fan operates along the restriction curve shown in the
figure. Use Figure 9.5 to determine (h) the static pressure rise across the fan and
(i) the fan power.
Finally, calculate (j) the fan efficiency and (k) the mean velocity of airflow
through the radiator. Note that you may have to adjust the answer of part c; the
number of radiator tubes must be an integer number and the middle row has one
less tube than the front and rear rows.
Rework Problem 9.1, but assume the coolant temperature falls 5C and the air
temperature rises 13 C.
Rework Problem 9.1, but assume the brake power is 130 kW.
Rework Problem 9.1, but assume the brake power is 130 kW, the coolant
temperature falls 5C, and the air temperature rises 18C.
(a) Plot the specific heat of water versus the water temperature for temperatures
ranging from 80 to 120C. Add a second curve on the same graph, but use a
50:50 blend of water and ethylene glycol as the coolant.
(b) What change in the design of the cooling system would be needed to
compensate for the reduced specific heat of the coolant containing antifreeze?
Assume a fan is driven with a constant 2450 rpm input speed to a modulating
drive unit. For each of the points on Figure 9.5 at which the resistance curve
crosses a fan speed curve, determine (a) the fan power, (b) the fan torque, (c) the
power absorbed in the modulating unit, and (d) the total power required to drive
the fan assuming the fan belt drive is 98% efficient. Plot three curves, i.e., fan
power, power absorbed in the modulating unit, and total power, all versus fan
speed. Note: This is a good spreadsheet exercise.
Rework Problem 9.6, but assume the input speed to the modulating unit is 2500
rpm.
Assume a fan is operating at 2000 rpm on the resistance curve of Figure 9.5.
(a) Assuming the air temperature remains at 20C, calculate the fan power at
250 m increments in elevation from 0 to 1500 m elevation.
(b) At each elevation, also calculate the mass flow rate of air delivered by the
fan.
(c) Plot the fan power versus elevation and mass flow rate versus elevation.
(d) What change in cooling system design would be needed to allow the engine
to operate at the higher elevations?
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9.9 Rework Problem 9.8, but assume the fan is operating at 2400 rpm.
9.10 Digitize the 2400 rpm fan curves on Figure 9.5, i.e., (a) take data points along
the static pressure versus flow curve and (b) the fan power versus flow curve.
Enter the digitized curve data into a spreadsheet. Calculate (c) a static pressure
flow curve and (d) fan power versus flow curve for a speed of 2500 rpm. Use
the spreadsheet to plot (e) the two static pressure versus flow curves and (f) the
two fan power versus flow curves.
9.11 Rework Problem 9.10 but change the fan speed to 2300 rpm.
9.12 Rework Problem 9.10 but, instead of changing the fan speed to 2500 rpm,
change the fan diameter to 750 mm.
9.13 Rework Problem 9.10 but, instead of changing the fan speed to 2500 rpm,
change the fan diameter to 650 mm
9.14 Rework Problem 9.10, but change the fan diameter to 650 mm and the fan speed
to 2500 rpm.
9.15 (a) Calculate the airflow rate needed to cool a 120 kW, air-cooled engine.
(b) Compare your answer with the airflow needed for the engine of Problem 9.1.
9.16 (a) Calculate the airflow rate needed to cool a 130 kW, air-cooled engine.
(b) Compare your answer with the airflow needed for the engine of Problem 9.3.