Earth Science

Rocks and the Rock Cycle

What is a rock?
A rock is a solid made up of a bunch of different minerals. Rocks are generally not uniform or
made up of exact structures that can be described by scientific formulas. Scientists generally
classify rocks by how they were made or formed. There are three major types of rocks:
Metamorphic, Igneous, and Sedimentary.

Metamorphic Rocks - Metamorphic rocks are formed by great heat and pressure. They
are generally found inside the Earth's crust where there is enough heat and pressure to
form the rocks. Metamorphic rocks are often made from other types of rock. For
example, shale, a sedimentary rock, can be changed, or metamorphosed, into a
metamorphic rock such as slate or gneiss. Other examples of metamorphic rocks include
marble, anthracite, soapstone, and schist.

Igneous Rocks - Igneous rocks are formed by volcanoes. When a volcano erupts, it
spews out hot molten rock called magma or lava. Eventually the magma will cool down
and harden, either when it reaches the Earth's surface or somewhere within the crust. This
hardened magma or lava is called igneous rock. Examples of igneous rocks include basalt
and granite.

Sedimentary Rocks - Sedimentary rocks are formed by years and years of sediment
compacting together and becoming hard. Generally, something like a stream or river will
carry lots of small pieces of rocks and minerals to a larger body of water. These pieces
will settle at the bottom and over a really long time (perhaps millions of years), they will
form into solid rock. Some examples of sedimentary rocks are shale, limestone, and
sandstone.

The Rock Cycle

Rocks are constantly changing in what is called the rock cycle. It takes millions of years for
rocks to change.
Here is an example of the rock cycle describing how a rock can change from igneous to
sedimentary to metamorphic over time.

1. Melted rock or magma is sent to the earth's surface by a volcano. It cools and forms an
igneous rock.
2. Next the weather, or a river, and other events will slowly break up this rock into small pieces
of sediment.
3. As sediment builds up and hardens over years, a sedimentary rock is formed.
4. Slowly this sediment rock will get covered with other rocks and end up deep in the Earth's
crust.
5. When the pressure and heat get high enough, the sedimentary rock will metamorphose into a
metamorphic rock and the cycle will start over again.
One thing to note is that rocks don't need to follow this specific cycle. They may change from
one type to another and back again in practically any order.
Space Rocks
There are actually some rocks that come from space called meteorites. They may have different
elements or mineral make up than a typical earth rock. Typically they are made up mostly of
iron.
Interesting Facts about Rocks

The word "igneous" comes from the Latin word "ignis" which means "of fire."

Ores are rocks that include minerals that have important elements such as metals like
gold and silver.

Sedimentary rocks form layers at the bottoms of oceans and lakes.

Marble is a metamorphic rock formed when limestone is exposed to high heat and
pressure within the Earth.

Layers of sedimentary rocks are called strata.

Earth Science for Kids
Plate Tectonics

A Land in Motion
Although we think of the land on Earth as being fixed and stable, it turns out that it
is constantly moving. This movement is way too slow for us to notice, however,
because it only moves between one to 6 inches per year. It takes millions of years
for the land to move a significant amount.
The Lithosphere
The part of the land that is moving is the Earth's surface called the lithosphere. The
lithosphere is made up of the Earth's crust and a part of the upper mantle. The
lithosphere moves in big chunks of land called tectonic plates. Some of these plates
are huge and cover entire continents.
Major and Minor Tectonic Plates
Most of the Earth is covered by seven major plates and another eight or so minor
plates. The seven major plates include the African, Antarctic, Eurasian, North
American, South American, India-Australian, and the Pacific plates. Some of the
minor plates include the Arabian, Caribbean, Nazca, and Scotia plates.
Here is a picture showing the major tectonic plates of the world.

Click on the picture to see a larger view

Continents and Oceans
Tectonic plates are around 62 miles thick. There are two main types of tectonic
plates: oceanic and continental.

Oceanic - Oceanic plates consist of an oceanic crust called "sima". Sima is

made up primarily of silicon and magnesium (which is where it gets its
name).

Continental - Continental plates consist of a continental crust called "sial".

Sial is made up primarily of silicon and aluminum.

Plate Boundaries
The movement of tectonic plates is most evident at the boundaries between the
plates. There are three main types of boundaries:

Convergent Boundaries - A convergent boundary is where two tectonic plates

push together. Sometimes one plate will move under the other. This is called
subduction. Although the movement is slow, convergent boundaries can be
areas of geological activity such as the forming of mountains and volcanoes.
They can also be areas of high earthquake activity.

Tectonic plate convergence

Divergent Boundaries - A divergent boundary is one where two plates are

getting pushed apart. The area on land where the boundary occurs is called a
rift. New land is formed by magma pushing up from the mantle and cooling
as it reaches the surface.

Transform Boundaries - A transform boundary is one where two plates slide

past each other. These places are often called faults and can be areas where
earthquakes often occur.

Interesting Facts about Plate Tectonics

One famous transform boundary is the San Andreas Fault in California. It is

the boundary between the North American Plate and the Pacific Plate. It is the
cause of so many earthquakes in California.

The Mariana Trench is the deepest part of the ocean. It is formed by a

convergent boundary between the Pacific Plate and the Mariana Plate. The
Pacific Plate is being subducted under the Mariana Plate.

Scientists are now able to track the movement of tectonic plates using GPS.

The Himalayan Mountains, including Mount Everest, were formed by the

convergent boundary of the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Plate.
Earth Science for Kids
Minerals

What is a mineral?
Minerals are solid substances that occur naturally. They can be made from a single
element (like gold or copper) or from a combination of elements. The Earth is made

up of thousands of different minerals.

What is the difference between a mineral and a rock?
Minerals have a specific chemical structure which is the same throughout the entire
mineral. Rocks, on the other hand, are composed of a variety of different minerals
and are not consistent throughout their structure.
Characteristics of Minerals
Some common characteristics of minerals include:

Solid - All minerals will be solids at normal temperatures on Earth.

Naturally occurring - Minerals occur in nature. Solids that are made in a

chemistry lab don't count as minerals.

Inorganic - Minerals don't come from plants, animals, or other living

organisms.

Fixed chemical structure - Specific minerals will always have the same
chemical formula. They will have the same combination of elements. Minerals
also generally are formed with a crystal structure.

Properties of Minerals
Different minerals are often defined by the set of properties described below:

Luster - Luster describes how well a mineral reflects light. Examples of luster
include glassy, metallic, brilliant, and dull.

Hardness - The hardness describes how easy it is to scratch the surface of a

mineral. Scientists often use the Moh's scale to describe hardness. Using the
Moh's scale, a "1" is the softest mineral and a "10" is the hardest. One
example of hardness is diamond. Diamond has a hardness of 10 because it is
the hardest of all the minerals.

Streak - Streak is the color of the mineral in powdered form. One way to
determine the streak is to rub the mineral across a rough hard surface like a
tile.

Cleavage - Cleavage describes how a mineral breaks up into pieces. Some

minerals break up into small cubes while others may break up into thin
sheets.

Specific Gravity (SG) - The specific gravity measures the density of the
mineral. It is measured in comparison to water where water has a specific
gravity of 1. For example, pyrite has a specific gravity of 5 and quartz has a
specific gravity of 2.7.

Color - Although color is often used to describe a mineral, it sometimes isn't

the best way to tell one mineral from another as one type of mineral can
come in several different colors.

Types of Minerals
There are many different types of minerals, but they are often divided into two
groups: silicates and non-silicates. Silicates are minerals that contain silicon and
oxygen. Over 90% of the Earth's crust is made up of silicates. The rest of the
minerals are lumped into a group called non-silicates.
Some important non-silicate minerals include:

Carbonates - Carbonates contain carbonate (CO 3) combined with some other

element. Calcite is a mineral made from carbonate and calcium.

Halides - Halides contain a halogen element as the main element. Table salt
(NaCl) is a halide mineral made from the halogen chlorine (Cl) and sodium
(Na).

Oxides - Oxides are minerals where the main element is oxygen. Chromite is
an oxide mineral made from iron, chromium, and oxygen.

Sulfides - Sulfides contain sulfur and one or more metals or semimetals.

Pyrite is a sulfide made from iron and sulfur.

Native elements such as copper, gold, diamond, graphite, and sulfur can be thought
of as a third group of minerals.
Interesting Facts about Minerals

Scientists who study minerals are called mineralogists.

Around 99% of the minerals in the Earth's crust are made up of eight
elements including oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium,
potassium, and magnesium.

Common minerals include quartz, feldspar, bauxite, cobalt, talc, and pyrite.

Some minerals have a different colored streak than the color of their body.

A gem is a piece of rare mineral such as diamond, emerald, or sapphire that

is cut and polished to shine.

Certain minerals are needed by our bodies so we can grow healthy and
strong.

Science for Kids

Earthquakes
Earthquakes happen when two large pieces of the Earth's crust suddenly slip. This causes shock
waves to shake the surface of the Earth in the form of an earthquake.
Where do earthquakes happen?
Earthquakes usually occur on the edges of large sections of the Earth's crust called tectonic
plates. These plates slowly move over a long period of time. Sometimes the edges, which are
called fault lines, can get stuck, but the plates keep moving. Pressure slowly starts to build up
where the edges are stuck and, once the pressure gets strong enough, the plates will suddenly
move causing an earthquake.
Foreshocks and Aftershocks
Generally before and after a large earthquake there will be smaller earthquakes. The ones that
happen before are called foreshocks. The ones that happen after are called aftershocks. Scientists
don't really know if an earthquake is a foreshock until the bigger earthquake occurs.
Seismic Waves
Shock waves from an earthquake that travel through the ground are called seismic waves. They
are most powerful at the center of the earthquake, but they travel through much of the earth and
back to the surface. They move quickly at 20 times the speed of sound.

Seismic wave chart of an earthquake

Scientists use seismic waves to measure how big an earthquake is. They use a device called a
seismograph to measure the size of the waves. The size of the waves is called the magnitude.
To tell the strength of an earthquake scientists use a scale called the Richter scale. The larger the
number on the Richter scale, the larger the earthquake. You usually won't even notice an
earthquake unless it measures at least a 3 on the Richter scale. Here are some examples of what
may happen depending on the scale:

4.0 - Could shake your house as if a large truck were passing close by. Some people may
not notice.

6.0 - Stuff will fall off of shelves. Walls in some houses may crack and windows break.
Pretty much everyone near the center will feel this one.

7.0 - Weaker buildings will collapse and cracks will occur in bridges and on the street.

8.0 - Many buildings and bridges fall down. Large cracks in the earth.

9.0 and up - Whole cities flattened and large-scale damage.

Epicenters and Hypocenters

The place where the earthquake starts, below the surface of the earth, is called the hypocenter.
The place directly above this on the surface is called the epicenter. The earthquake will be the
strongest at this point on the surface.

Can scientists predict earthquakes?

Unfortunately scientists cannot predict earthquakes. The best they can do today is point out
where fault lines are so we know where earthquakes are likely to occur.
Fun Facts about Earthquakes

The largest earthquake ever recorded in the world was in Chile in 1960. It measured a 9.6
on the Richter Scale. The largest in the US was a 9.2 magnitude in Alaska in 1964.

They can cause huge waves in the ocean called tsunamis.

Movement of tectonic plates has formed large mountain ranges like the Himalayas and
the Andes.

Earthquakes can happen in any kind of weather.

Alaska is the most seismically active state and has more large earthquakes than
California.

Mafic & Felsic

'MAFIC' is a word derived from MAgnesium and Ferric which

refers to iron. Mafic rocks are rich in iron and magnesium.
Why? Because the minerals from which they form are rich in
iron and magnesium. Notice that mafic rocks are also high in
density and dark in color and are the rocks found on the right
side of 'scheme for igneous rock identifcation' (page 6). The
rocks in the blue shaded area are mafic.
"FELSIC' is a term derived from the mineral feldspar. Both
kinds of feldspar are rich in the minerals silicon (Si) and
aluminum (Al). Felsic rocks are generally light in color and
lower in density than mafic rocks. The rocks in the tan shaded
area are felsic.
Rocks in the unshaded area in the center are generally neither
mafic nor felsic however it is important to understand that this
chart is a generalized scheme. Rocks are not made by factories
with every piece of granite, for instance, exactly like every other
piece of granite. There is great deal of variation in all rocks.
One more point: only rocks can be mafic or felsic. NOT the
minerals at the bottom of the chart.

Felsic and mafic rocks

Igneous rock
Written by: The Editors of Encyclopdia Britannica

Read

View History

Edit

Feedback

Alternative titles: acid rock; felsite; silicic rock

Felsic and mafic rocks, division of igneous rocks on the basis of their silica content. Chemical
analyses of the most abundant components in rocks usually are presented as oxides of the
elements; igneous rocks typically consist of approximately 12 major oxides totaling over 99
percent of the rock. Of the oxides, silica (SiO2) is usually the most abundant. Because of this
abundance and because most igneous minerals are silicates, silica content was used as a basis of
early classifications; it remains widely accepted today. Within this scheme, rocks are described as
felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic (in order of decreasing silica content).
In a widely accepted silica-content classification scheme, rocks with more than 65 percent silica
are called felsic; those with between 55 and 65 percent silica are intermediate; those with
between 45 and 55 percent silica are mafic; and those with less than 45 percent are ultramafic.
Compilations of many rock analyses show that rhyolite and granite are felsic, with an average
silica content of about 72 percent; syenite, diorite, and monzonite are intermediate, with an
average silica content of 59 percent; gabbro and basalt are mafic, with an average silica content
of 48 percent; and peridotite is an ultramafic rock, with an average of 41 percent silica. Although
there are complete gradations between the averages, rocks tend to cluster about the averages. In

general, the gradation from felsic to mafic corresponds to an increase in colour index (darkmineral percentage).
The fine-grained or glassy nature of many volcanic rocks makes a chemical classification such as
the felsic-mafic taxonomy very useful in distinguishing the different types. Silica content is
especially useful because the density and refractive index of natural glasses have been correlated
with silica percentage; this makes identification possible in the absence of chemical data. For
similar determinations, glasses can also be prepared in the laboratory from crystalline rocks.
The influence of silica content on the particular minerals that crystallize from a rock magma is a
complex interaction of several parameters, and it cannot be assumed that rocks with the same
silica content will have the same mineralogy. Silica saturation is a classification of minerals and
rocks as oversaturated, saturated, or undersaturated with respect to silica. Felsic rocks are
commonly oversaturated and contain free quartz (SiO2), intermediate rocks contain little or no
quartz or feldspathoids (undersaturated minerals), and mafic rocks may contain abundant
feldspathoids. This broad grouping on the basis of mineralogy related to silica content is used in
many modern classification schemes.
essential mineral
Tools
A Dictionary of Earth Sciences | 1999 | AILSA ALLABY and MICHAEL ALLABY | 401
words
A Dictionary of Earth Sciences 1999, originally published by Oxford University
Press 1999.

essential mineral A primary mineral whose presence in an igneous rock is essential to defining
the root name of that rock. For example, plagioclase and the pyroxene augite are essential to
defining the root name gabbro and hence are essential minerals. Where a primary mineral is
present but is not essential to the naming of the rock it is termed an accessory mineral.
Accessory mineral

Read

View History

Edit

Feedback

Accessory mineral, any mineral in an igneous rock not essential to the naming of the rock.
When it is present in small amounts, as is common, it is called a minor accessory. If the amount
is greater or is of special significance, the mineral is called a varietal, or characterizing,
accessory and may give a varietal name to the rock (e.g., the mineral biotite in biotite granite).
Accessory minerals characteristically are formed during the solidification of the rocks from the
magma; in contrast are secondary minerals, which form at a later time through processes such as
weathering by hydrothermal alteration. Common minor accessory minerals include topaz, zircon,
corundum, fluorite, garnet, monazite, rutile, magnetite, ilmenite, allanite, and tourmaline. Typical
varietal accessories include biotite, muscovite, amphibole, pyroxene, and olivine.