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This page will describe the physical and logical requirements for an Internet co
nnection.
The Internet is the largest data network on earth. The Internet consists of many
large and small networks that are interconnected. Individual computers are the
sources and destinations of information through the Internet. Connection to the
Internet can be broken down into the physical connection, the logical connection
, and applications.
A physical connection is made by connecting an adapter card, such as a modem or
a NIC, from a PC to a network. The physical connection is used to transfer signa
ls between PCs within the local-area network (LAN) and to remote devices on the
Internet.
The logical connection uses standards called protocols. A protocol is a formal d
escription of a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a networ
k communicate. Connections to the Internet may use multiple protocols. The Trans
mission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is the primary set of
protocols used on the Internet. The TCP/IP suite works together to transmit and
receive data, or information.
The last part of the connection are the applications, or software programs, that
interpret and display data in an understandable form. Applications work with pr
otocols to send and receive data across the Internet. A Web browser displays HTM
L as a Web page. Examples of Web browsers include Internet Explorer and Netscape
. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used to download files and programs from the I
nternet. Web browsers also use proprietary plug-in applications to display speci
al data types such as movies or flash animations.
This is an introductory view of the Internet, and it may seem to be a simplistic
process. As the topic is explored in greater depth, students will learn that da
ta transmission across the Internet is a complicated task.
1.1.2 PC basics
This page will explain what a NIC is and how it works. Students will also learn
how to select the best NIC for a PC.
A NIC, or LAN adapter, provides network communication capabilities to and from a
PC. On desktop computer systems, it is a printed circuit board that resides in
a slot on the motherboard and provides an interface connection to the network me
dia. On laptop computer systems, it is commonly integrated into the laptop or a
vailable on a small, credit card-sized PCMCIA card. PCMCIA stands for Personal
Computer Memory Card International Association. PCMCIA cards are also known as P
C cards. The type of NIC must match the media and protocol used on the local net
work.
The NIC uses an interrupt request (IRQ), an input/output (I/O) address, and uppe
r memory space to work with the operating system. An IRQ value is an assigned lo
cation where the computer can expect a particular device to interrupt it when th
e device sends the computer signals about its operation. For example, when a pri
nter has finished printing, it sends an interrupt signal to the computer. The si
gnal momentarily interrupts the computer so that it can decide what processing t
o do next. Since multiple signals to the computer on the same interrupt line mig
ht not be understood by the computer, a unique value must be specified for each
device and its path to the computer. Prior to Plug-and Play (PnP) devices, users
often had to set IRQ values manually, or be aware of them, when adding a new de
vice to a computer.
These considerations are important in the selection of a NIC:
Protocols
Ethernet, Token Ring, or FDDI
Types of media Twisted-pair, coaxial, wireless, or fiber-optic
Type of system bus
PCI or ISA
Students can use the Interactive Media Activity to view a NIC.
The next page will explain how NICs and modems are installed.
connectivity.
1.1.4 NIC and modem installation
This page will explain how an adapter card, which can be a modem or a NIC, provi
des Internet connectivity. Students will also learn how to install a modem or a
NIC.
A modem, or modulator-demodulator, is a device that provides the computer with c
onnectivity to a telephone line. A modem converts data from a digital signal to
an analog signal that is compatible with a standard phone line. The modem at the
receiving end demodulates the signal, which converts it back to digital. Modems
may be installed internally or attached externally to the computer using a pho
ne line.
A NIC must be installed for each device on a network. A NIC provides a network i
nterface for each host. Different types of NICs are used for various device conf
igurations. Notebook computers may have a built-in interface or use a PCMCIA car
d. Figure shows PCMCIA wired, wireless network cards, and a Universal Serial Bu
s (USB) Ethernet adapter. Desktop systems may use an internal network adapter ,
called a NIC, or an external network adapter that connects to the network throu
gh a USB port.
Situations that require NIC installation include the following:
Installation of a NIC on a PC that does not already have one
Replacement of a malfunctioning or damaged NIC
Upgrade from a 10-Mbps NIC to a 10/100/1000-Mbps NIC
Change to a different type of NIC, such as wireless
Installation of a secondary, or backup, NIC for network security reasons
To perform the installation of a NIC or modem the following resources may be req
uired:
Knowledge of how the adapter, jumpers, and plug-and-play software are configured
Availability of diagnostic tools
Ability to resolve hardware resource conflicts
The next page will describe the history of network connectivity.
This page will explain how modem connectivity has evolved into high-speed servic
es.
In the early 1960s, modems were introduced to connect dumb terminals to a centra
l computer. Many companies used to rent computer time since it was too expensive
to own an on-site system. The connection rate was very slow. It was 300 bits pe
r second (bps), which is about 30 characters per second.
As PCs became more affordable in the 1970s, bulletin board systems (BBSs) appear
ed. These BBSs allowed users to connect and post or read messages on a discussio
n board. The 300-bps speed was acceptable since it was faster than the speed at
which most people could read or type. In the early 1980s, use of bulletin boards
increased exponentially and the 300 bps speed quickly became too slow for the t
ransfer of large files and graphics. In the 1990s, modems could operate at 9600
bps. By 1998, they reached the current standard of 56,000 bps, or 56 kbps.
Soon the high-speed services used in the corporate environment such as Digital S
ubscriber Line (DSL) and cable modem access moved to the consumer market. These
services no longer required expensive equipment or a second phone line. These ar
e "always on" services that provide instant access and do not require a connecti
on to be established for each session. This provides more reliability and flexib
ility and has simplified Internet connection sharing in small office and home ne
tworks.
The next page will introduce an important set of network protocols.
1.1.6 TCP/IP description and configuration
This page will introduce the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TC
P/IP).
TCP/IP is a set of protocols or rules that have been developed to allow computer
s to share resources across a network. The operating system tools must be used t
o configure TCP/IP on a workstation. The process is very similar for Windows or
Mac operating systems.
The Lab Activity will teach students how to obtain basic TCP/IP configuration in
formation.
The next page will introduce the ping command
This page will explain how the ping command is used to test network connectivity
.
Ping is a basic program that verifies a particular IP address exists and can acc
ept requests. The computer acronym ping stands for Packet Internet or Inter-Netw
ork Groper. The name was contrived to match the submariners' term for the sound
of a returned sonar pulse from an underwater object.
The ping command works by sending special Internet Protocol (IP) packets, called
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Echo Request datagrams, to a specified
destination. Each packet sent is a request for a reply. The output response for
a ping contains the success ratio and round-trip time to the destination. From
this information, it is possible to determine if there is connectivity to a des
tination. The ping command is used to test the NIC transmit and receive function
, the TCP/IP configuration, and network connectivity. The following types of pin
g commands can be issued:
ping 127.0.0.1
This is a unique ping and is called an internal loopback test. It
is used to verify the TCP/IP network configuration.
ping IP address of host computer
A ping to a host PC verifies the TCP/IP address
configuration for the local host and connectivity to the host.
ping default-gateway IP address
A ping to the default gateway indicates if the r
outer that connects the local network to other networks can be reached.
ping remote destination IP address
A ping to a remote destination verifies conne
ctivity to a remote host.
Students will use the ping and tracert commands in the Lab Activity.
The next page will discuss Web browsers.
This page will explain what a Web browser is and how it performs the following f
unctions:
Contacts a Web server
Requests information
Receives information
Displays the results on the screen
A Web browser is software that interprets HTML, which is one of the languages us
ed to code Web page content. Some new technologies use other markup languages wi
th more advanced features. HTML, which is the most common markup language, can d
isplay graphics or play sound, movies, and other multimedia files. Hyperlinks th
at are embedded in a Web page provide a quick link to another location on the sa
me page or a different Internet address.
Two of the most popular Web browsers are Internet Explorer (IE) and Netscape Com
municator. These browsers perform the same tasks. However, there are differences
between them. Some websites may not support the use of one of these browsers. I
t is a good idea to have both programs installed.
Here are some features of Netscape Navigator:
Was the first popular browser
Uses less disk space
Displays HTML files
Performs e-mail and file transfers
Here are some features of IE:
Is powerfully integrated with other Microsoft products
Uses more disk space
Displays HTML files
Performs e-mail and file transfers
There are also many special, or proprietary, file types that standard Web browse
rs are not able to display. To view these files the browser must be configured t
o use the plug-in applications. These applications work with the browser to laun
ch the programs required to view special files:
Flash
Plays multimedia files created by Macromedia Flash
Quicktime
Plays video files created by Apple
Real Player Plays audio files
Use the following procedure to install the Flash plug-in:
Go to the Macromedia website.
Download the latest flash player installer file.
Run and install the plug-in in Netscape or IE.
Access the Cisco Academy website to verify the installation and proper operation
.
Computers also perform many other useful tasks. Many employees use a set of appl
ications in the form of an office suite such as Microsoft Office. Office applica
tions typically include the following:
Spreadsheet software contains tables that consist of columns and rows and it is
often used with formulas to process and analyze data.
Modern word processors allow users to create documents that include graphics and
richly formatted text.
Database management software is used to store, maintain, organize, sort, and fil
ter records. A record is a collection of information identified by some common t
heme such as customer name.
Presentation software is used to design and develop presentations to deliver at
meetings, classes, or sales presentations.
A personal information manager includes an e-mail utility, contact lists, a cale
ndar, and a to-do list.
Office applications are now a part of daily work, as typewriters were before PCs
.
The Lab Activity will help students understand how a Web browser works.
The next page will discuss the troubleshooting process.
Numbering systems consist of symbols and rules for their use. This page will dis
cuss the most commonly used number system, which is decimal, or Base 10.
Base 10 uses the ten symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. These symbols, ca
n be combined to represent all possible numeric values.
The decimal number system is based on powers of 10. Each column position of a va
lue, from right to left, is multiplied by the base number 10 raised to a power,
which is the exponent. The power that 10 is raised to depends on its position to
the left of the decimal point. When a decimal number is read from right to left
, the first or rightmost position represents 100, which equals 1. The second pos
ition represents 101, which equals 10. The third position represents 102, which
equals 100. The seventh position to the left represents 106, which equals 1,000,
000. This is true no matter how many columns the number has.
Here is an example:
2134 = (2x103) + (1x102) + (3x101) + (4x100)
This review of the decimal system will help students understand the Base 2 and B
ase 16 number systems. These systems use the same methods as the decimal system.
This page will discuss the number system that computers use to recognize and pro
Here is an example:
101102 = (1 x 24 = 16) + (0 x 23 = 0) + (1 x 22 = 4) + (1 x 21 = 2) + (0 x 20 =
0) = 22 (16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 0)
This example shows that the binary number 10110 is equal to the decimal number 2
2.
The next page will explain the conversion of decimal numbers to binary numbers
This page will teach students how to convert decimal numbers to binary numbers.
There are several ways to convert decimal numbers to binary numbers. The flowcha
rt in Figure describes one method. This method is one of several methods that c
an be used. It is best to select one method and practice with it until it always
produces the correct answer.
Conversion exercise:
Use the example below to convert the decimal number 168 to a binary number:
128 is less than 168 so the left most bit in the binary number is a 1. 168 - 128
= 40.
64 is not less than or equal to 40 so the second bit from the left is a 0.
32 is less than 40 so the third bit from the left is a 1. 40 - 32 = 8.
16 is not less than or equal to 8 so the fourth bit from the left is a 0.
8 is equal to 8 so the fifth bit from the left is a 1. 8 - 8 = 0. Therefore, the
bits to the right are all 0.
This example shows that the decimal number 168 is equal to the binary number 101
01000.
The number converter activity in Figure will allow students to practice decimal
to binary conversions.
In the Lab Activity, students will practice the conversion of decimal numbers to
binary numbers.
The next page will discuss the conversion of binary numbers to decimal numbers.
This page will teach students how to convert binary numbers to decimal numbers.
There are two basic ways to convert binary numbers to decimal numbers. The flowc
hart in Figure shows one example.
Students can also multipy each binary digit by the base number of 2 raised to th
e exponent of its position.
Here is an example:
Convert the binary number 01110000 to a decimal number.
NOTE:
Work from right to left. Remember that anything raised to the 0 power is 1.
0 x 20 = 0
0 x 21 = 0
0 x 22 = 0
0 x 23 = 0
1 x 24 = 16
1 x 25 = 32
1 x 26 = 64
0 x 27 = 0
__________
= 112
The Lab Activity will let students practice the conversion of binary numbers to
decimal numbers.
This page will explain how binary numbers are represented in dotted decimal nota
tion.
Currently, addresses assigned to computers on the Internet are 32-bit binary num
bers. To make it easier to work with these addresses, the 32-bit binary number
is broken into a series of decimal numbers. First the binary number is split int
o four groups of eight binary digits. Then each group of eight bits, or octet, i
s converted into its decimal equivalent. This conversion can be performed as sho
wn on the previous page.
When written, the complete binary number is represented as four groups of decima
l digits separated by periods. This is called dotted decimal notation and provid
es a compact and easy way to refer to 32-bit addresses. This representation is u
sed frequently later in this course, so it is necessary to understand it. For do
tted decimal to binary conversions, remember that each group of one to three dec
imal digits represents a group of eight binary digits. If the decimal number tha
t is being converted is less than 128, zeros will be needed to be added to the l
eft of the equivalent binary number until there are a total of eight bits.
Try the following conversions for practice:
Convert 200.114.6.51 to its 32-bit binary equivalent.
Convert 10000000 01011101 00001111 10101010 to its dotted decimal equivalent.
1.2.8 Hexadecimal
This page will teach students about the hexadecimal number system. Students will
also learn how hexadecimal is used to represent binary and decimal numbers.
The hexadecimal or Base 16 number system is commonly used to represent binary nu
mbers in a more readable form. Computers perform computations in binary. Howeve
r, there are several instances when the binary output of a computer is expressed
in hexadecimal to make it easier to read.
The configuration register in Cisco routers often requires hexadecimal to binary
and binary to hexadecimal conversions. Cisco routers have a configuration regis
ter that is 16 bits long. The 16-bit binary number can be represented as a fourdigit hexadecimal number. For example, 0010000100000010 in binary equals 2102 in
hexadecimal. A hexadecimal number is often indicated with a 0x. For example, th
e hexadecimal number 2102 would be written as 0x2102.
Like the binary and decimal systems, the hexadecimal system is based on the use
of symbols, powers, and positions. The symbols that hexadecimal uses are the di
gits 0 through 9 and the letters A through F.
All combinations of four binary digits can be represented with one hexadecimal s
ymbol. These values require one or two decimal symbols. Two hexadecimal digits c
an efficiently represent any combination of eight binary digits. The decimal rep
resentation of an eight-bit binary number will require either two or three decim
al digits. Since one hexadecimal digit always represents four binary digits, hex
adecimal symbols are easier to use than decimal symbols when working with large
binary numbers. Using hexadecimal representation also reduces the confusion of r
eading long strings of binary numbers and the amount of space it takes to write
binary numbers. Remember that 0x may be used to indicate a hexadecimal value. Th
e hexadecimal number 5D might be written as 0x5D.
To convert to binary, simply expand each hexadecimal digit into its four-bit bin
ary equivalent.
The Lab Activity will teach students how to convert hexadecimal numbers into dec
imal and binary values.
This page will introduce Boolean logic and explain how it is used.
Boolean logic is based on digital circuitry that accepts one or two incoming vol
tages. Based on the input voltages, output voltage is generated. For computers
the voltage difference is represented as an ON or OFF state. These two states ar
e associated with a binary 1 or 0.
Boolean logic is a
a choice based on
With the exception
ccept two numbers,
ule.
The NOT operation takes the value that is presented and inverts it. A 1 becomes
a 0 and a 0 becomes a 1. Remember that the logic gates are electronic devices b
uilt specifically for this purpose. The logic rule that they follow is whatever
the input is, the output is the opposite.
The AND operation compares two input values. If both values are 1, the logic gat
e generates a 1 as the output. Otherwise it outputs a 0. There are four combina
tions of input values. Three of these combinations generate a 0, and one combina
tion generates a 1.
The OR operation also takes two input values. If at least one of the input valu
es is 1, the output value is 1. Again there are four combinations of input value
s. Three combinations generate a 1 and the fourth generates a 0.
The two networking operations that use Boolean logic are subnetwork and wildcard
masking. The masking operations are used to filter addresses. The addresses ide
ntify the devices on the network and can be grouped together or controlled by ot
her network operations. These functions will be explained in depth later in the
curriculum.
This page will explain the relationship between IP addresses and network masks.
When IP addresses are assigned to computers, some of the bits on the left side o
f the 32-bit IP number represent a network. The number of bits designated depend
s on the address class. The bits left over in the 32-bit IP address identify a
particular computer on the network. A computer is referred to as a host. The IP
address of a computer consists of a network and a host part.
To inform a computer how the 32-bit IP address has been split, a second 32-bit n
umber called a subnetwork mask is used. This mask is a guide that determines how
the IP address is interpreted. It indicates how many of the bits are used to id
entify the network of the computer. The subnetwork mask sequentially fills in th
e 1s from the left side of the mask. A subnet mask will always be all 1s until t
he network address is identified and then it will be all 0s to the end of the ma
sk. The bits in the subnet mask that are 0 identify the computer or host.
Some examples of subnet masks are as follows:
Summary
Decimal representation of IP addresses and network masksThis page summarizes the
topics discussed in this module.
A connection to a computer network can be broken down into the physical connecti
on, the logical connection, and the applications that interpret the data and dis
play the information. Establishment and maintenance of the physical connection r
equires knowledge of PC components and peripherals. Connectivity to the Internet
requires an adapter card, which may be a modem or a network interface card (NIC
).
In the early 1960s modems were introduced to provide connectivity to a central c
omputer. Today, access methods have progressed to services that provide constant
, high-speed access.
The logical connection uses standards called protocols. The Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is the primary group of protocols use