7/22/2016

GlacialLandformsandFeaturesTheshapeoftheland,Forcesandchanges,Spotlightonfamousforms,ForMoreInformation

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Glaciallandformsandfeatures
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DuringthelastIceAge,whichendedapproximately10,000yearsago,32percentofEarth'slandareawascoveredwithglaciers.Atpresent,glacierscoverroughly
10percentofthelandarea.Avastmajorityofthatglacialice(/knowledge/Glacier.html)overliesmuchofthecontinentofAntarctica.Mostoftherestcoversagreat
portionofGreenlandasmallpercentageisfoundinplacessuchasAlaska,theCanadianArctic,Patagonia,NewZealand,theHimalayanMountains
(/knowledge/Himalayas.html),andtheAlps.
Glaciersarenotlandforms.Theactionofglaciers,however,createslandforms.Itisaprocessknownasglaciation.Glacialiceisanactiveagentoferosion,whichis
thegradualwearingawayofEarthsurfacesthroughtheactionofwindandwater.Glaciersmove,andastheydo,theyscourthelandscape,"carving"out
landforms.Theyalsodepositrockymaterialtheyhavepickedup,creatingevenmorefeatures.Theworkofpresentdayglaciers,however,isslowandconfinedto
certainareasoftheplanet.LessobviousbutfarmorereachinghasbeentheworkofIceAgeglaciers.Manyofthedistinctivefeaturesofthenorthernlandscapesof
NorthAmericaandEuropewereformedbyglaciersthatoncecoveredalmostonethirdoftheplanet'slandsurface.

Theshapeoftheland
Aglacierisalargebodyoficethatformedonlandfromthecompactionandrecrystallizationofsnow,survivesyeartoyear,andshowssomesignofmovement
downhillduetogravity.Twotypesofglaciersexist:relativelysmallglaciersthatforminhighelevationsnearthetopsofmountainsarecalledalpineormountain
glaciersglaciersthatformoverlargeareasofcontinentsclosetothepoles(theNorthandSouthPolestheextremenorthernmostandsouthernmostpointsonthe
globe)arecalledcontinentalglaciersoricesheets.TwocontinentalglaciersarefoundonEarth:onecovers85percentofGreenlandintheNorthernHemisphere
andtheothercoversmorethan95percentofAntarcticaintheSouthernHemisphere.

Glaciallandformsandfeatures:WordstoKnow
Ablationzone:
Theareaofaglacierwheremassislostthroughmeltingorevaporationatagreaterratethansnowandiceaccumulate.
Accumulationzone:
Theareaofaglacierwheremassisincreasedthroughsnowfallatagreaterratethansnowandiceislostthroughablation.
Alpineglacier:
Arelativelysmallglacierthatformsinhighelevationsnearthetopsofmountains.
Arte:
Asharpedgedridgeofrockformedbetweenadjacentcirqueglaciers.
Basalsliding:
Theslidingofaglacieroverthegroundonalayerofwater.
Cirque:
Abowlshapeddepressioncarvedoutofamountainbyanalpineglacier.
Continentalglacier:
Aglacierthatformsoverlargeareasofcontinentsclosetothepoles.
Crevasse:
Adeep,nearlyverticalcrackthatdevelopsintheupperportionofglacierice.
Erosion:
ThegradualwearingawayofEarthsurfacesthroughtheactionofwindandwater.
Erratic:
Alargeboulderthataglacierdepositsonasurfacemadeofdifferentrock.
Esker:
Along,snakelikeridgeofsedimentdepositedbyastreamthatranunderorwithinaglacier.
Firn:
Thegranulariceformedbytherecrystallizationofsnowalsoknownasnv.
Fjord:
Adeepglacialtroughsubmergedwithseawater.
Glacialdrift:
Ageneraltermforallmaterialtransportedanddepositeddirectlybyorfromglacialice.
Glacialpolish:
Thesmoothandshinysurfacesthatareproducedonrocksunderneathaglacierbymaterialcarriedinthebaseofthatglacier.
Glacialsurge:
Therapidforwardmovementofaglacier.
Glacialtrough:
AUshapedvalleycarvedoutofaVshapedstreamvalleybythemovementofavalleyglacier.
Glaciation:
Thetransformationofthelandscapethroughtheactionofglaciers.
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Glacier:
Alargebodyoficethatformedonlandbythecompactionandrecrystallizationofsnow,survivesyeartoyear,andshowssomesignofmovementdownhilldueto
gravity.
Groundmoraine:
Acontinuouslayeroftilldepositedbeneathasteadilyretreatingglacier.
Hangingvalley:
Ashallowglacialtroughthatleadsintothesideofalarger,mainglacialtrough.
Horn:
Ahighmountainpeakthatformswhenthewallsofthreeormoreglacialcirquesintersect.
Internalflow:
Themovementoficeinsideaglacierthroughthedeformationandrealignmentoficecrystalsalsoknownascreep.
Kame:
Asteepsided,conicalmoundorhillformedofglacialdriftthatiscreatedwhensedimentiswashedintoadepressiononthetopsurfaceofaglacierandthen
depositedonthegroundbelowwhentheglaciermeltsaway.
Kettle:
Ashallow,bowlshapeddepressionformedwhenalargeblockofglacialicebreaksawayfromthemainglacierandisburiedbeneathglacialtill,thenmelts.Ifthe
depressionfillswithwater,itisknownasakettlelake.
Lateralmoraine:
Amorainedepositedalongthesideofavalleyglacier.
Medialmoraine:
Amoraineformedwhentwoadjacentglaciersflowintoeachotherandtheirlateralmorainesarecaughtinthemiddleofthejoinedglacier.
Meltwater:
Thewaterfrommeltedsnoworice.
Moraine:
Ageneraltermforaridgeormoundoftilldepositedbyaglacier.
Piedmontglacier:
Avalleyglacierthatflowsoutofamountainousareaontoagentleslopeorplainandspreadsoutoverthesurroundingterrain.
Rockflour:
Finegrainedrockmaterialproducedwhenaglacierabradesorscrapesrockbeneathit.
Snowline:
Theelevationabovewhichsnowcanformandremainallyear.
Striations:
Thelong,parallelscratchesandgroovesproducedinrocksunderneathaglacierasitmovesoverthem.
Tarn:
Asmalllakethatfillsthecentraldepression(/knowledge/Major_depressive_disorder.html)inacirque.
Terminalmoraine:
Amorainefoundneartheterminusofaglacieralsoknownasanendmoraine.
Terminus:
Theleadingedgeofaglacieralsoknownastheglaciersnout.
Till:
Arandommixtureoffinelycrushedrock,sand,pebbles,andbouldersdepositedbyaglacier.
Valleyglacier:
Analpineglacierflowingdownwardthroughapreexistingstreamvalley.
Bothtypesofglacierscreatelandformsthrougherosion.TheseerosionalfeaturesmaybeaslargeastheGreatLakesofNorth
Americaorassmallasscratchesleftinpebbles.Asaglaciermoves,itscours(/knowledge/Diarrhea.html)awaymaterialunderneathit,pluckinguprocks,someof
whichmaybehousesizedboulders.Thismaterialthenbecomesembeddedintheiceatthebaseofaglacier.Astheglaciercontinuestomove,theembedded
materialabradesorscrapestherockunderneath.Theslowscrapingandgrindingproducesafinegrainedmaterialknownasrockflour.Italsoproduceslong
parallelscratchesandgroovesknownasstriationsintheunderlyingrocks.Becausetheyarealignedparalleltothedirectionoficeflow,glacialstriationshelp
geologistsdeterminetheflowpathofformerglaciers.Anothersmallscaleerosionalfeatureisglacialpolish.Thisisasmoothandshinysurfaceproducedonrocks
underneathaglacierwhenmaterialencasedintheiceabradestherockslikefinesandpaper.
Movingicesculptsavarietyoflandformsoutofthelandscape.Largerscaleerosionalfeaturesincludebowlshaped,steepwalleddepressionscarvedoutofthe
sideofmountains.Thesedepressionsarecalledcirques(pronouncedSIRKS),andtherelativelysmallalpineglaciersthatfillthemarecalledcirqueglaciers.Ifthe
glaciermeltsandasmalllakefillsthecentraldepressioninacirque,thatlakeisknownasatarn.Twoormoreglacialcirquesmayformonamountainside,eroding
awaytherockbetweenthemtocreateasteepsided,sharpedgedridgeknownasanarte(pronouncedahRHET).Whenthewallsofthreeormoreglacialcirques
meet,theymayformahighmountainpeakknownasahorn.
Whenacirqueglacierexpandsoutwardandflowsdownwardthroughastreamvalleythatalreadyexists,itbecomesavalleyglacier.Througherosion,valley
glaciersturnVshapedstreamvalleysintoUshapedglacialtroughs.Smallervalleyglaciers,knownastributaryglaciers,mayformalongsideamainvalleyglacier
andeventuallyflowintoit.Theshallowerglacialtroughscreatedbytheseglaciersareknownashangingvalleys.Avalleyglacierthatflowsoutofamountainous
areaontoagentleslopeorplainandspreadsoutoverthesurroundingterrainisapiedmontglacier.Avalleyglaciermayflowallthewaytoacoastline,carvingout
anarrowglacialtrough.Iftheglaciermeltsandthevalleyfillswithseawater,itisknownasafjord(pronouncedfeeORD).Althoughprominentalongthewestcoast
ofNorway,fjordsarealsofoundalongthecoastsofAlaska,BritishColumbia,Chile,Greenland,NewZealand,andScotland.
Glaciersleavetheirmarkonthelandscapenotonlythrougherosion,butalsothroughdeposition.Depositioninvolvescarryingloosematerialsfromoneareaand
leaving,ordepositing,thesematerialsinanotherarea.Depositionalfeaturesarecreatedbythereleaseofrockymaterialfromaglacier.Theyvarywidelyinscale
andform.Allsediment(rockdebrisrangingfromclaytoboulders)depositedasaresultofglacialerosioniscalledglacialdrift.Likeastream,aglacierpicksupand
carriessedimentparticlesofvarioussizes.Unlikeastream,aglaciercancarrypartofthatsedimentloadonitsbottom,itssides,oritstop(sedimentontophas
fallenontotheglacierfromthevalleywalls).Anotherdifferencebetweenthetwoisthatwhenastreamdepositsitsloadofsediment,itdoessoinorderofsizeand
weight:large,heavyparticlesaredepositedfirst,followedbyparticlesthatareincreasinglysmallerandlighter.Whenaglacierdepositssediment,thereisnosuch
order.Theparticlesareunsorted,withlargeandsmallparticlesmixedtogether.Thisrandommixtureoffinelycrushedrock,sand,pebbles,andbouldersdeposited
byaglacierisreferredtoastill.
Sinceaglaciercancarryrocksforgreatdistancesbeforedepositingthem,thoserocksgenerallydifferfromthesurroundingnativerocksinthatarea.Infact,
becausetheyarederivedfromaverylargeareaerodedbyaglacier,glacialdepositscontainthewidestvarietyofrocktypes.Aglaciallydepositedlargeboulder
thatdiffersincompositionfromtherocksarounditiscalledanerratic.
Adepositoftillthatformsaridgeormoundiscalledamoraine(mehRAIN).Morainesdepositedalongthesidesofalpineglaciersarecalledlateralmoraines.
Whentwovalleyglaciersconvergetocreateasinglelargerglacier,theiropposinglateralmorainesmergetoformaridgethat
runsdownthemiddleofthenewglacier.Thisisamedialmoraine.Amorainedepositedattheleadingedgeofaglacier,markingitsfarthestadvance,isaterminal
orendmoraine.Finally,acontinuouslayeroftilldepositedbeneathasteadilyretreatingglacierisagroundmoraine.
Anothercommonglaciallandformisthedrumlin(/knowledge/Drumlin.html).Thisteardropshapedhillformsunderneathaglacier.Thetailofthedrumlinpointsin
thedirectionoftheicemovement.Geologistsareunsureexactlyhowdrumlinsform,whetheraglacierscrapesupmaterialbeneathitordepositsmaterialitalready
carriesoracombinationofboth.Drumlinsmaybequitelarge,measuringupto200feet(60meters(/knowledge/60_metres.html))inheightand0.6mile(1
kilometer)inlength.
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Asaglaciermelts,itproducesmeltwaterthatflowsontop,within,andunderneaththeglacierthrough
channels.Thismeltwatermoveslargequantitiesofsedimentfromtheglacier.Attheleadingedgeof
theglacier,alsoknownastheterminusorglaciersnout,themeltwateremergesinlargestreamsthat
carryitawayfromtheglacier.Thesedimentinthemeltwateristhendeposited,formingabroad,
sweepingplaincalledanoutwashplain.Sincethesedimentwascarriedinwater,itisdepositedina
sortedmanner,withthelargestparticlesfirstandthesmallestparticleslast.Ifaglaciermeltsand
retreats,curving,snakelikeridgesofsedimentmaymarktheformerlocationsofstreamsthatexisted
undertheglacier.Theselong,twistingridgesarecalledeskers.
Twootherfeaturesthatresultfromthemeltingofglaciersarekamesandkettles.Asaglacierbeginsto
melt,adepressionmayformonitstopsurface,fillingwithwaterandsediment.Whentheglacierfinally
Majorfeaturesofglaciation,ortheactionofglaciersonalandscape.
meltsaway,thesedimentissetdownonthesurfaceoftheground,formingasteepsided,conical
moundorhillknownasakame.Akettleformswhenalargechunkoficeseparatesfromthemainglacier.Buriedbyglacialtill,theicethenmelts,leavinga
depressioninthelandscape.Thiseventuallybecomesfilledwithwater,formingakettlelake.

Forcesandchanges:Constructionanddestruction
Glaciersaremovingice.Theycanrangeinsizefromsmallpatchestoicesheetscoveringmillionsofsquaremiles.Theworld'slargestalpineglacieristheSiachen
GlacierintheKarakoramMountainsofPakistan.Measuring47miles(75kilometers)inlength,itcontainsmorethan13.6cubicmiles(56.7cubickilometers)ofice.
TheAntarcticicesheetisthelargestsinglemassoficeonEarth.Itcoversanareaofalmost5.4millionsquaremiles(14millionsquarekilometers)andcontains
over7millioncubicmiles(29millioncubickilometers)ofice.

Loess
Loess(pronouncedLUSSaGermanwordmeaning"loose")isadepositoffine,yellowishgray,siltysediment.Composedofmineralparticlesfinerthansandbut
coarserthandustorclay,loessformsfertiletopsoils.AreaswithlargeloessdepositsarefoundinthecentralandnorthwesternUnitedStates,incentralandeastern
Europe,andineasternChina.
Themajorityofloesswasformedbytheactionofglaciersandwind(someloesscomesfromthetransportofsedimentfromdesertareas).Afterthelasticeage,
meltwaterstreamsfromtheretreatingcontinentalglacierstransportedvastamountsofrockflourandotherfinesedimentawayfromtheglaciers.Strongwinds
blowingofftheglaciers(becauseglacialicecoolstheairandcoldairmovestolowerelevationsatthefrontoftheglacier)pickedupthefinesedimentandcarriedit
farbeyondtheoutwashplainsbeforeitwasdeposited.
Sinceloessistransportedintheair,itisverywellsorted,andismostlysiltcombinedwithasmallamountofclay.Loessisgenerallydepositedasablanketover
everything,bothhillsandvalleys.Itisoftenremovedbywindandwatertofillupbasinsanddepressions.

Glacialformation
Aglacierdoesnotstartoutasaglacier.Allthaticebegantoformwhensnowdelicate,featherycrystalsoficefellinareasabovethesnowline,theelevation
abovewhichsnowcanformandremainallyear.Ittakessnowontopofsnowontopofmoresnowtocreateaglacieritalsotakesalongtime.Onaverage,10feet
(3meters)ofsnowwillturninto1foot(0.3meter)ofice.Inpolarregions,whereannualsnowfallis
generallyverylowbecausetheairistoocoldtoholdmuchmoisture,itmaytakesnowabout1,000
yearstoturnintoice.
Intime,ifsnowdoesnotmeltbutisburiedbeneathadditionallayersofsnow,itwillbeginto
compress.Thisforcesthesnowcrystalstorecrystallize,forminggrainssimilarinsizeandshapeto
canesugar.Asnewsnowpilesontopandthesnowbelowbecomesfurthercompressed,thegrains
growlargerandtheairspacesbetweenthembecomesmaller.Overashortperiodoftime,perhaps
thespanoftwowinters,thecompressedsnowturnsintoagranularmaterialknownasfirnornv
(pronouncednayVAY).Thedensity(amountofmassinagivenvolume)ofregularsnowisabout10
percentthatofwater.Thedensityoffirnisabout50percentthatofwater.Oncethethicknessofthe
overlyingsnowexceedsabout165feet(50meters),thefirnturnsintoasolidmassofglacialice.
Additionstoaglacier'smassarecalledaccumulationlossesthroughmelting,erosion,orevaporation
arecalledablation(pronouncedahBLAYshun).Aglaciermaybedividedintotwodistinctzones.
Wheresnowandiceaccumulatefasterthantheymeltawayorevaporateistheaccumulationzone
wheremeltingandevaporationoccurfasterthanaccumulationistheablationzone.Theupperpartof
aglacierisitsaccumulationzone,whilethelowerpartisitsablationzone.Theboundarybetweenthe
twozonesiscalledthefirnlimit.
Overaperiodofyears,dependingontheamountofsnowfallandseasonaltemperatures,aglacier
maygainmoremassthanitloses.Ifthisoccurs,theterminusoftheglacierwilllikelyadvance.Ifthe
oppositehappens,withtheglacierlosingmoremassthanitgains,itsterminuswilllikelyretreat.Thus,
dependingonthebalancebetweenaccumulationandablation,aglaciermaygroworshrink.

Glacialeffectsandfeatures.

Iceflow
Aglacieralwaysmovesinthesamedirectionwhetheritisadvancingorretreating.Itmovestolowerelevationsundertheforceofgravitybytwodifferent
processes:internalflowandbasalsliding.Theglacialicebeneaththefirninaglacierissodenseandundersuchpressurethatitbeginstobehavelikethicktaror
whatgeologiststerm"plastic."Theindividualicecrystalsinthisarearespondtopressureandtheforceofgravitybydeformingyetagain.Theyareforcedintothe
sameorientationordirection,allrealigningparalleltothedirectionofflow.Likecardsinadeckofplayingcards,theythenslideoverandpastoneanother.Glacial
movementthroughinternalflow,alsoknownascreep,isveryslow:onaverage,itmeasuresonlyaninchortwo(afewcentimeters)aday.Inavalleyglacier,icein
theuppercentralpartmovesfasterthaniceatthesides,whereitisincontactwiththevalleywalls.
Confinedbyhighpressures,icedeepinaglacierdoesnotcrackduringinternalflow.However,nearthesurfaceoftheglacierwherethereislesspressure,theice
isbrittle.Whenthelowerportionofaglaciermovesbyinternalflow,especiallyoverabruptchangesinslope,largecracksmaydevelopintheupper150feet(45
meters)orsoofice.Thesedeep,nearlyverticalcracksarecalledcrevasses(pronouncedkriVASSez).
Glaciersinpolarregionsarefrozentothegroundandmoveonlythroughinternalflow.Glacierselsewherearenormallywarmenoughattheirbasestohavealayer
ofwaterformbetweentheiriceandtheground.Thewaterreducesfrictionbylubricatingthegroundandallowingtheglaciertoslideonitsbedinwhatiscalled
basalsliding.Thissecondtypeofglacialmovementoccursbecausehighpressurereducesthetemperatureatwhichicewillmelt.Iceunderneatha7,220foot
(2,200meter)glacierwillmeltatroughly29F(1.6C),ratherthanat32F(0C).Thethickertheglacier,thegreaterthepressureatitsbase,andthelowerthe
temperatureatwhichitsicewillmelt.

IceAges
IceageswereperiodsinEarth'shistorywhenvastglacierscoveredlargeportionsoftheplanet'ssurface.Earth'saverageannualtemperaturevariesconstantly
fromyeartoyear,fromdecadetodecade,andfromcenturytocentury.Duringsomeperiods,thataverageannualtemperaturehasdroppedlowenoughtoallow
fieldsoficetogrowandcoverlargeareasofEarth.Annualvariationsofonlyafewdegreescanresultintheformationofextensivecontinentalglaciers.
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Overthelast2.5millionyears,abouttwentyfouriceageshaveoccurred.ThismeansthatEarth'saverageannualtemperatureshiftedupwardsanddownwards
abouttwodozentimesduringthatperiod.Ineachcase,anepisodeofsignificantcoolingwasfollowedbyanepisodeofsignificantwarming,calledaninterglacial
period,afterwhichcoolingtookplaceoncemore.Atpresent,Earthisinaninterglacialperiod.
Theexactcausesforiceageshavenotbeenproven.Scientistsbelievethaticeagesaretheresultofacomplicatedinteractionbetweensuchthingsasvariationsin
theSun'senergyoutput,thevaryingdistanceofEarthfromtheSun,variationsinthetiltofEarth'saxis,thechangingpositionandheightofthecontinents,changing
oceaniccirculation,andchangesinthecompositionoftheatmosphere.
Otherfactorsmayalsocontributetobasalsliding.Becauseiceactslikeablanket,aglaciertrapsheatthatescapesfromthesurfaceofEarth.Althoughnotmuch,
thisheatmaybeenoughtoraisethetemperatureoficeatthebaseofaglaciertoalittleabovethepressuremeltingpoint.Meltwaterfromthetoporinsideaglacier
mayalsomakeitswaydownthroughcracksandchannelstotheglacier'sbase,contributingtothelayerofwaterformedthere.Glacialmovementduetobasal
slidingmaybetentimesfasterthanthatduetointernalflow.Becauseofthis,basalslidingplaysanimportantroleinhowmuchaglaciererodesalandscapeand
createslandforms.
Onrareoccasions,analpineglaciermayunexpectedlysurgedownslope,movingatarateof165to330feet(50to100meters(/knowledge/100_metres.html))per
day.Thisresultsinajumbledmassoficealongtheterminusoftheglacierandmanycrevassesalongitstop.Althoughgeologistsdonotcompletelyunderstandthe
reasonsforglacialsurging,theybelieveitmaybecausedbyabuildupofmeltwateratthebaseofaglacierthatreducesthenormalfrictionandallowsunusually
fastbasalsliding.ThefastestrecordedglacialsurgewasthatoftheKutiahGlacierinnorthernPakistan.Overathreemonthperiodin1953,theglacierslidmore
than7.5miles(12kilometers),averagingabout367feet(112meters)perday.
Throughthecombinationofinternalflowandbasalsliding,glaciersmoveoveralandscape,scrapingandpluckingtherocksurfacesoverwhichtheymove.They
transportunsortedsedimentbothinternallyandontheirsurfaces.Duringwarmerperiods,aglaciermaylosepartofitsmass,itsiceturningtomeltwater,which
carriessedimentawayfromtheterminusoftheglacier.Evenasaglacier'sterminusretreats,theflowoficeintheglaciercontinuestomovedownwardunderthe
influenceofgravity.
Scientificmeasurementsatthebeginningofthetwentyfirstcenturyshowedthatmostglaciersworldwidewereretreating.GlaciersintheHimalayanMountains
werewastingawaythequickest.Scientistswhoconductedtheresearchfoundaconnectionbetweenincreasingtemperaturesaroundtheworldandtheglacial
retreat.Itisknownthatoverthelast100years,globalsealevelshaverisen4to10inches(10to25centimeters).Scientistsestimatethatthemeltingofglaciers
hascontributed1to2inches(2.5to5centimeters)tothatrise.

TheLiteraryLandscape
"Theseislandsoficeandblackbasalt,nowandthentingedrussetorbluebyoozingsofironorcopper,riseover600meters.Theirheartsarelockedunderdeep
glaciers,acrystaldesertforeverfrozenintermsofourshortlifespans,buttransientintheirowntimescale.Sometimesoneseesonlythecloudmarbledglacial
fields,highinthesunabovehiddenmountainslopesandseafog,Elysianplainsthatseemasinsubstantialasvapor.Theinteriorsoftheglaciers,glimpsedthrough
crevasses,areneonblue.Slidingimperceptiblyontheirbellies,theglacierscarvetheirownvalleysthroughtherock,andwhentheypassoverroughterrainthey
havetheappearanceoffrozenrapids,whichisinfactwhattheyare,cascadingatarateofacentimeteraday."
DavidC.Campbell,TheCrystalDesert:SummersinAntarctica,1992.

Spotlightonfamousforms
GlacierNationalPark,Montana
LocatedinnorthwesternMontanaontheborderbetweentheUnitedStatesandCanadaare1,013,572acres(410,497hectares)ofpristine
wilderness.GlacierNationalPark,establishedin1910asthecountry'stenthnationalpark,
containssomefiftyglaciersandmorethantwohundredglacierfedlakes.Thevalleysand
othergeologicfeaturesoftheparkwereallerodedandcarvedbytheactionofglaciersover
thelasttwobillionyears.Severaltimesoverthepasttwomillionyears,hugeglacierscarved
themountainsandvalleysandthenretreated,leavinganewlysculptedlandscape.Themost
recentcontinentalglacierthatcoveredtheuppersectionofNorthAmericaretreatedoverten
thousandyearsago.Thefiftyalpineglaciersintheparkformedduringthelastfewthousand
years.
Theparkisfilledwithmanyglacialfeatures:artes,cirques,hangingvalleys,horns,and
moraines.AmongthemorefamousonesareMountReynolds,aglacialhornGardenWall,a
toweringartethatextendsformilesandtheUshapedSt.MaryValley.

Matterhorn,Switzerland

Mapofglaciersaroundtheworld.Glacierscoverroughly10percentofEarth's

Oneofthemostrecognizablemountainsintheworld,theMatterhorn
landarea.Avastmajorityofthat,90percent,overliesthecontinentof
Antarctica.
(/knowledge/Matterhorn.html)inthePennineAlpsontheborderbetweenSwitzerlandandItaly
risessome14,700feet(4,480meters).Firstsuccessfullyclimbedin1865,itiscelebratedfor
itsdistinctiveshape.Themountainisaclassicexampleofahorn.Erodedbycirques,itssteepsidesmeetinartesthatleadtothehornlike,pointedpeak.
TheAlpsmountainsysteminsoutherncentralEuropecurvesinagreatarcforapproximately500miles(800kilometers).ItrunsfromtheMediterraneanSeaup
alongthebordersandadjacentregionsofFrance,Italy,Switzerland,Germany,andAustria,beforeendinginSlovenia.TheAlpswasthefirstmountainsystemto
bestudiedextensivelybygeologists.Manyofthegeologictermsassociatedwithmountainsandglaciersoriginatedinthosestudies.

WaldenPond,Massachusetts
WaldenPond,thedeepestlakeinMassachusetts,liesinthenortheastpartofthestatenearthecityofConcord.Itisakettlelake,createdabouttenthousand
yearsagowhencontinentalicefromthelasticeagebegantoretreat.Ahugeblockofthatglacialicebrokeoffandremainedbehind,surroundedatitbasebysand
andgraveldepositedbymeltwaterstreams.Theblockmeltedoveraperiodofabouttwohundredyears,formingasteepsidedbasinthatfilledwithwater.The
currentshapeofthepond,withitssteepsides,covesalongitsmargins,andtwodeepareas,reflectstheshapeoftheoriginalblockofice.Thecurrentmaximum
depthofthepondis103feet(31meters).Theclearwaterthatfillsthelakecomesfromprecipitationandgroundwater(freshwaterlyingwithintheuppermostparts
ofEarth'scrust,fillingtheporespacesinsoilandfracturedrock).
ThelakeisfamousbecauseAmericanwriterHenryDavidThoreau(18171862)livedalongitsshoresbetween1845and1847.Whilethere,hewroteWalden,or
LifeintheWoods(publishedin1854).Inthiswork,aseriesofessays,Thoreaucombinedwritingontranscendentalphilosophywithobservationsofaquaticecology
andaspectsoflimnology,thestudyoflakes.Healsochampionedthevalueoflivingclosetonature.Becauseofthishighlyinfluentialwork,manypeopleconsider
WaldenPondandtheareaaroundittobethebirthplaceoftheAmericanconservationmovement.
In1965,theU.S.NationalPark(/knowledge/List_of_National_Parks_of_the_United_States.html)ServicedesignatedWaldenPondasaNationalHistoric
Landmark.

ForMoreInformation
Books
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Bennett,MatthewR.,andNeilF.Glasser.GlacialGeology:IceSheetsandLandforms.NewYork:JohnWileyandSons,1996.
Erickson,Jon.GlacialGeology:HowIceShapestheLand.NewYork:FactsonFile,1996.
Llewellyn,Claire.Glaciers.Barrington,IL:HeinemannLibrary,2000.
Post,Austin,andEdwardR.Lachapelle.GlacierIce.Reviseded.Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2000.

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"AllAboutGlaciers."NationalSnowandIceDataCenter.http://nsidc.org/glaciers/(http://nsidc.org/glaciers/)(accessedonSeptember1,2003
(/knowledge/September_2003.html)).
"GlacialLandforms."SouthCentralServiceCooperative.http://www.scsc.k12.ar.us/2001Outwest/PacificEcology/Projects/HendricksR/default.htm
(http://www.scsc.k12.ar.us/2001Outwest/PacificEcology/Projects/HendricksR/default.htm)(accessedonSeptember1,2003).
"GlaciersandGlacialGeology."MontanaStateUniversityBozeman.http://gemini.oscs.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/index.htm
(http://gemini.oscs.montana.edu/~geol445/hyperglac/index.htm)(accessedonSeptember1,2003).
Glaciers,RiversofIce.http://members.aol.com/scipioiv/glmain.html(http://members.aol.com/scipioiv/glmain.html)(accessedonSeptember1,2003).
"IllustratedGlossaryofAlpineGlacialLandforms."DepartmentofGeographyandGeology,UniversityofWisconsinStevensPoint.
http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/lemke/alpine_glacial_glossary/glossary.html(http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/lemke/alpine_glacial_glossary/glossary.html)
(accessedonSeptember1,2003).

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GlacialLandformsandFeaturesTheshapeoftheland,Forcesandchanges,Spotlightonfamousforms,ForMoreInformation

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