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A2 Revision for Section A, question 1 (b).

You will be asked to evaluate ONE of your coursework products in relation to a media
concept. The media concept will be one of the following five:

GENRE
Why does Genre exist? From the point of view of the audience it
provides them with clues through advertising, what they can expect
from the film (narrative, character, atmosphere, iconography etc.).
From the point of view of the film industry, audiences are easier to
target using genre (they have a clear idea of who their target audience
is from viewing history)

‘Genre is in a constant state of flux’ Steve Neil, 1981.

This quote brings about a discussion of Hybrids (a mix of two or more genres) and the
reason for their existence. Hybrids provide variety for an audience. Hybrids can reach a much
wider audience (eg. Shaun of the Dead is a Horror and a Comedy so therefore it had the
potential to reach the target audience of horror and the target audience of comedy).

Other factors are responsible for genres being in ‘a constant state of flux’ such as audience
demands, trends etc. where this is clear is when there are popular cycles of certain types of
films. (eg, British Gangster Comedy – a popular cycle began with Lock Stock and after the
success of this film, Snatch, Rock ‘n’ Rolla etc.followed)

Repetition and Variation. Thomas Shatz. A suggestion that genres can only be
successful if they work on the principle of Repetition (when a film repeats certain
characteristics of the genre) and Variation (but at the same time provides something different
for the audience to experience). This is another reason why genres develop over time.

Can Genre become pointless?

You could argue that most, if not all films are Hybrids (a combination of two or more genres),
with a lot of films involving elements of a great number of different genres. For example Back
to the Future 3 can be defined as a Western, Sci fi, Romance, Adventure, Comedy. When
films have so many different elements is there any point in trying to define them by
genre? Is it only important to the film industry for purposes of distribution/marketing that films
be defined by genre?

Questions that will help you apply the theory to you own product (you should
try to answer these in your exam response):

What genre would you define your product as?

Is it a hybrid?
Why would you define it in this way?
What is the benefit of defining it by genre? (audience, industry)
What genre would others define your product as? (Audience? Industry for purposes of
marketing your product?) Why?
What generic (genre) conventions does your product conform to and/or challenge? What is
the effect of this? (Refer to Thomas Shatz, Repetition and Variation)
In your conclusion you should try to debate whether Genre is always relevant (refer to Can
genre become pointless?).
Could you have done anything that would have been more effective in terms of genre?
REMEMBER TO BE CRITICAL OF YOUR OWN WORK – THIS IS AN EVALUATION!
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REPRESENTATION
Definition: Representation is the construction of micro elements with an associated
meaning.

Semiotics, Ferdinand De Saussure 1916,: Study into the social production of

meaning/ the viewer as producer of meaning. Came up with equation of signifier + signified
= sign

Media texts are made up of signifiers (the element in its physical form). For example micro
elements are signifiers (a close up, a prop, a colour etc.). These signifiers in media texts are
associated with an idea (the idea being the signified). For example the colour red (signifier)
is associated with the idea of passion/death/love/blood (the signified) depending on what
context the colour is used. But it all depends on the meaning that the reader interprets for
themselves. The combination of the signifier and signified is the sign.

The reading of the sign is dependent on the cultural experience of the reader (viewer)
so it varies from reader to reader.

Encoding/Decoding Stuart Hall 1981

Stuart Hall stated that:

A Producer encodes meaning in a text (produces a text to have a particular meaning through
construction of macro and micro elements)

A reader decodes meaning from that text (the reader interprets the meaning dependent on
their own knowledge, experience etc.)

There are 3 ways that a text can be read:

1. Preferred Reading (the viewer interprets the text exactly how the producer intended
them to) For example a preferred reading of your thriller may be that viewers
identify the villain in your sequence and interpret him as an intimidating and
mysterious character)

2. Negotiated Reading (somewhere in between what the producer intended and an

oppositional reading) For example a negotiated reading of your thriller may be
that viewers identify who the villain is in your sequence but do not interpret
him as intimidating and mysterious.

3. Oppositional Reading (When the reader interprets the text in a completely different
way to what the producer intended) For example an oppositional reading of your
thriller may be that viewers mistake the villain for a victim therefore the
meaning is in complete opposition to the preferred reading.

Applying the theory to your own product:

In the exam define the term representation in your introduction.

Discuss a Preferred reading, a Negotiated reading and an Oppositional reading of your

sequence/part of your sequence. If you think any part of your sequence may encourage an
oppositional reading, going completely against what you intended, what are the problems this
causes for the audience? What has caused the oppositional reading? How could you have
avoided this?
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Discuss how you constructed representation using specific micro elements (signifiers) and
what were the signified ideas that these micro elements generated? How might you have
represented these ideas more effectively?

Use the terms encoding and decoding in your response if you can.

Other possible points of discussion:

Representation is selective (foregrounding some things but back-rounding or ignoring other
things). Representation is subjective (whose realities are being represented?).

REMEMBER TO BE CRITICAL OF YOUR OWN WORK – THIS IS AN EVALUATION!

AUDIENCE
The Passive Audience and the Effects Tradition:
One way of looking at audiences is the power that the media text has over its audience. This
point of view is represented by the whole tradition of the effects studies. There are many
studies including conspiracy theory, the copycat effect and desensitisation. One model of key
significance is:

Hypodermic Needle Model (Adorno & Horkheimer, 1970s)

● This model sees the media ‘injecting’ values, ideas and information directly into each
individual as part of a passive, powerless audience, thereby producing a direct and
unmediated effect.
● This model is commonly encountered in debates concerning the mass media and violence.
It rarely discusses the positive outcomes of a direct effect caused by the media, such as the
response to world disasters once the media begins to portray devastation to its audience. It is
a very negative view of audiences.

Active Audiences and Reception Theories:

There are many different theorists who argue that
audiences are comprised of active individuals who are
directly involved in the selection and consumption of
media output. This challenges the idea that audiences
are passive and is a much more positive view of
audiences. One of particular model is:

Uses and Gratifications Model (Denis

McQuail, 1987)

• This model proposes that audience member consumption of media is motivated and
directed towards the gratification of certain individually experienced needs.
• The emphasis of this model is on an active audience, actively seeking out media texts
to satisfy specific needs.
• McQuail offers the following typical reasons for media use: information; personal
identity; integration & social interaction and entertainment

• Information – this may include self-education; seeking advice on practical matters;

information on issues or events that affect the individual; satisfying curiosity or
general interest.
• Personal identity – finding reinforcement for personal values; models of behaviour;
gaining insight into oneself; the contents may be used to explore; challenge, adjust or
confirm the individual’s sense of identity and self.
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• Integration & social interaction - gaining insight into the circumstances of others
(social empathy); identifying with others & gaining a sense of belonging; finding a
basis for conversation.
• Entertainment – escaping or being diverted from problems; relaxing; emotional
release; filling time; aesthetic enjoyment.

Applying the theory to your own product:

1. As the hypodermic needle model is very outdated and over simplified, you should
aim to be very critical of the concept but as a point of discussion, you could discuss
whether you think there are any aspects of your product that supporters of this model
could argue may “inject” values and ideas into the minds of a passive audience. Be
careful when discussing this to remain critical of the idea that violence has a direct
effect on behaviour.
2. Taking the view that an audience is active and seek out products to satisfy needs,
why would a viewer seek out your product for purposes of the following: information;
personal identity; integration & social interaction and entertainment?
3. Do you think whether an audience is active or
passive when consuming a text depends on the text itself? Do
you think your product encourages an active spectatorship or a
passive spectatorship? Hollywood texts can be said to
encourage passivity through their cause and effect narrative and
their often easy to interpret preferred meaning where as films
that employ more experimental techniques (Funny Games,
Michael Haneke, 1997) could be seen to encourage an active
spectatorship through challenging the audience (you should refer
to an example from Funny Games where the audience are
challenged – the rewind sequence for example, or when the villain talks to the audience). Do
you think your product encourages spectators to bring their own interpretation and questioning
to the text?

4. A possible point of discussion for an opening sequence could be the extent to which
questions are left unanswered for the audience. Are character roles clearly identifiable? Is it
easy for the audience to interpret the meaning of the sequence? Or are you challenging
them/their expectations?

5. When thinking about constructing a conclusion for an exam question on audience,

think about what was discussed in class – can a spectator ever be completely passive? Don’t
they always have previous experience, their own opinions to bring to the interpretation of a text?
And the ability to reject certain ideas?

MEDIA LANGUAGE

This should be a familiar concept to you. Any analysis you

have written or product you have constructed has been
based around this idea of media language. Producers
communicate ideas to audiences by using media
techniques, codes and conventions (media language). An
audience decodes or interprets this language based on
past experience, opinions etc.

Video Media language is constructed of micro elements that on their own or combined
communicate an idea to the spectator or encourage a feeling in the spectator. For example, a
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low angle shot of a villain can communicate the character’s dominance and could make the
spectator feel uncomfortable. Therefore meaning is constructed through the use of media
language.

For this reason, a lot of the theory above relates to the concept of media language. What is
perhaps most relevant is Semiotics: signifier + signified = sign, Encoding/Decoding
and Preferred, Negotiated and Oppositional Readings from the REPRESENTATION
section.

Use the ‘Applying the theory to your own product:’ in the REPRESENTATION section to
revise for media language but throughout your response you should keep referencing the
term Media Language and in the introduction discuss what the concept means and how it
relates to your work.