9.

2 Maintaining a balance
3. Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gasses, water and
waste products of metabolism in cells and interstitial fluid
3.2.1 Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a
narrow range for optimal function
-

Water is the most common compound in the animal body; it is essential for metabolism
The more water consumed, the more water in the blood and the more urine produced
Dehydration reduces cells ability to retain compounds in solution and excrete wastes
Water is used for temperature maintenance

3.2.2 Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity

Carbon dioxide
- A waste product of cellular respiration
- Transported by the blood to the lungs where its excreted from the body.
- Accumulation in the body forms acidic carbonic acid lowering pH and denaturing enzymes

Nitrogenous wastes

- Removed from the body by the kidney

- When animals metabolise proteins (deamination) toxic ammonia is produced as waste
- Ammonia must be excreted in lots of water or converted to a non-toxic compound otherwise it
denature enzymes

3.2.3 Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals
- The kidney is part of the excretory system in both mammals and fish- nitrogenous wastes
- Forms and excretes urine and regulates water and salt concentrations in the blood
- In marine environments the kidneys excrete small amounts of isotonic urine to conserve water
and remove excess salt
- In fresh water fish the kidneys work continuously excreting dilute urine with a low salt
concentration removing excess water

3.2.4 Explain why the process of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing
dissolved nitrogenous wastes in some organisms
Molecules and particles moving by diffusion and osmosis (passive transport) randomly collide
with each other and bounce off the objects around them. The particles with the most favourable
size and body shape move more easily as they can fit through the spaces.

Diffusion

Diffusion results from the random motion of atoms and molecules; this motion was discovered by
Robert Brown and is known as the Brownian motion. When substances diffuse they move down a
concentration gradient and no cellular energy is needed. The kinetic energy of the molecules is
enough to cause a net movement to the side of the membrane where they are less concentrated
until concentrations are equal on both sides.

Osmosis
Water will diffuse across a semi permeable membrane from a dilute solution to a concentrated
solution.

3.2.5 Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes
occurring in the mammalian kidney
- Diffusion and osmosis of water and salt ions occur by passive transport.
- Active transport is needed for the reabsorption of glucose from the kidney into the blood.
3.2.6 Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian
nephron regulates body fluid composition
- Blood is filtered into the glomerulus, proteins and blood cells do not pass through
- Pressure forces substances through holes in the capillary walls and the Bowmans capsule
-

Glomerular filtrate: H2O, nitrogenous wastes, glucose, vitamins and salt and HCO3- ions
Hydrogen and ammonia ions are secreted into the tubule
Water, salt ions, glucose, amino acids and bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed into blood
Proximal tubule: HCO3-, Na+, Cl- glucose, amino acids and K+ reabsorbed, H+ secreted

- Descending Loop of Henle: water passes out via osmosis

- Ascending Loop of Henle: Salts pass out via active transport
- Distil tubule: selective reabsorption of salts
- Collecting duct: water is reabsorbed, all remaining glomerular filtrate goes to ureter
- If water moves into blood salts follow passively and vice versa to maintain concentration
- As filtrate moves down the collecting duct water and solutes are reabsorbed to maintain a
constant concentration in body fluids

3.2.7 Outline the role f the hormones, aldosterone and anti-diuretic hormone in the
regulation of water and salt levels in the blood
Aldosterone
- A steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex to increase the reabsorption of sodium ions
from the nephron to conserve sodium in the blood and body fluids.
- Sodium ions enter the blood in the distil tubule; water follows by osmosis increasing the blood
volume and pressure
- Blood pressure must be maintained to excrete wastes and reabsorb substances adequately

Antidiuretic hormone- ADH

- Prevents diuresis (excessive production of urine)

- High solute levels in the blood trigger the release of ADH from the pituitary gland
- ADH targets the collecting ducts causing increased membrane permeability- increased water
reabsorption
- When solute levels are low less ADH is released

3.2.8 Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions

in response to variations in the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine
organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentration
- Enantiostasis is the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to
variations in the environment
- Estuarine organisms carry out enantiostasis as the external salt and water content varies
- Osmoregulators e.g. Salmon live at sea but reproduce in fresh water- their gills and kidneys
function like both freshwater and marine fish depending on what environment they are in
- Osmoconformers e.g. Mussels close their valves keeping a constant salt concentration within
their mantle cavity when tide is out
- Mangroves evolved small snorkels called pneumatophores that project up from the main
roots and absorb oxygen from the air
- Mangroves have special tissues that are impermeable to salt, salt is excreted through special
glands on their leaves and salt accumulates in older leaves that are discarded

3.2.9 Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in

minimising water loss
- River Redgum- sunken stomata air is trapped inside creating a moist climate around the
stomata, reducing the water loss caused by drier air.
- Wattle- have phyllodes rather than leaves (flattened petioles lacking stomata reducing
transpiration)
- Hakea- Narrow, cylindrical leaves (reduces SA exposed for transpiration) with a thick cuticle
and sunken stomata
Rolled up leaves- stomata shielded from direct exposure to sunlight/dry air

3.3.1 Perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of a mammalian kidney by

dissection, use of a model or visual resource and identify the regions involved in the
excretion of waste products
Dissection of a mammalian kidney
1. Identify the external features of a sheep kidney; observe the cortex, ureter, renal artery and
renal vein

2. Using a scalpel carefully make a longitudinal cut so

the kidney is in two equal halves
3. Observe the cortex, medulla and pelvis
Blood enters through the renal artery and is filtered in
the nephron. Blood, urea, salts, water, and glucose are
passed through the nephron. Water, urea and some salts
depending on the concentration of the blood are sent
down the collecting duct where they are sent down the
ureter to the bladder.
Risk assessment- always be careful when using a scalpel

3.3.2 Gather, process and analyse information from

secondary sources to compare the process of renal dialysis with the function of the
kidney

People with dysfunctional kidneys are not able to remove wastes such as urea and have to
undergo renal dialysis to regulate their blood
The two forms of dialysis are:
Haemodialysis:
- The blood is extracted from the body from a vein and passed into a dialyser- a machine that
cleans the blood
- In the dialysis machine a solution with similar solute components as blood is contained in a
semi permeable tube
- The tube flows in the opposite direction to the blood, wastes move out via passive transport
blood cells and proteins are too big to diffuse out
- The anti-clotting agent, heparin, is added to prevent clotting
- The clean blood is returned to the body
- Takes up to 5 hours and must be undertaken 3-4 times per week

Peritoneal Dialysis:
- This occurs in the body
- Dialysis solution is introduced into the peritoneal (abdominal) cavity through a catheter
- The lining of the peritoneal cavity is a natural semi-permeable membrane and has its own rich
blood supply
- The wastes diffuse from the peritoneal membrane into the solution in the catheter
- This process is repeated with fresh fluid every 3 hours

Kidneys
-

Active and passive transport is used throughout the nephron

Uses a series of membranes (nephrons) which are selectively permeable
Continuous process; very efficient
Useful substances are reabsorbed actively by the kidney
No net accumulation of any specific ions

Renal Dialysis
-

Only passive transport is used

Uses artificial membranes which are selectively permeable
Slow process, occurs a few times a week for patients
Useful substances diffuse into blood no need for reabsorption
Ions such as sodium and phosphate take a while to diffuse out and can accumulate

3 Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement

therapy in people who cannot secrete aldosterone
- Aldosterone controls the reabsorption of salts and water in the distil tubule to regulate blood
concentration
- Addisons disease sufferers fail to secrete aldosterone affecting blood pressure and fluid
retention levels
- Aldosterone can be replaced by taking a fludrocortisone tablet once a day indefinitely
- Careful monitoring must be maintained to avoid fluid retention and high blood pressure

3.3.4 Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the
differences in urine concentration of terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater
fish
Urine concentration

Reason

Terrestrial mammal

Mainly concentrated

Marine fish

Small volume of concentrated

urine

Freshwater fish

Large volume of dilute urine

- Depends on the availability of water in

their environment
- Depends on the temperature
- Water needs to be conserved
- Hypertonic to the environment
- Kidneys actively remove salts and
reabsorb water
- Salt is also excreted via gills
- Hypotonic to the environment
- Kidneys remove excess water and
reabsorb salts

3.3.5 Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of
water and the production and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range
of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals
- Ammonia is a toxic compound produced from deamination
- Urea is the waste product of mammals, adult amphibians, sharks and some bony fish
- Less toxic than ammonia - made from amino acids
- Stored in concentrated or dilute solution depending on the water availability of the animal
- Uric acid is the least toxic nitrogenous waste product of birds, many reptiles, insects
- slightly soluble, not toxic, little water is expending with excretion.
- Spinifex hopping mice excrete concentrated urea to conserve water- live in an arid
environment
- Grasshoppers excretes paste-like uric acid to conserve water.

3.3.6 Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available
evidence to discuss processes used by different plants for salt regulation in saline
environments
Grey Mangroves- exclude salt from the water, water absorbed has a lower salt concentration
Salt is accumulated in old leaves that drop off, so that the salt is out of the plants system
Saltbushes- store excess salt in swollen leaf bases, which drop off, ridding the plant of salt.
Palmers grass- Salt builds up on the surface of the leaf and gets washed away

3.3.7 Perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about structures in plants

that assist in the conservation of water
Eucalyptus- Waxy, hard leaves: reduce water loss by reducing the rate of transpiration from the
leave surface, the leaves hang vertically reducing water loss
Banksia- leaves have sunken stomates, reducing transpiration
Wattle- leaves are small and hairy, the size reduces evaporation, and the hairy leaves reduce
transpiration by trapping water.
Grevillia- plants have narrow leaves to reduce the surface area, reducing transpiration

9.3 Blueprint of life

1. Evidence of evolution suggests that the mechanisms of inheritance,
accompanied by selection allow change over many generations
1.2.1 Outline the impact on the evolution of plants and animals:
- Competition, physical and chemical changes in the environment impact on the evolution of
plant and animal species

Competition for resources

- Survival chance of the organism relies on its ability to obtain crucial resources
- Long-term competition results in the elimination or evolution of the competing species
- Species often evolve with similar but slightly different requirements as a way of resource
partitioning
- Throughout history there have been several mass extinctions followed by period of rapid
diversification of surviving organisms

Changes in physical conditions in the environment

- The environment has continually changed since life evolved on Earth: sea levels, continent
splitting, climate changes etc.
- Pressure on species: organisms must physically change to suit their environment or die out
e.g. Peppered moths were predominantly white prior to the industrial revolution as they could
camouflage on the white lichen on trees. Post revolution the trees darkened with soot and the
darker variants survived while most of the white moths died. Species evolved from mainly white
to mainly black.

Changes in chemical conditions in the environment

- Chemical changes in the environment impact on the evolution of organisms

- e.g. When DDT was first used to kill malarial mosquitoes low concentrations were effective.
Subsequent doses were less effective as the naturally resistance individuals had survived and
passed on resistance to their offspring. The species evolved to become mainly resistant to DDT.

1.2.2 Describe using specific examples how the theory evolution is supported by the
following areas of study:
Palaeontology

- Shows that living organisms have changed over time

- The fossil record is incomplete: fossilisation is a rare event and mainly organisms with hard
body parts are fossilised.
- Transitional forms help scientists understand how evolutionary change may have come about
e.g 1. The archaeopteryx had a reptile-like skeleton, however it also had feathers and a
wishbone suggesting that birds evolved from reptiles
e.g. 2. The lobe-fin fish had lungs as well as gills, and bones in its fins suggesting that fish
evolved into amphibians
- Similar skeletons of modern and extinct organisms can be explained as common ancestory and
evolutionary change

Biogeography
- The study of the distribution of living things with the principle each organism originated once
- Isolated regions have distinctive organisms found nowhere else- endemic
- Looking at distribution patterns and the fossil record, evolutionary history can be reconstructed
e.g. Waratahs can be found in Australia, New Guinea and South America suggesting the regions
have been connected in the past

Comparative embryology

- The embryo ontogeny of different vertebrates is very similar, suggesting common ancestory

- Embryos of different vertebrate all have gill pouches and tails suggesting evolution from a
common aquatic ancestor

Comparative anatomy

- Similar anatomy- common structures- provides evidence-supporting common ancestory

e.g. the pentadactyl limb is found on many vertebrates with a similar structure but ranging
functions such as flight, grasping and running- homologous structure
An example of an analogous structure is bats wing and a flys wing, they both have a similar
function but are different in structure - they derived from different ancestral structures.

Biochemistry

- Organisms share same basic biochemistry: contain DNA, RNA, use enzymes in metabolism,
require respiration for energy, cell membrane structure, made of organic compounds
- Similar amino acid sequence for certain proteins e.g. haemoglobin
- The more similar the more closely related

Vestigial organs
When organisms have a common ancestor some have functionless and reduced vestiges of
organs that were present and functional in their ancestors
- Whales have a reduced pelvis and vestiges of the bones of the hind limbs showing that they
evolved from 4-limbed terrestrial mammals
- Humans have an appendix that was once used to aid the digestion of cellulose, it is now much
smaller and functionless

1.2.3 Explain how Darwin/Wallaces theory of evolution by natural selection and isolation
accounts for:
Convergent evolution
Natural selection over many generations can result in similar adaptations in species that live in
the same environment.
e.g. Seals and dolphins have similar structural and behavioural characteristics- both eat fish,
thick layer of fat to aid in maintaining temperature, flippers, strong swimmers and they can hold
their breath and stay underwater for longer than most mammals. Despite these similarities they
belong to a different order of mammals, their similarities are a result of convergent evolution.

Divergent evolution (adaptive radiation)

Divergence begins with one species and produces organisms that look different from each other
because they have evolved in isolated populations to suit a slightly different environment.
e.g. Darwins finches: 14 different species of finches discovered with different habits, diets, body
size and beak size and shape were discovered. Darwin believed that they had evolved from a
common ancestor.

Punctuated equilibrum
The fossil record would be expected to show a gradual change from one species to another
however fewer fossils than expected that demonstrate this have been found. New species
appear suddenly survive for about 5-10 million years then disappear. The assumption is that
evolution occurs rapidly (50-100 thousand years) followed by a period of statsis- punctuated
equilibrium. Rapid expansions of new species are likely to occur where there are great pressures
of natural selection, competition or change in the environment. In the fossil record this would
appear as the rapid replacement of one species by another.

1.3.1 Plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to

model natural selection
1. Begin with 10 red cards, 10 yellow cards and 10 orange cards
2. Mix cards and pair them randomly
3. Each pair has one offspring determined by their colour or the outcome when a die is rolled
- red x red red (similar with yellow)
- red x yellow orange
- red x orange 1,2 red, 3,4 orange
- yellow x orange 1,2 yellow, 3,4 orange
- orange x orange 1 red, 2,3 orange, 4 yellow
4. Predation- a die is rolled if the outcome is a 1, 2, 3 a red is removed, 4, 5 removes an orange
and 6 removes a yellow (the yellow variant is the fittest)

3. Repeat pairing, reproduction and predation for at least 4 generations

Predation was not even as some variants were more suited to their environment, the population
changed from even numbers to predominantly yellow red was extinct.

1.3.2 Analyse information from secondary sources to prepare a case study to show how
an environmental change can lead to changes in a species
Climate changes cause changes in vegetation driving evolutionary change. 10,000,000 years ago
the Australian climate began drying out and rainforests in central Australia gave way to eucalypt
forests, woodlands and grasslands. Fast moving animals such as kangaroos and emus evolved to
inhabit the open grasslands. As the environment changed, the animals occupying it either had to
change or died out.
For example in England the peppered moth used to be primarily white and during the industrial
revolution the trees darkened due to air pollution, darker moths (which would typically be a
disadvantageous trait) were better suited to this new environment as they were not as easily
seen and the white moths became less predominant as they were easily spotted by predators.
When DDT was introduced there was a chemical change in the environment. The insecticide was
first sprayed and killed most mosquitoes however the mosquitos that survived had a DDT
resistant gene and passed on that gene to their offspring causing an advantageous change in the
species.

1.3.3 Perform a first-hand investigation or gather information from secondary sources

(including photographs/ diagrams/models) to observe, analyse and compare the
structure of a range of vertebrate forelimbs

The discovery of homologous structures in comparative anatomy provides further evidence of

evolution, for example the pentadactyl limb. The pentadactyl limb is a five fingered limb used
for a variety of different purposes such as grasping, running, swimming and flying. The
pentadactyl limb can be found in whales, humans, cats, bats, birds and primitive lungfish.
The fact that these animals all have the same basic bone structure indicates that these
organisms descend from a common ancestor.

1.3.4 Use available evidence to analyse, using a named example, how advances in
technology have changed scientific thinking about evolutionary relationships
DNA hybridisation has allowed scientists to determine evolutionary relationships based on

genetic similarity. DNA strands between the organisms are compared and the degree of matching
base pairs indicates the similarly of amino acid sequences between them.
DNA from each species is cut into pieces of 600-800 base pairs and heated to separate the
strands. The single strand from the first species is allowed to join with a radioactively labelled
strand from the second species. The more similar the DNA the more pieces will join together to
form a hybrid double strand.
DNA hybridisation of the giant panda with other animals showed that it is more loosely related to
bears than raccoons. DNA hybridisation allowed scientists to discover that humans are most
closely related to the chimpanzee and chimpanzees are more closely related to humans than they
are to gorillas.

1.3.5 Analyse information from secondary sources on the historical

development of theories of evolution and use available evidence to
assess social and political influences on these developments
Believed that organisms had always existed and that
Aristotle (384-322 BC)

Georges Buffon (1707-1788)

Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802)

Jean Lamarck (1744-1829)

Georges Cuvier (1769-1832)
Charles Lyell (1797-1875)

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

all living things were part of a hierarchy Scala

Naturae that began with a simple organism and
concluded with man at the top
Suggested that species might undergo some changes
in the course of time. He believed that these changes
took place by a process of degeneration
Stated that species have historical connections with
one another, that animals may change in response to
their environment and that their offspring may
inherit these changes
Believed that all species were descended from other
species. This evolution occurs through the
inheritance of acquired characteristics
Proposed the theory of catastrophism in which
species became extinct by a series of catastrophes
and new species arose to take their places
Proposed in the theory of uniformitarianism that the
earth had been formed gradually over many years.
This provided enough time for evolution to have
taken place
Suggested that many species on Earth have evolved
from a common ancestor by the process of natural
selection

2. Gregor Mendels experiments helped advance our knowledge of the

inheritance of characteristics
2.2.1 Outline the experiments carried out by Mendel

- An Austrian monk The founder of the modern study of genetics lived in the 19 th century
- He studied the genetics of the garden pea plant (pisum sativum)
- Studied: seed shape, seed colour, pod shape, pod colour, flower colour and stem length
Mendels Method:
Mendel selectively bred plants for two years to ensure pure breeding offspring
Firstly he crossed two pure breeding plants (e.g. long stem, green seed x short stem,
yellow seed)
- Then he crossed the off-spring (the F1 generation)
Mendels results:
-

- The F1 generation all had the same phenotype as the homozygous dominant parent
- The F2 generation had a phenotypic ratio of 3 (dominant):1 (recessive)
Mendels conclusions
-

An organisms characteristics are determined by factors (genes) that occur in pairs

Only one factor is present in each gamete- factors segregate independently
During fertilisation one factor from each parent is contributed
One factor is dominant over the other, they dont blend (his experiments didnt account
for incomplete dominance or co-dominance)

2.2.2 Describe the aspects of the experimental techniques used by Mendel that led to
his success
The origin of genetics is attributed to the Austrian Monk, Gregor Mendel, who grew peas and
studied their characteristics. His results were easy and simple to analyse due to five factors:
1. He studied a large number of characteristics in the plants
2. He carried out a large number of crosses between plants
3. He used pure breeding lines so the genotypes were known
4. He made exact counts of characteristics producing quantitative data
5. He studied separate identifiable characteristics that occurred in pairs

Mendel grew 2 groups of self pollinating pea plants tall and short. The parents always produced
identical offspring.
The 2 groups were crossed by manually transferring pollen grains from one flower to another, the
offspring (F1) were all tall. Mendel interbred the tall F1 plants and produced tall and short
offspring in the ratio 3:1 respectively.

The law of segregation

There are two genes that control each characteristic; during gamete formation the alleles
separate and during fertilisation one allele from the mother and one allele from the father is
inherited by the offspring.

The law of independent assortment

Pairs of alleles sort out independently of each other and they are distributed into the gamete
independently- either allele of one gene pair can combine with either allele of another gene pair

2.2.3 Describe outcomes of monohybrid crosses involving simple dominance using

Mendels explanations
Mendels conclusions can be observed by looking at genetic diagrams such as hybrid crosses.

Dominant genes are represented using a capital letter (T) and recessive genes are represented
using a lower-case letter (t). Tall plants (T), short plants (t)
Mendel's cross:
MC
T
T
Parents
TT
x tt
C-B T
t
Gametes
Tx
t
t
Tt
Tt
Offring (F1)
Tt
Cross-breeding
of F1
T
TT
Tt
F1
Tt
x Tt
t
Tt
Tt
Gametes
T
or t x T or t
t
Tt
tt
F2
TT : 2Tt : tt

2.2.4 Distinguish between

homozygous and heterozygous
genotypes in monohybrid crosses
A homozygous genotype is a genotype containing two of the same alleles, whichever allele is
present will be expressed as the phenotype. A heterozygous genotype is a genotype
containing different alleles, the dominant allele will always be expressed as the phenotype.

2.2.5 Distinguish between the terms allele and gene using examples
A gene is the basic unit of heredity located on a segment of DNA that codes for a characteristic
in a living organism. Genes are necessary for holding the information needed to build and
maintain cells and pass on traits to offspring.
An allele is a combination of the same gene. E.g. Gene- height, alleles- tall and short.

2.2.6 Explain the relationship between dominant and recessive alleles and phenotype
using examples

If any dominant gene is present in the genotype it will always be expressed as the organisms
phenotype- appearance.
If a recessive gene is present it may be expressed or shrouded. If the recessive gene is
homozygous the allele will be expressed as the phenotype, however, if the gene is heterozygous
the dominant allele will by expressed as the genotype.

2.2.7 Outline the reasons why the importance of Mendels work was not recognised until
sometime after it was published
Mendels findings were published in 1866 but they were not noticed by society for some time.
This may be due to that fact that:
- He only presented his paper to a small group of scientists
- It was radically different, it may not have been understood or recognised as insignificant
- He may not have been considered a scientist as he was a monk
- He had little contact with other scientists
- His work appeared out of nowhere
It wasnt until 1901 that Mendels scientific contribution was recognised when 3 scientists
produced similar data. In the 20th century biologists explained the process of natural selection as
the selection of genes in a population through survival and reproduction most fit to survive in
their environment.

2.3.1 Perform as investigation to construct pedigrees or family trees trace the

inheritance of selected characteristics and discuss their current use
Pedigrees are used to represent the phenotypic
traits inherited from parents demonstrated in a
family tree. The shaded individuals are affected
and the non-shaded individuals are normal and
unaffected.
The offspring - represented by a vertical line
from the parents descend in age moving
from the left to the right.

2.3.2 Solve problems involving monohybrid crosses using Punnett squares or other
appropriate techniques

2.3.3 Process information from secondary sources to describe an example of

hybridisation within a species and explain the purpose of this hybridization

In Kenya, hybridisation has been carried out by means of artificial insemination between Jersey
cattle and the African Sahiwal cattle. The purpose of the hybridisation is to increase milk yield
and quality. The milk yield of the Jersey-Sahiwal crossbred cows is generally higher than that of
either the Jerseys or the Sahiwals.

3. Chromosomal structure provides the key to inheritance

3.2.1 Outline the roles of Sutton and Boveri in identifying the importance of
chromosomes
Boveri- sea urchins

In 1896, Boveri published his experiments where he crossed two different species of sea urchin.
One species had larva that was wide and squat and the other had larva that was elongated and
pointed. The hybrid larva had characteristics of both parents.
He collected eggs from the first species and enucleated their eggs by shaking them, he then
mixed these eggs with sperm from the second species and observed that the female egg had no
influence on the offspring. From this Boveri decided that Mendels factors were located in the
nucleus.

Sutton- grasshopper meiosis

American cytologist, Sutton made the link between Mendels factors and the chromosomes that
could be seen in cells. Sutton recognised that Mendels factors were located on the
chromosomes. Sutton didnt carry out experimental crosses instead he synthesised the results
of other scientists.
1. Meiosis- chromosomes in each cell line up in pairs of chromosomes of the same size and
shape
2. Homologous pairs segregate- each gamete receives one chromosome from each pair
3. After fertilisation- zygote has a full set of homologous chromosomes

3.2.2 Describe the chemical nature of chromosomes and genes

Each chromosome is made up of ~ 60% protein and 40% DNA. The DNA is coiled tightly around
a protein core. DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid, deoxyribose is a sugar.
Most important molecule
Contains the information for all reactions and structures in living things
DNA is passed onto the next generations.
Slightly acidic in solution
Found in the nuclear material of all cells

3.2.3 Identify that DNA is a double stranded molecule twisted into a helix with each
strand comprised of a sugar-phosphate backbone and attached bases- A, T, C and G
connected to a complementary strand by pairing the bases A-T and C-G
From the 1920s scientists knew that DNA contained 4 nitrogenous bases- adenine, guanine,
cytosine and thymine, a sugar deoxyribose, and phosphate.
In 1953 Crick, Franklin, Watson and Wilkins discovered the
arrangement of these components. Watson and Crick, who received
the Nobel Prize for this discovery, would not have been able to do it
without the crystallographic studies by Rosalind Franklin and a few
other scientists.
DNA is made up of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a base, a
sugar and a phosphate. When two polynucleotide chains line up
the bases attach (adenine- thymine, cytosine-guanine) like rungs
on a ladder and twist into a helix. The sides of the ladder are the
sugar-phosphate groups and the steps are the two bases bound
together.

DNA replication

Enzymes slowly unravel the double helix and nucleotides with complementary bases line up along
each polynucleotide to form to form two new double helices- these new DNA strands are carbon
copies of the original.
Information is stored in the sequencing of the bases e.g. a particular gene is a particular
sequence of bases; different genes have different sequences and are different lengths.

3.2.4 Explain the relationship between the structure and the behaviour of chromosomes
during meiosis and the inheritance of genes
Genes are coded within the DNA on the chromosomes. During division each chromosome make
an exact copy of itself. The copy is attached to the original chromosome by a centromere. One
of each pair of the homologous chromosomes move into a new cell. The duplicated chromosomes
separate to single strands resulting in 4 non-identical haploid gametes (containing half the
number of chromosomes).
The genes on the chromosomes are randomly assorted into the haploid cells.
The Law of Segregation- genes on different chromosomes separate independently of each
other
The Law of Independent Assortment- genes on different chromosomes sort randomly and
independently.

3.2.5 Explain the role of gamete formation and sexual reproduction in variability of
offspring
Formation of gametes
In meiosis haploid gametes containing half the number of chromosomes are produced.
Chromosomal material is exchanged between chromosomes during crossing over producing
unique gametes.
Variation as a result of reproduction
All gametes vary genetically a result of meiosis in sexual reproduction. Two gametes fuse
together to form a diploid zygote. The offspring is a unique combination of both parents. Sexual
reproduction increases variation because it is chance that selects the gametes and there is a low
chance that the same type of sperm and egg will meet.
The role of gamete formation and sexual reproduction in variability of offspring
1. Random combinations of genes
2. Genes sort themselves independently and randomly- random segregation
3. Linked genes and crossing over takes place

Linked genes- Genes for different characteristics found on the same chromosome and usually
inherited together
Crossing over- Swapping of chromatid parts of homologous chromosomes early in meiosis

3.2.6 Describe the inheritance of sex-linked genes, and alleles that exhibit codominance and explain why these do not produce simple Mendelian ratios
Some genes for non-sexual characteristics are linked to genes for sexual characteristics by being
on the same chromosome this is called sex linkage.
When two alleles are expressed as separate unblended phenotypes they are known as codominant e.g. roan cattle with a red and white coat. Incomplete dominance occurs when
heterozygous genotypes show a blend of phenotype, neither genes dominate and the alleles
blend e.g. red snapdragons x white snapdragons = pink snapdragons (rw)

3.2.7 Describe the work of Morgan that led to the understanding of sex linkage

In 1910, Morgan performed genetic experiments on fruit flies. These experiments were easily
carried out because:
- They breed in captivity
- They require little space
- Produce large numbers of offspring
- Sexes are easily distinguished
- Small number of chromosomes can be easily examined using a microscope
Morgan crossed a white eyed male (recessive) with a pure breeding red eyed female (dominant)
the F1 offspring all had red eyes. Morgan crossed the F1 generation to produce and F2 generation
that contained a variety of red and white-eyed offspring, however, the only white-eyed flies were
males. When Morgan crossed a pure breeding white-eyed female with with a pure breeding red
eyed male the F1 generation consisted of red eyed females and white eyed males 1:1
Morgan concluded that the gene producing white eyes was located on the X chromosome this
gene is said to be sex-linked or X-linked.

3.2.8 Explain the relationship between homozygous and heterozygous genotypes and
the resulting phenotypes in examples of co-dominance
Genotypes for co-dominant alleles are represented by capital letters.
In shorthorn cattle:
Homozygous RR result in a red coat
Homozygous WW results in a white coat
Heterozygous RW results in a roan coat mixture of red and white

3.2.9 Outline ways in which the environment may affect the expression of a gene in an
individual
Both genes and environment determine our phenotype. Favourable environments allow the full
expression of genes.
e.g. Australian children have genes for medium length bones and strong muscles whereas North
African children have genes for longer bones and less muscle. The Australian child is more likely
reach maximum bone length and muscle strength.
The genes control optimum growth but many substances must be synthesised inside the body so
it requires the presence of environmental factors.
Environmental factors include nutrition, socioeconomic background, oxygen deprivation at birth,
peers and traumatic events.

3.3.1 Process information from secondary sources to construct a model that

demonstrates meiosis and the process of crossing over, segregation of chromosomes
and the production of haploid gametes

Law of segregation
Chromosomes
segregate
independently of each
other so any single
chromosome can
ends up in any
gamete

Crossing over

3.3.2 Solve problems involving codominance and sex linkage

A good example of co-dominance is when

a white shorthorn cow is bred with a red
shorthorn bull to produce a roan- red and
white offspring.
RR x WW = RW, RW, RW, RW
h

Sex linkage also known as X linkage refers

to when a condition or disorder such as
colour blindness is carried on the X
chromosome.
If the mother is colour blind and the father is not:
XcXc x XY = 2XXc, 2XcY all females are carriers
and all males are affected.
XX x XcY = 2XXc, 2XY, all females are carriers
and all males are not affected

3.3.3 Identify data sources and perform first hand investigations to demonstrate the
effect of environment on phenotype

- The colour of hydrangea flowers can be related to the pH of the soil they grow in
- The snowshoe hare lives in coniferous forests in the northern hemisphere. The hare has a white
coat colour in the winter and a black coat colour in the summer
- The Himalayan rabbit is normally white with black ears, nose, tail and feet. If the hair is shaved
from these areas and the rabbit is kept at a temperature above 34C the new hair grows back
white and when the rabbit is returned to cold temperatures the hair on the nose, tail, ears and
feet grow back black again.

4. The structure of DNA can be changed and such changes may be

reflected in the phenotype of the affected organism
4.2.1 Describe the process of DNA replication and explain its significance
During mitosis chromosomes are replicated. This process begins with the unzipping of the parent
DNA molecule by the enzyme helicase to form whats called a replication fork. Binding proteins
prevent the chromatids from re-joining. A complementary copy of each strand is constructed
from other nucleotides with the help of DNA polymerase. The polynucleotides run anti-parallel,
however, during replication the bases must be paired from 5 prime to 3 prime, therefore they are
paired in opposite directions. One polynucleotide (leading strand) is built as a continuous strand
while the other (lagging strand) is built by linking Okizaki fragments.
DNA replication allows information to be passed on to new cells. DNA is organised into units
called genes- a certain sequence of bases along a DNA strand. Each gene is coded information to
make a particular protein. DNA provides the information for the cell to synthesise the protein via
translation and transcription.

4.2.2 Outline, using a simple model, the process by which DNA controls the production
of polypeptides
Polypeptide synthesis involves ribonucleic acid- RNA- a single strand of nucleotide bases

including a ribose sugar and the nitrogen base thymine is replaced with uracil.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA) are involved in protein synthesis.
Inside the nucleus the DNA helix unzips and the DNA code is transcribed into the mRNA
molecule. The mRNA moves out of the nucleus to the cytoplasm and attaches to a ribosome
where mRNA is translated into amino acids.
Each three bases- codon- beginning with AUG the start codon, code for a specific amino acid.
tRNA has an anti-codon and an amino acid. The anti codon matches up with the codon releasing
the amino acid and forming a polypeptide chain. A stop codon stops the chain formation when
the specific polypeptide is complete.

4.2.3 Explain the relationship between proteins and polypeptides

A protein is made up of one or more polypeptide chains, each polypeptide chain is made up of
many amino acids. During protein synthesis, while the mRNA is attached to the ribosome each
specific tRNA carries a specific amino acids to the ribosome. Two tRNAs at a time are temporarily
bound to the mRNA and their amino acids links with a peptide bond to the prior amino acid. A

polypeptide is only the primary structure of a protein; the polypeptide must be processed before
the final protein is formed.
- aminoacyl- tRNA synthetase attaches amino acids to tRNA molecules

4.2.4 Explain how mutations in DNA my lead to the generation of new alleles
A mutation is a spontaneous and permanent change in a gene- it involves change in the base
sequence of the DNA. If the mutation takes place in an essential part of the gene, the protein
that that gene makes will be changed.
e.g. Albinism is a disorder where the enzyme for making melanin was altered. This is a
disadvantage due to the increased risks of skin cancer
Mutations naturally occur due to the possibility of error when genes are copied.
Mutagens such as X-rays, chemicals and UV light can significantly increase the rate at which
natural mutation takes place.
Gene mutation produces new alleles of genes and generates new genetic variation e.g. If a
pesticide is introduced sensitive insects are killed however, mutant resistant insects live on to
breed and pass on these more favourable characteristics.

**4.2.5 Discuss evidence for the mutagenic nature of radiation

Mutations occur once in every base pair replicated however, this natural rate of mutation can be
increased by expose to mutagens.
Radiation
UV radiation, X-rays and radioactive radiation can cause bases in a DNA strand to be deleted, it
can also cause thymine bases in the same strand to be linked together- thymine dimers. This
prevents replication from occurring and the cell then dies.
Organisms have a repair system of enzymes that insert bases at random into any gaps in the
DNA strand this may also result in mutation.
Other forms of radiation- alpha, beta- may break DNA strands or if the energy level is high
enough they could break up the entire chromosome. Depending on the amount of damage to the
genetic material the cell will either be mutated or destroyed.
Chemicals
Harmful mutagen chemicals may cause bases in DNA to take on a different chemical shape by
altering the double bonds and the position of hydrogen atoms in the molecule- tantomeric shift.
Some mutagens are also carcinogens e.g. dioxin. Dioxin was released on thousands of people
during the Vietnamese war, those who came in contact with it have shown a much higher rate of
cancer and mutation.
In agriculture and horticulture scientists often deliberately expose organisms to mutagens to look
for desirable mutations in offspring such as resistance to disease.

4.2.6 Explain how an understanding of the source of variation in organisms has provided
support for Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection
Variation within a population comes from:
1. The random fusion of gametes in sexual reproduction
2. The crossing over of pieces of homologous chromosomes during meiosis
3. Random assortment of chromosome pairs in meiosis
4. Random segregation of chromosomes
5. Mutations of chromosomes and genes
Darwin knew that characteristics were passed on from one generation to the next, Mendel
showed how genes were inherited and Boveri and Sutton recognised that chromosomes were
located in the nucleus and were inherited equally from the male and female during reproduction.
Darwin knew that variation was essential for natural selection to occur. Natural selection
increases the frequency of more advantageous genes and may eliminate unfavourable genes.
Many organisms have a range of adaptations that promote genetic diversity e.g cross pollination
and fertilisation, meiosis and the crossing over of chromosomes.
Often humans artificially select organisms with favourable characteristics and breed them to
produce offspring with more suitable characteristics e.g. large pigs were bred with large pigs to
produce large offspring. Tomatoes with a hard skin were bred with tomatoes with hard skin to
produce tomatoes with a longer shelf life that could be more easily transported without damage.
- Sometimes due to geographical isolation or behavioural isolation groups of the same species no
longer share a common pool of genes and adapt to separate species over time.

4.2.7 Describe the concept of punctuated equilibrium in evolution and how it differs
from the gradual process proposed by Darwin

Darwin proposed that populations change slowly and gradually over time e.g. the horse changed
gradually over 40 million years. The fossil record shows periods of rapid evolutionary change
followed by long periods of stasis.
In 1972, Niles Eldrigde and Stephen Gould suggested the theory of punctuated equilibrium. This
theory proposed that when rapid change (several hundred thousand years) occurs in an
environment, organisms either move out of the environment or become extinct. Populations
living on the edge of the disturbance may survive in small isolated groups able to evolve at a
much faster rate than large populations, accounting for the sudden appearance of new species.

4.3.1 Perform a fist hand investigation

or process information from
secondary sources to develop a
simple model for protein synthesis
Inside the nucleus: the DNA gene

sequence is transcribed into the mRNA

template.

Outside the nucleus: the DNA codons

are translated into amino acids and
assembled into polypeptides.

4.3.2 Analyse information from

secondary sources to outline the
evidence that led to Beadle and
Tatums one gene-one protein hypothesis and to explain why this way altered to the
one gene- one polypeptide hypothesis

Beadle and Tatum hypothesised one gene one protein during their studies with bread mould
Neurospora. The enzymes that they had studied consisted of one polypeptide but many
enzymes consist of many polypeptide chains and so the hypothesis was changed to one gene one
polypeptide.
Beadle and Tatum created mutated strains of bread mould by exposing the chromosomes to xrays. The mould could no longer produce the proteins needed to grow because they lacked the
enzymes to make them.

4.3.3 Process information to construct a flow chart that shows the changes in DNA
sequences can result in changes in the cell activity

functional.

If there is a simple substitution for a

single base pair on a strand of DNA
then this will result in a different
amino acid codon forming a different
polypeptide chain. If one base pair is
lost or added to the sequence then
there will be a shift along the DNA
molecule producing different
polypeptides.
Enzymes control cell activity and if
these enzymes are not formed
properly then the enzyme will not be

5. Current reproductive technologies are genetic engineering have the

potential to alter the path of evolution
5.2.1 Identify how the following current reproductive techniques may alter the genetic
composition of a population

Humans often use artificial selection to breed organisms with the most desirable characteristics
e.g. in horticulture tomatoes have been selectively bred to produce varieties with a tougher skin
for longer shelf life and easier transportation.

Artificial insemination
Sperm is collected from a male and inserted into the vagina of the female and fertilises the egg.
- increases the chance that the selected male will fertilise the selected female
- eliminates costs needed to transport the male and female together
- can be frozen in liquid nitrogen and transported long distances or stored
Artificial insemination reduces genetic variability in the population.

Artificial pollination

Plant breeders use artificial pollination to breed plants with selected characteristics; this is
particularly useful in breeding different strains of plants, however, it also reduces genetic
variability when used to breed a population of plants with the same set of desirable
characteristics.

Cloning

Cloning produces offspring that are genetically identical to their parent. By taking cuttings from a
parent stock and planting them often produces clones this means that they have identical
requirements, grow under the same conditions in similar ways to produce similar yields at similar
times making management of crops easy. However if disease breaks out every plant is
susceptible to the same diseases and without any potential for natural selection the whole crop
will die.
In 1998 dolly the sheep was cloned.
1. A egg cell was taken from a sheeps mammary gland and enucleated
2. A donor nucleus was taken from an adult sheeps mammary cell and inserted into the egg
3. The donor nucleus developed into a sheep with the exact same genetic make up of the donor
sheep. Cloning is an expensive process with limited advantages over other reproductive
techniques.

5.2.2 Outline the processes used to produce transgenic species and include examples of
this process and reasons for its use

Genetic engineering has enabled genetic material to be manipulated and transferred between any
two species e.g. the transfer of a human gene for producing insulin into an E.coli. An organism
that possesses a foreign gene in its genome is known as a transgenic organism (TGO).

Production of transgenic organisms

1. The gene required (e.g. gene responsible for producing insulin) is identified on the
chromosome
2. The required gene is cut out of the DNA strand by a restriction enzyme
3. The gene is inserted into the DNA of the cell of another organism
A transgenic species has not been created unless the organism is able to pass on its modification
to the next generation.
Transgenic species are created to make the organism more favourable e.g. insect/weather
resistant, greater yield, eliminates the use of chemicals/pesticides.

5.2.3 Discuss the potential impact of the use of reproduction technologies on the
genetic diversity of species using a named plant and animal example that have been
genetically altered
Transgenic technology and diversity
Has the potential to increase the genetic diversity of a species by adding new genetic variation
however, the TGOs are usually more favourable and so they may be grown at the expensive of
other natural organisms hence decreasing biodiversity. E.g. the TGO tomatoes have a tougher
skin, a greater shelf life and are able to survive in colder climates, since these tomatoes are
more favourable to a farmer and a company trying to sell them less natural tomatoes are
grown- possibility for extinction.

Maintaining genetic diversity

Lack of diversity can result in the rapid and widespread destruction of organisms by pests and
diseases. Seed banks are now maintained in many parts of the world to store the genetic

diversity of many strains of agricultural varieties that are now rarely grown. The past 100 years
have resulted in the extinction of species at a rate faster that that of the mass extinction of
dinosaurs.

Monitoring biodiversity
Many large and small projects are monitoring biodiversity to provide information about the
nature and quality of the environment

5.3.1 Process information from secondary sources to describe a methodology used in

cloning

Somatic cell nuclear transfer- Dolly the sheep

1.
2.
3.
4.

A mammary cell was removed from Dolly the sheep and enucleated
The nucleus was inserted into an enucleated egg cell
An electric current is used to fuse the two cells together
The fused cell begins dividing normally and the embryo is inserted into the uterus of a
foster mother

5.3.2 Analyse information from secondary sources to identify examples of the use of
transgenic species and use available evidence to debate the ethical issues arising from
the development and use of transgenic species
Transgenic species
Ligers- Lion X tiger
Bt cotton- cotton X bacteria gene
TGO E.coli- E.coli X human gene
TGO tomatoes- Tomato X salmon gene

Ethical issues
-

May have the ability to disrupt the evolutionary relationships between organisms; genetic
engineering could speed up the rate of genetic change, the transfer of genes isnt
occurring in an ecological context
May cause new diseases or encourage the development of resistant strains
Pollution of gene pools
Accidental release of cancer cells, bacteria or viruses from genetic engineering labs
Health risks associated with eating genetically modified foods/taking GM drugs
Long-term effects on the transgenic animal e.g. bST cows prone to mastitis
Animal activists raise moral questions about creating transgenic animals e.g. transgenic
pigs grow faster and leaner but are unable to stand due to arthritis
Concern that another eugenics movement will occur