Module 2: Networking Fundamentales

Overview
Bandwidth decisions are among the most important considerations when a network i
s designed. This module discusses the importance of bandwidth and explains how i
t is measured.
Layered models are used to describe network functions. This module covers the tw
o most important models, which are the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model a
nd the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model. The modul
e also presents the differences and similarities between the two models.
This module also includes a brief history of networking. Students will learn abo
ut network devices and different types of physical and logical layouts. This mod
ule also defines and compares LANs, MANs, WANs, SANs, and VPNs.
This module covers some of the objectives for the CCNA 640-801, INTRO 640-821, a
nd ICND 640-811 exams.
Students who complete this module should be able to perform the following tasks:
Explain the importance of bandwidth in networking
Use an analogy to explain bandwidth
Identify bps, kbps, Mbps, and Gbps as units of bandwidth
Explain the difference between bandwidth and throughput
Calculate data transfer rates
Explain why layered models are used to describe data communication
Explain the development of the OSI model
List the advantages of a layered approach
Identify each of the seven layers of the OSI model
Identify the four layers of the TCP/IP model
Describe the similarities and differences between the two models
Briefly outline the history of networking
Identify devices used in networking
Understand the role of protocols in networking
Define LAN, WAN, MAN, and SAN
Explain VPNs and their advantages
Describe the differences between intranets and extranets
2.1 Networking Terminology
2.1.1 Data networks

This page will discuss the evolution of data networks.

Data networks developed as a result of business applications that were written f
or microcomputers. The microcomputers were not connected so there was no effici
ent way to share data among them. It was not efficient or cost-effective for bu
sinesses to use floppy disks to share data. Sneakernet created multiple copies o
f the data. Each time a file was modified it would have to be shared again with
all other people who needed that file. If two people modified the file and then
tried to share it, one of the sets of changes would be lost. Businesses needed a
solution that would successfully address the following three problems:
How to avoid duplication of equipment and resources

How to communicate efficiently

How to set up and manage a network
Businesses realized that computer networking could increase
e money. Networks were added and expanded almost as rapidly
ologies and products were introduced. The early development
sorganized. However, a tremendous expansion occurred in the

productivity and sav

as new network techn
of networking was di
early 1980s.

In the mid-1980s, the network technologies that emerged were created with a vari
ety of hardware and software implementations. Each company that created network
hardware and software used its own company standards. These individual standards
were developed because of competition with other companies. As a result, many o
f the network technologies were incompatible with each other. It became increasi
ngly difficult for networks that used different specifications to communicate wi
th each other. Network equipment often had to be replaced to implement new techn
ologies.
One early solution was the creation of local-area network (LAN) standards. LAN
standards provided an open set of guidelines that companies used to create netwo
rk hardware and software. As a result, the equipment from different companies be
came compatible. This allowed for stability in LAN implementations.
In a LAN system, each department of the company is a kind of electronic island.
As the use of computers in businesses grew, LANs became insufficient.
A new technology was necessary to share information efficiently and quickly with
in a company and between businesses. The solution was the creation of metropoli
tan-area networks (MANs) and wide-area networks (WANs). Because WANs could conne
ct user networks over large geographic areas, it was possible for businesses to
communicate with each other across great distances. Figure summarizes the relat
ive sizes of LANs and WANs.
The next page will discuss the history of computer networks.
2.1 Networking Terminology
2.1.2 Network history

This page presents a simplified view of how the Internet evolved.

The history of computer networking is complex. It has involved many people from
all over the world over the past 35 years. Presented here is a simplified view
of how the Internet evolved. The processes of invention and commercialization ar
e far more complicated, but it is helpful to look at the fundamental development
.
In the 1940s computers were large electromechanical devices that were prone to f
ailure. In 1947 the invention of a semiconductor transistor opened up many possi
bilities for making smaller, more reliable computers. In the 1950s large institu
tions began to use mainframe computers, which were run by punched card programs.
In the late 1950s the integrated circuit that combined several, and now million
s, of transistors on one small piece of semiconductor was invented. In the 1960s
mainframes with terminals and integrated circuits were widely used.
In the late 1960s and 1970s smaller computers called minicomputers were created.
However, these minicomputers were still very large by modern standards. In 1977
the Apple Computer Company introduced the microcomputer, which was also known a
s the Mac. In 1981 IBM introduced its first PC. The user-friendly Mac, the open-

architecture IBM PC, and the further micro-miniaturization of integrated circuit

s led to widespread use of personal computers in homes and businesses.
In the mid-1980s PC users began to use modems to share files with other computer
s. This was referred to as point-to-point, or dial-up communication. This concep
t was expanded by the use of computers that were the central point of communicat
ion in a dial-up connection. These computers were called bulletin boards. Users
would connect to the bulletin boards, leave and pick up messages, as well as upl
oad and download files. The drawback to this type of system was that there was v
ery little direct communication and then only with those who knew about the bull
etin board. Another limitation was that the bulletin board computer required one
modem per connection. If five people connected simultaneously it would require
five modems connected to five separate phone lines. As the number of people who
wanted to use the system grew, the system was not able to handle the demand. For
example, imagine if 500 people wanted to connect at the same time.
From the 1960s to the 1990s the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) developed large
, reliable, wide-area networks (WANs) for military and scientific reasons. This
technology was different from the point-to-point communication used in bulletin
boards. It allowed multiple computers to be connected together through many diff
erent paths. The network itself would determine how to move data from one comput
er to another. One connection could be used to reach many computers at the same
time. The WAN developed by the DoD eventually became the Internet.
The next page will discuss network devices.
2.1 Networking Terminology
2.1.3 Networking devices

This page will introduce some important networking devices.

Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred to as a device
. These devices are broken up into two classifications. The first classification
is end-user devices. End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, an
d other devices that provide services directly to the user. The second classific
ation is network devices. Network devices include all the devices that connect t
he end-user devices together to allow them to communicate.
End-user devices that provide users with a connection to the network are also re
ferred to as hosts. These devices allow users to share, create, and obtain info
rmation. The host devices can exist without a network, but without the network t
he host capabilities are greatly reduced. NICs are used to physically connect ho
st devices to the network media. They use this connection to send e-mails, print
reports, scan pictures, or access databases.
A NIC is a printed circuit board that fits into the expansion slot of a bus on a
computer motherboard. It can also be a peripheral device. NICs are sometimes ca
lled network adapters. Laptop or notebook computer NICs are usually the size of
a PCMCIA card. Each NIC is identified by a unique code called a Media Access Co
ntrol (MAC) address. This address is used to control data communication for the
host on the network. More about the MAC address will be covered later. As the na
me implies, the NIC controls host access to the network.
There are no standardized symbols for end-user devices in the networking industr
y. They appear similar to the real devices to allow for quick recognition.

Network devices are used to extend cable connections, concentrate connections, c

onvert data formats, and manage data transfers. Examples of devices that perfor
m these functions are repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, and routers. All of th
e network devices mentioned here are covered in depth later in the course. For n
ow, a brief overview of networking devices will be provided.
A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal. Repeaters regenerate
analog or digital signals that are distorted by transmission loss due to attenu
ation. A repeater does not make intelligent decision concerning forwarding packe
ts like a router.
Hubs concentrate connections. In other words, they take a group of hosts and all
ow the network to see them as a single unit. This is done passively, without any
other effect on the data transmission. Active hubs concentrate hosts and also r
egenerate signals.
Bridges convert network data formats and perform basic data transmission managem
ent. Bridges provide connections between LANs. They also check data to determin
e if it should cross the bridge. This makes each part of the network more effici
ent.
Workgroup switches add more intelligence to data transfer management. They can
determine if data should remain on a LAN and transfer data only to the connectio
n that needs it. Another difference between a bridge and switch is that a switch
does not convert data transmission formats.
Routers have all the capabilities listed above. Routers can regenerate signals,
concentrate multiple connections, convert data transmission formats, and manage
data transfers. They can also connect to a WAN, which allows them to connect LA
Ns that are separated by great distances. None of the other devices can provide
this type of connection.
The Interactive Media Activities will allow students to become more familiar wit
h network devices.
The next page will introduce some common types of network topologies.
2.1 Networking Terminology
2.1.4 Network topology

This page will introduce students to the most common physical and logical networ
k topologies.
Network topology defines the structure of the network. One part of the topology
definition is the physical topology, which is the actual layout of the wire or m
edia. The other part is the logical topology, which defines how the hosts access
the media to send data. The physical topologies that are commonly used are as f
ollows:
A bus topology uses a single backbone cable that is terminated at both ends. All
the hosts connect directly to this backbone.
A ring topology connects one host to the next and the last host to the first. Th
is creates a physical ring of cable.
A star topology connects all cables to a central point.
An extended star topology links individual stars together by connecting the hubs
or switches.

A hierarchical topology is similar to an extended star. However, instead of link

ing the hubs or switches together, the system is linked to a computer that contr
ols the traffic on the topology.
A mesh topology is implemented to provide as much protection as possible from in
terruption of service. For example, a nuclear power plant might use a mesh topol
ogy in the networked control systems. As seen in the graphic, each host has its
own connections to all other hosts. Although the Internet has multiple paths to
any one location, it does not adopt the full mesh topology.
The logical topology of a network determines how the hosts communicate across th
e medium. The two most common types of logical topologies are broadcast and toke
n passing.
The use of a broadcast topology indicates that each host sends its data to all o
ther hosts on the network medium. There is no order that the stations must follo
w to use the network. It is first come, first serve. Ethernet works this way as
will be explained later in the course.
The second logical topology is token passing. In this type of topology, an elect
ronic token is passed sequentially to each host. When a host receives the token,
that host can send data on the network. If the host has no data to send, it pas
ses the token to the next host and the process repeats itself. Two examples of n
etworks that use token passing are Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interfa
ce (FDDI). A variation of Token Ring and FDDI is Arcnet. Arcnet is token passing
on a bus topology.
The diagram in Figure shows many different topologies connected by network devi
ces. It shows a network of moderate complexity that is typical of a school or a
small business. The diagram includes many symbols and networking concepts that w
ill take time to learn.
The next page will discuss network protocols.
2.1 Networking Terminology
2.1.5 Network protocols

This page will explain what network protocols are and why they are important.
Protocol suites are collections of protocols that enable network communication b
etween hosts. A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and conventio
ns that govern a particular aspect of how devices on a network communicate. Prot
ocols determine the format, timing, sequencing, and error control in data commun
ication. Without protocols, the computer cannot make or rebuild the stream of in
coming bits from another computer into the original format.
Protocols control all aspects of data communication, which include the following
:
How the physical network is built
How computers connect to the network
How the data is formatted for transmission
How that data is sent
How to deal with errors
These network rules are created and maintained by many different organizations a
nd committees. Included in these groups are the Institute of Electrical and Elec
tronic Engineers (IEEE), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), Telecommu
nications Industry Association (TIA), Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) and t

he International Telecommunications Union (ITU), formerly known as the Comit Cons

ultatif International Tlphonique et Tlgraphique (CCITT).
The next page will introduce local-area networks (LANs).
2.1 Networking Terminology
2.1.6 Local-area networks (LANs)

This page will explain the features and benefits of LANs.

LANs consist of the following components:
Computers
Network interface cards
Peripheral devices
Networking media
Network devices
LANs allow businesses to locally share computer files and printers efficiently a
nd make internal communications possible. A good example of this technology is e
-mail. LANs manage data, local communications, and computing equipment.
Some common LAN technologies include the following:
Ethernet
Token Ring
FDDI
The next page will introduce wide-area networks (WANs).
2.1 Networking Terminology
2.1.7 Wide-area networks (WANs)

This page will explain the functions of a WAN.

WANs interconnect LANs, which then provide access to computers or file servers i
n other locations. Because WANs connect user networks over a large geographical
area, they make it possible for businesses to communicate across great distances
. WANs allow computers, printers, and other devices on a LAN to be shared with d
istant locations. WANs provide instant communications across large geographic ar
eas.
Collaboration software provides access to real-time information and resources an
d allows meetings to be held remotely. WANs have created a new class of workers
called telecommuters. These people never have to leave their homes to go to work
.
WANs are designed to do the following:
Operate over a large and geographically separated area
Allow users to have real-time communication capabilities with other users
Provide full-time remote resources connected to local services
Provide e-mail, Internet, file transfer, and e-commerce services
Some common WAN technologies include the following:

Modems
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
Digital subscriber line (DSL)
Frame Relay
T1, E1, T3, and E3
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
The next page will introduce metropolitan-area networks (MANs).
2.1 Networking Terminology
2.1.8 Metropolitan-area networks (MANs)

This page will explain how MANs are used.

Wireless bridge technologies that send signals across public areas can also be u
sed to create a MAN. A MAN usually consists of two or more LANs in a common geog
raphic area. For example, a bank with multiple branches may utilize a MAN. Typi
cally, a service provider is used to connect two or more LAN sites using private
communication lines or optical services. A MAN can also be created using wirele
ss bridge technology by beaming signals across public areas.
The next page will introduce storage-area networks (SANs).

2.1 Networking Terminology

2.1.9 Storage-area networks (SANs)

This page will discuss the features of SANs.

A storage-area network (SAN) is a dedicated, high-performance network used to mo
ve data between servers and storage resources. Because it is a separate, dedicat
ed network, it avoids any traffic conflict between clients and servers.
SAN technology allows high-speed server-to-storage, storage-to-storage, or serve
r-to-server connectivity. This method uses a separate network infrastructure tha
t relieves any problems associated with existing network connectivity.
SANs offer the following features:
Performance
SANs allow concurrent access of disk or tape arrays by two or more s
ervers at high speeds. This provides enhanced system performance.
Availability SANs have built-in disaster tolerance. Data can be duplicated on a
SAN up to 10 km (6.2 miles) away.
Scalability
A SAN can use a variety of technologies. This allows easy relocation
of backup data, operations, file migration, and data replication between system
s.
The next page will introduce virtual private networks (VPNs).

2.1 Networking Terminology

2.1.10 Virtual private network (VPN)

This page will explain what a VPN is and how it is used.

A vitual private network (VPN) is a private network that is constructed within a
public network infrastructure such as the global Internet. Using VPN, a telecom
muter can remotely access the network of the company headquarters. Through the
Internet, a secure tunnel can be built between the PC of the telecommuter and a
VPN router at the company headquarters.
The next page will explain the benefits of VPNs.
2.1 Networking Terminology
2.1.11 Benefits of VPNs

This page will introduce the three main types of VPNs and explain how they work.
Cisco products support the latest in VPN technology. A VPN is a service that off
ers secure, reliable connectivity over a shared public network infrastructure su
ch as the Internet. VPNs maintain the same security and management policies as
a private network. The use of a VPN is the most cost-effective way to establish
a point-to-point connection between remote users and an enterprise network.
The following are the three main types of VPNs:
Access VPNs provide remote access for mobile and small office, home office (SOHO
) users to an Intranet or Extranet over a shared infrastructure. Access VPNs use
analog, dialup, ISDN, DSL, mobile IP, and cable technologies to securely connec
t mobile users, telecommuters, and branch offices.
Intranet VPNs use dedicated connections to link regional and remote offices to a
n internal network over a shared infrastructure. Intranet VPNs differ from Extra
net VPNs in that they allow access only to the employees of the enterprise.
Extranet VPNs use dedicated connections to link business partners to an internal
network over a shared infrastructure. Extranet VPNs differ from Intranet VPNs i
n that they allow access to users outside the enterprise.
The next page will introduce intranets and extranets.
2.1 Networking Terminology
2.1.12 Intranets and extranets

This page will teach students about intranets and extranets.

One common configuration of a LAN is an intranet. Intranet Web servers differ fr
om public Web servers in that the public must have the proper permissions and pa
sswords to access the intranet of an organization. Intranets are designed to per
mit users who have access privileges to the internal LAN of the organization. Wi
thin an intranet, Web servers are installed in the network. Browser technology i
s used as the common front end to access information on servers such as financia
l, graphical, or text-based data.
Extranets refer to applications and services that are Intranet based, and use ex

tended, secure access to external users or enterprises. This access is usually a

ccomplished through passwords, user IDs, and other application-level security. A
n extranet is the extension of two or more intranet strategies with a secure int
eraction between participant enterprises and their respective intranets.
This page concludes this lesson. The next lesson will discuss bandwidth. The fir
st page will explain why bandwidth is important.
2.2 Bandwidth
2.2.1 Importance of bandwidth

This page will describe the four most important characteristics of bandwidth.
Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that can flow through a networ
k connection in a given period of time. It is important to understand the concep
t of bandwidth for the following reasons.
Bandwidth is finite. Regardless of the media used to build a network, there are
limits on the network capacity to carry information. Bandwidth is limited by the
laws of physics and by the technologies used to place information on the media.
For example, the bandwidth of a conventional modem is limited to about 56 kbps
by both the physical properties of twisted-pair phone wires and by modem technol
ogy. DSL uses the same twisted-pair phone wires. However, DSL provides much more
bandwidth than conventional modems. So, even the limits imposed by the laws of
physics are sometimes difficult to define. Optical fiber has the physical potent
ial to provide virtually limitless bandwidth. Even so, the bandwidth of optical
fiber cannot be fully realized until technologies are developed to take full adv
antage of its potential.
Bandwidth is not free. It is possible to buy equipment for a LAN that will provi
de nearly unlimited bandwidth over a long period of time. For WAN connections, i
t is usually necessary to buy bandwidth from a service provider. In either case,
individual users and businesses can save a lot of money if they understand band
width and how the demand will change over time. A network manager needs to make
the right decisions about the kinds of equipment and services to buy.
Bandwidth is an important factor that is used to analyze network performance, de
sign new networks, and understand the Internet. A networking professional must u
nderstand the tremendous impact of bandwidth and throughput on network performan
ce and design. Information flows as a string of bits from computer to computer t
hroughout the world. These bits represent massive amounts of information flowing
back and forth across the globe in seconds or less.
The demand for bandwidth continues to grow. As soon as new network technologies
and infrastructures are built to provide greater bandwidth, new applications are
created to take advantage of the greater capacity. The delivery of rich media c
ontent such as streaming video and audio over a network requires tremendous amou
nts of bandwidth. IP telephony systems are now commonly installed in place of tr
aditional voice systems, which further adds to the need for bandwidth. The succe
ssful networking professional must anticipate the need for increased bandwidth a
nd act accordingly.
The next page will describe some analogies that can be used to understand bandwi
dth.

2.2 Bandwidth
2.2.2 The desktop

This page will present two analogies that may make it easier to visualize bandwi
dth in a network.
Bandwidth has been defined as the amount of information that can flow through a
network in a given time. The idea that information flows suggests two analogies
that may make it easier to visualize bandwidth in a network.
Bandwidth is like the width of a pipe. A network of pipes brings fresh water to
homes and businesses and carries waste water away. This water network is made u
p of pipes of different diameters. The main water pipes of a city may be 2 meter
s in diameter, while the pipe to a kitchen faucet may have a diameter of only 2
cm. The width of the pipe determines the water-carrying capacity of the pipe. Th
erefore, the water is like the data, and the pipe width is like the bandwidth. M
any networking experts say that they need to put in bigger pipes when they wish
to add more information-carrying capacity.
Bandwidth is like the number of lanes on a highway. A network of roads serves e
very city or town. Large highways with many traffic lanes are joined by smaller
roads with fewer traffic lanes. These roads lead to narrower roads that lead to
the driveways of homes and businesses. When very few automobiles use the highway
system, each vehicle is able to move freely. When more traffic is added, each v
ehicle moves more slowly. This is especially true on roads with fewer lanes. As
more traffic enters the highway system, even multi-lane highways become congeste
d and slow. A data network is much like the highway system. The data packets are
comparable to automobiles, and the bandwidth is comparable to the number of lan
es on the highway. When a data network is viewed as a system of highways, it is
easy to see how low bandwidth connections can cause traffic to become congested
all over the network.
The next page will discuss how bandwidth is measured.
2.2 Bandwidth
2.2.3 Measurement

This page will explain how bandwidth is measured.

In digital systems, the basic unit of bandwidth is bits per second (bps). Bandwi
dth is the measure of how many bits of information can flow from one place to an
other in a given amount of time. Although bandwidth can be described in bps, a l
arger unit of measurement is generally used. Network bandwidth is typically desc
ribed as thousands of bits per second (kbps), millions of bits per second (Mbps)
, billions of bits per second (Gbps), and trillions of bits per second (Tbps).
Although the terms bandwidth and speed are often used interchangeably, they are
not exactly the same thing. One may say, for example, that a T3 connection at 45
Mbps operates at a higher speed than a T1 connection at 1.544 Mbps. However, if
only a small amount of their data-carrying capacity is being used, each of thes
e connection types will carry data at roughly the same speed. For example, a sma
ll amount of water will flow at the same rate through a small pipe as through a
large pipe. Therefore, it is usually more accurate to say that a T3 connection h
as greater bandwidth than a T1 connection. This is because the T3 connection is

able to carry more information in the same period of time, not because it has a
higher speed.
The next page will discuss the limitations of bandwidth.

2.2 Bandwidth
2.2.4 Limitations

This page describes the limitations of bandwidth.

Bandwidth varies depending upon the type of media as well as the LAN and WAN tec
hnologies used. The physics of the media account for some of the difference. Sig
nals travel through twisted-pair copper wire, coaxial cable, optical fiber, and
air. The physical differences in the ways signals travel result in fundamental l
imitations on the information-carrying capacity of a given medium. However, the
actual bandwidth of a network is determined by a combination of the physical med
ia and the technologies chosen for signaling and detecting network signals.
For example, current information about the physics of unshielded twisted-pair (U
TP) copper cable puts the theoretical bandwidth limit at over 1 Gbps. However, i
n actual practice, the bandwidth is determined by the use of 10BASE-T, 100BASE-T
X, or 1000BASE-TX Ethernet. The actual bandwidth is determined by the signaling
methods, NICs, and other network equipment that is chosen. Therefore, the bandwi
dth is not determined solely by the limitations of the medium.
Figure shows some common networking media types along with their distance and b
andwidth limitations.
Figure summarizes common WAN services and the bandwidth associated with each se
rvice.
The next page will discuss the concept of throughput.
2.2 Bandwidth
2.2.5 Throughput

This page explains the concept of throughput.

Bandwidth is the measure of the amount of information that can move through the
network in a given period of time. Therefore, the amount of available bandwidth
is a critical part of the specification of the network. A typical LAN might be b
uilt to provide 100 Mbps to every desktop workstation, but this does not mean th
at each user is actually able to move 100 megabits of data through the network f
or every second of use. This would be true only under the most ideal circumstanc
es.
Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time of day, using
specific Internet routes, and while a specific set of data is transmitted on th
e network. Unfortunately, for many reasons, throughput is often far less than th
e maximum possible digital bandwidth of the medium that is being used. The follo
wing are some of the factors that determine throughput:

Internetworking devices
Type of data being transferred
Network topology
Number of users on the network
User computer
Server computer
Power conditions
The theoretical bandwidth of a network is an important consideration in network
design, because the network bandwidth will never be greater than the limits impo
sed by the chosen media and networking technologies. However, it is just as impo
rtant for a network designer and administrator to consider the factors that may
affect actual throughput. By measuring throughput on a regular basis, a network
administrator will be aware of changes in network performance and changes in the
needs of network users. The network can then be adjusted accordingly.
The next page explains data transfer calculation.
2.2 Bandwidth
2.2.6 Data transfer calculation

This page provides the formula for data transfer calculation.

Network designers and administrators are often called upon to make decisions reg
arding bandwidth. One decision might be whether to increase the size of the WAN
connection to accommodate a new database. Another decision might be whether the
current LAN backbone is of sufficient bandwidth for a streaming-video training p
rogram. The answers to problems like these are not always easy to find, but one
place to start is with a simple data transfer calculation.
Using the formula transfer time = size of file / bandwidth (T=S/BW) allows a net
work administrator to estimate several of the important components of network pe
rformance. If the typical file size for a given application is known, dividing t
he file size by the network bandwidth yields an estimate of the fastest time tha
t the file can be transferred.
Two important points should be considered when doing this calculation.
The result is an estimate only, because the file size does not include any overh
ead added by encapsulation.
The result is likely to be a best-case transfer time, because available bandwidt
h is almost never at the theoretical maximum for the network type. A more accura
te estimate can be attained if throughput is substituted for bandwidth in the eq
uation.
Although the data transfer calculation is quite simple, one must be careful to u
se the same units throughout the equation. In other words, if the bandwidth is m
easured in megabits per second (Mbps), the file size must be in megabits (Mb), n
ot megabytes (MB). Since file sizes are typically given in megabytes, it may be
necessary to multiply the number of megabytes by eight to convert to megabits.
Try to answer the following question, using the formula T=S/BW. Be sure to conve
rt units of measurement as necessary.
Would it take less time to send the contents of a floppy disk full of data (1.44
MB) over an ISDN line, or to send the contents of a ten GB hard drive full of d
ata over an OC-48 line?

The next page will compare analog and digital signals.

2.2 Bandwidth
2.2.7 Digital versus analog

This page will explain the differences between analog and digital signals.
Radio, television, and telephone transmissions have, until recently, been sent t
hrough the air and over wires using electromagnetic waves. These waves are calle
d analog because they have the same shapes as the light and sound waves produced
by the transmitters. As light and sound waves change size and shape, the electr
ical signal that carries the transmission changes proportionately. In other word
s, the electromagnetic waves are analogous to the light and sound waves.
Analog bandwidth is measured by how much of the electromagnetic spectrum is occu
pied by each signal. The basic unit of analog bandwidth is hertz (Hz), or cycles
per second. Typically, multiples of this basic unit of analog bandwidth are use
d, just as with digital bandwidth. Units of measurement that are commonly seen a
re kilohertz (KHz), megahertz (MHz), and gigahertz (GHz). These are the units us
ed to describe the frequency of cordless telephones, which usually operate at ei
ther 900 MHz or 2.4 GHz. These are also the units used to describe the frequenci
es of 802.11a and 802.11b wireless networks, which operate at 5 GHz and 2.4 GHz.
While analog signals are capable of carrying a variety of information, they have
some significant disadvantages in comparison to digital transmissions. The anal
og video signal that requires a wide frequency range for transmission cannot be
squeezed into a smaller band. Therefore, if the necessary analog bandwidth is no
t available, the signal cannot be sent.
In digital signaling all information is sent as bits, regardless of the kind of
information it is. Voice, video, and data all become streams of bits when they a
re prepared for transmission over digital media. This type of transmission gives
digital bandwidth an important advantage over analog bandwidth. Unlimited amoun
ts of information can be sent over the smallest or lowest bandwidth digital chan
nel. Regardless of how long it takes for the digital information to arrive at it
s destination and be reassembled, it can be viewed, listened to, read, or proces
sed in its original form.
It is important to understand the differences and similarities between digital a
nd analog bandwidth. Both types of bandwidth are regularly encountered in the fi
eld of information technology. However, because this course is concerned primari
ly with digital networking, the term bandwidth will refer to digital bandwidth.
This page concludes this lesson. The next lesson will discuss networking models.
The first page will discuss the concept of layers.
2.3 Networking Models
2.3.1 Using layers to analyze problems in a flow of materials

This page explains how layers are used to describe communications between comput
ers.
The concept of layers is used to describe communication from one computer to ano
ther. Figure shows a set of questions that are related to flow, which is define
d as the motion through a system of either physical or logical objects. These qu
estions show how the concept of layers helps describe the details of the flow pr
ocess. This process could be any kind of flow, from the flow of traffic on a hig
hway system to the flow of data through a network. Figure shows several example
s of flow and ways that the flow process can be broken down into details or laye
rs.
A conversation between two people provides a good opportunity to use a layered a
pproach to analyze information flow. In a conversation, each person wishing to c
ommunicate begins by creating an idea. Then a decision is made on how to properl
y communicate the idea. For example, a person could decide to speak, sing or sho
ut, and what language to use. Finally the idea is delivered. For example, the pe
rson creates the sound which carries the message.
This process can be broken into separate layers that may be applied to all conve
rsations. The top layer is the idea that will be communicated. The middle layer
is the decision on how the idea is to be communicated. The bottom layer is the c
reation of sound to carry the communication.
The same method of layering explains how a computer network distributes informat
ion from a source to a destination. When computers send information through a ne
twork, all communications originate at a source then travel to a destination.
The information that travels on a network is generally referred to as data or a
packet. A packet is a logically grouped unit of information that moves between c
omputer systems. As the data passes between layers, each layer adds additional i
nformation that enables effective communication with the corresponding layer on
the other computer.
The OSI and TCP/IP models have layers that explain how data is communicated from
one computer to another. The models differ in the number and function of the la
yers. However, each model can be used to help describe and provide details about
the flow of information from a source to a destination.
The next page will explain how layers are used to describe data communication.
2.3 Networking Models
2.3.2 Using layers to describe data communication

This page describes the importance of layers in data communication.

In order for data packets to travel from a source to a destination on a network,
it is important that all the devices on the network speak the same language or
protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that make communication on a network more
efficient. For example, while flying an airplane, pilots obey very specific rul
es for communication with other airplanes and with air traffic control.
A data communications protocol is a set of rules or an agreement that determines
the format and transmission of data.
Layer 4 on the source computer communicates with Layer 4 on the destination comp

uter. The rules and conventions used for this layer are known as Layer 4 protoc
ols. It is important to remember that protocols prepare data in a linear fashion
. A protocol in one layer performs a certain set of operations on data as it pre
pares the data to be sent over the network. The data is then passed to the next
layer where another protocol performs a different set of operations.
Once the packet has been sent to the
ction of the packet that was done on
der. The protocols for each layer on
ts original form, so the application

destination, the protocols undo the constru

the source side. This is done in reverse or
the destination return the information to i
can properly read the data.

The next page explains the OSI model.

2.3 Networking Models

2.3.3 OSI model

This page discusses how and why the OSI model was developed.
The early development of networks was disorganized in many ways. The early 1980s
saw tremendous increases in the number and size of networks. As companies reali
zed the advantages of using networking technology, networks were added or expand
ed almost as rapidly as new network technologies were introduced.
By the mid-1980s, these companies began to experience problems from the rapid ex
pansion. Just as people who do not speak the same language have difficulty commu
nicating with each other, it was difficult for networks that used different spec
ifications and implementations to exchange information. The same problem occurre
d with the companies that developed private or proprietary networking technologi
es. Proprietary means that one or a small group of companies controls all usage
of the technology. Networking technologies strictly following proprietary rules
could not communicate with technologies that followed different proprietary rule
s.
To address the problem of network incompatibility, the International Organizatio
n for Standardization (ISO) researched networking models like Digital Equipment
Corporation net (DECnet), Systems Network Architecture (SNA), and TCP/IP in orde
r to find a generally applicable set of rules for all networks. Using this resea
rch, the ISO created a network model that helps vendors create networks that are
compatible with other networks.
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model released in 1984 was the d
escriptive network model that the ISO created. It provided vendors with a set of
standards that ensured greater compatibility and interoperability among various
network technologies produced by companies around the world.
The OSI reference model has become the primary model for network communications.
Although there are other models in existence, most network vendors relate their
products to the OSI reference model. This is especially true when they want to
educate users on the use of their products. It is considered the best tool avail
able for teaching people about sending and receiving data on a network.
In the Interactive Media Activity, students will identify the benefits of the OS
I model.
The next page will describe the layers of the OSI model.

2.3 Networking Models

2.3.4 OSI layers

This page discusses the seven layers of the OSI model.

The OSI reference model is a framework that is used to understand how informatio
n travels throughout a network. The OSI reference model explains how packets tra
vel through the various layers to another device on a network, even if the sende
r and destination have different types of network media.
In the OSI reference model, there are seven numbered layers, each of which illus
trates a particular network function. - Dividing the network into seven layers
provides the following advantages:
It breaks network communication into smaller, more manageable parts.
It standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor development and supp
ort.
It allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with e
ach other.
It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers.
It divides network communication into smaller parts to make learning it easier t
o understand.
In the following Interactive Media Activity, the student will identify the seven
layers of the OSI model.
The next page discusses peer-to-peer communications through the OSI model.
2.3 Networking Models
2.3.5 Peer-to-peer communications

This page explains the concept of peer-to-peer communications.

In order for data to travel from the source to the destination, each layer of th
e OSI model at the source must communicate with its peer layer at the destinatio
n. This form of communication is referred to as peer-to-peer. During this proces
s, the protocols of each layer exchange information, called protocol data units
(PDUs). Each layer of communication on the source computer communicates with a l
ayer-specific PDU, and with its peer layer on the destination computer as illust
rated in Figure .
Data packets on a network originate at a source and then travel to a destination
. Each layer depends on the service function of the OSI layer below it. To provi
de this service, the lower layer uses encapsulation to put the PDU from the uppe
r layer into its data field. Then it adds whatever headers and trailers the laye
r needs to perform its function. Next, as the data moves down through the layers
of the OSI model, additional headers and trailers are added. After Layers 7, 6,
and 5 have added their information, Layer 4 adds more information. This groupin
g of data, the Layer 4 PDU, is called a segment.
The network layer provides a service to the transport layer, and the transport l

ayer presents data to the internetwork subsystem. The network layer has the task
of moving the data through the internetwork. It accomplishes this task by encap
sulating the data and attaching a header creating a packet (the Layer 3 PDU). Th
e header contains information required to complete the transfer, such as source
and destination logical addresses.
The data link layer provides a service to the network layer.
network layer information in a frame (the Layer 2 PDU). The
ns information (for example, physical addresses) required to
ink functions. The data link layer provides a service to the
capsulating the network layer information in a frame.

It encapsulates the
frame header contai
complete the data l
network layer by en

The physical layer also provides a service to the data link layer. The physical
layer encodes the data link frame into a pattern of 1s and 0s (bits) for transmi
ssion on the medium (usually a wire) at Layer 1.
The next page describes the TCP/IP reference model.
2.3 Networking Models
2.3.6 TCP/IP model

This page discusses the TCP/IP reference model, which is the historical and tech
nical standard of the Internet.
The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference model, because
it wanted to design a network that could survive any conditions, including a nu
clear war. In a world connected by different types of communication media such a
s copper wires, microwaves, optical fibers and satellite links, the DoD wanted t
ransmission of packets every time and under any conditions. This very difficult
design problem brought about the creation of the TCP/IP model.
Unlike the proprietary networking technologies mentioned earlier, TCP/IP was dev
eloped as an open standard. This meant that anyone was free to use TCP/IP. This
helped speed up the development of TCP/IP as a standard.
The TCP/IP model has the following four layers:
Application layer
Transport layer
Internet layer
Network access layer
Although some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in
the OSI model, the layers of the two models do not correspond exactly. Most nota
bly, the application layer has different functions in each model.
The designers of TCP/IP felt that the application layer should include the OSI s
ession and presentation layer details. They created an application layer that ha
ndles issues of representation, encoding, and dialog control.
The transport layer deals with the quality of service issues of reliability, flo
w control, and error correction. One of its protocols, the transmission control
protocol (TCP), provides excellent and flexible ways to create reliable, well-fl
owing, low-error network communications.
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. It maintains a dialogue between source an
d destination while packaging application layer information into units called se

gments. Connection-oriented does not mean that a circuit exists between the comm
unicating computers. It does mean that Layer 4 segments travel back and forth be
tween two hosts to acknowledge the connection exists logically for some period.
The purpose of the Internet layer is to divide TCP segments into packets and sen
d them from any network. The packets arrive at the destination network independe
nt of the path they took to get there. The specific protocol that governs this l
ayer is called the Internet Protocol (IP). Best path determination and packet sw
itching occur at this layer.
The relationship between IP and TCP is an important one. IP can be thought to po
int the way for the packets, while TCP provides a reliable transport.
The name of the network access layer is very broad and somewhat confusing. It is
also known as the host-to-network layer. This layer is concerned with all of th
e components, both physical and logical, that are required to make a physical li
nk. It includes the networking technology details, including all the details in
the OSI physical and data link layers.
Figure illustrates some of the common protocols specified by the TCP/IP referen
ce model layers. Some of the most commonly used application layer protocols incl
ude the following:
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
Domain Name System (DNS)
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
The common transport layer protocols include:
Transport Control Protocol (TCP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
The primary protocol of the Internet layer is:
Internet Protocol (IP)
The network access layer refers to any particular technology used on a specific
network.
Regardless of which network application services are provided and which transpor
t protocol is used, there is only one Internet protocol, IP. This is a deliberat
e design decision. IP serves as a universal protocol that allows any computer an
ywhere to communicate at any time.
A comparison of the OSI model and the TCP/IP model will point out some similarit
ies and differences.
Similarities include:
Both have layers.
Both have application layers, though they include very different services.
Both have comparable transport and network layers.
Both models need to be known by networking professionals.
Both assume packets are switched. This means that individual packets may take di
fferent paths to reach the same destination. This is contrasted with circuit-swi
tched networks where all the packets take the same path.
Differences include:
TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application l
ayer.

TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access la
yer.
TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.
TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the T
CP/IP model gains credibility just because of its protocols. In contrast, networ
ks are not usually built on the OSI protocol, even though the OSI model is used
as a guide.
Although TCP/IP protocols are the standards with which the Internet has grown, t
his curriculum will use the OSI model for the following reasons:
It is a generic, protocol-independent standard.
It has more details, which make it more helpful for teaching and learning.
It has more details, which can be helpful when troubleshooting.
Networking professionals differ in their opinions on which model to use. Due to
the nature of the industry it is necessary to become familiar with both. Both th
e OSI and TCP/IP models will be referred to throughout the curriculum. The focus
will be on the following:
TCP as an OSI Layer 4 protocol
IP as an OSI Layer 3 protocol
Ethernet as a Layer 2 and Layer 1 technology
Remember that there is a difference between a model and an actual protocol that
is used in networking. The OSI model will be used to describe TCP/IP protocols.
Students will identify the differences between the OSI model and the TCP/IP mode
l in the Lab Activity.
In the Interactive Media Activity, students will identify the layers of the TCP/
IP reference model.
The next page explains the encapsulation process.

2.3 Networking Models

2.3.7 Detailed encapsulation process

This page describes the process of encapsulation.

All communications on a network originate at a source, and are sent to a destina
tion. The information sent on a network is referred to as data or data packets.
If one computer (host A) wants to send data to another computer (host B), the da
ta must first be packaged through a process called encapsulation.
Encapsulation wraps data with the necessary protocol information before network
transit. Therefore, as the data packet moves down through the layers of the OSI
model, it receives headers, trailers, and other information.
To see how encapsulation occurs, examine the manner in which data travels throug
h the layers as illustrated in Figure . Once the data is sent from the source, i
t travels through the application layer down through the other layers. The packa
ging and flow of the data that is exchanged goes through changes as the layers p
erform their services for end users. As illustrated in Figure , networks must pe
rform the following five conversion steps in order to encapsulate data:
As a user sends an e-mail message, its alphanumeric characters ar
Build the data
e converted to data that can travel across the internetwork.

Package the data for end-to-end transport

The data is packaged for internetwork
transport. By using segments, the transport function ensures that the message ho
sts at both ends of the e-mail system can reliably communicate.
Add the network IP address to the header The data is put into a packet or datagr
am that contains a packet header with source and destination logical addresses.
These addresses help network devices send the packets across the network along a
chosen path.
Add the data link layer header and trailer Each network device must put the pack
et into a frame. The frame allows connection to the next directly-connected netw
ork device on the link. Each device in the chosen network path requires framing
in order for it to connect to the next device.
Convert to bits for transmission The frame must be converted into a pattern of 1
s and 0s (bits) for transmission on the medium. A clocking function enables the
devices to distinguish these bits as they travel across the medium. The medium o
n the physical internetwork can vary along the path used. For example, the e-mai
l message can originate on a LAN, cross a campus backbone, and go out a WAN link
until it reaches its destination on another remote LAN.
The Lab Activity will provide an in depth review of the OSI model.
The Interactive Media Activity requires students to complete an encapsulation pr
ocess flowchart.
This page concludes this lesson. The next page will summarize the main points fr
om the module.

Summary
This page summarizes the topics discussed in this module.
Computer networks developed in response to business and government computing nee
ds. Applying standards to network functions provided a set of guidelines for cre
ating network hardware and software and provided compatibility among equipment f
rom different companies. Information could move within a company and from one bu
siness to another.
Network devices, such as repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches and routers connect
host devices together to allow them to communicate. Protocols provide a set of r
ules for communication.
The physical topology of a network is the actual layout of the wire or media. Th
e logical topology defines how host devices access the media. The physical topol
ogies that are commonly used are bus, ring, star, extended star, hierarchical, a
nd mesh. The two most common types of logical topologies are broadcast and token
passing.
A local-area network (LAN) is designed to operate within a limited geographical
area. LANs allow multi-access to high-bandwidth media, control the network priva
tely under local administration, provide full-time connectivity to local service
s and connect physically adjacent devices.
A wide-area network (WAN) is designed to operate over a large geographical area.
WANs allow access over serial interfaces operating at lower speeds, provide ful
l-time and part-time connectivity and connect devices separated over wide areas.
A metropolitan-area network (MAN) is a network that spans a metropolitan area su
ch as a city or suburban area. A MAN usually consists of two or more LANs in a c

ommon geographic area.

A storage-area network (SAN) is a dedicated, high-performance network used to mo
ve data between servers and storage resources. A SAN provides enhanced system pe
rformance, is scalable, and has disaster tolerance built in.
A virtual private network (VPN) is a private network that is constructed within
a public network infrastructure. Three main types of VPNs are access, Intranet,
and Extranet VPNs. Access VPNs provide mobile workers or small office/home offic
e (SOHO) users with remote access to an Intranet or Extranet. Intranets are only
available to users who have access privileges to the internal network of an org
anization. Extranets are designed to deliver applications and services that are
Intranet based to external users or enterprises.
The amount of information that can flow through a network connection in a given
period of time is referred to as bandwidth. Network bandwidth is typically measu
red in thousands of bits per second (kbps), millions of bits per second (Mbps),
billions of bits per second (Gbps) and trillions of bits per second (Tbps). The
theoretical bandwidth of a network is an important consideration in network desi
gn. If the theoretical bandwidth of a network connection is known, the formula T
=S/BW (transfer time = size of file / bandwidth) can be used to calculate potent
ial data transfer time. However the actual bandwidth, referred to as throughput,
is affected by multiple factors such as network devices and topology being used
, type of data, number of users, hardware and power conditions.
Data can be encoded on analog or digital signals. Analog bandwidth is a measure
of how much of the electromagnetic spectrum is occupied by each signal. For inst
ance an analog video signal that requires a wide frequency range for transmissio
n cannot be squeezed into a smaller band. If the necessary analog bandwidth is n
ot available the signal cannot be sent. In digital signaling all information is
sent as bits, regardless of the kind of information it is. Unlimited amounts of
information can be sent over the smallest digital bandwidth channel.
The concept of layers is used to describe communication from one computer to ano
ther. Dividing the network into layers provides the following advantages:
Reduces complexity
Standardizes interfaces
Facilitates modular engineering
Ensures interoperability
Accelerates evolution
Simplifies teaching and learning
Two such layered models are the Open System Interconnection (OSI) and the TCP/IP
networking models. In the OSI reference model, there are seven numbered layers,
each of which illustrates a particular network function: application, presentat
ion, session, transport, network, data link, and physical. The TCP/IP model has
the following four layers: application, transport, Internet, and network access.
Although some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in
the OSI model, the layers of the two models do not correspond exactly. The TCP/I
P application layer is equivalent to the OSI application, presentation, and sess
ion layers. The TCP/IP model combines the OSI data link and physical layers into
the network access layer.
No matter which model is applied, networks layers perform the following five con
version steps in order to encapsulate and transmit data:
Images and text are converted to data.
The data is packaged into segments.
The data segment is encapsulated in a packet with the source and destination add

resses.
The packet is encapsulated in a frame with the MAC address of the next directly
connected device.
The frame is converted to a pattern of ones and zeros (bits) for transmission on
the media.