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BASIC ELECTRONICS LABORATORY

Theoretical concepts of basic electronics presented


in a laboratory environment and through practical
hands-on experiments. Basic fundamentals of
electronics practices covering International System
of Units, engineering notation and prefixes
definitions of current, voltage, resistance, power,
work and efficiency, Ohm's and Kirchhoff's Laws,
series and parallel circuit principles, and seriesparallel DC resistive networks are examined.
Electronics Safety Bulletin
Digital Multi-meter Basics
Laboratory Experiments:
o Experiment 1 Resistance Measurements and
Color Codes
o Experiment 2

Linear and NonLinear

Resistance
o Experiment 3
o Experiment 4
o Experiment 5

Series Circuits
Parallel Circuits
SeriesParallel Circuits

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BSE-TLE 2A

Electronics Safety Bulletin


Strange as it may seem, most fatal electric shocks happen to people who should know
better. Here are some electro medical facts that should make you think twice before
taking that last chance.
It' s The Current That Kills:
It would seem that a shock of 10,000 volts would be more deadly than 100 volts. But this
is not so. Individuals have been electrocuted by appliances connected to ordinary
household circuits of 110 volts and by electrical apparatus in industry using as little as
42 volts direct current. The real measure of shock's intensity lies in the amount of
current (amperes) forced through the body, and not the voltage. Any electrical device
used on a house wiring
circuit can, under
certain conditions,
transmit a fatal
current.
While any amount of
current over 10
milliamps (0.01 amp) is
capable of producing
painful to sever shock,
currents between 100
and 200 mA (0. 1 to
0.2 amp) are lethal .
Currents above 200
milliamps (0.2 amp),
while producing severe bums and unconsciousness, do not usually cause death if the
victim is given immediate attention. Resuscitation, consisting of artificial respiration, will
usually revive the victim.
From a practical viewpoint, after a person is knocked out by an electrical shock, it is
impossible to tell how much current passed through the vital organs of his body. Artificial
respiration must be applied immediately if breathing has stopped.
The Physiological Effects of Electrical Shock: Table 1 shows the physiological effect of
various current densities. Note that voltage is not a consideration. Although i t takes a
voltage to make the current flow, the amount of shock current will vary, depending on
the body resistance between the points of contact. As shown in the chart, shock is
relatively more severe as the current rises. At values as low as 20 milliamps, breathing
becomes labored, finally ceasing completely even at values below 75 milliamps. As the
current approaches 100 milliamps, ventricular fibrillation of the heart occurs, an
uncoordinated twitching of the walls of the heart' s ventricles. Above 200 milliamps, the
muscular contractions are so severe that the heart is forcibly clamped during the shock.
This clamping protects the heart from going into ventricular fibrillation, and the victim' s
chances for survival are good.

Danger, Low Voltage:


It is common knowledge that victims of high voltage shock usually respond to the
artificial respiration more readily than the victims of low voltage shock. The reason may
be the merciful clamping of the heart, owing to the high current densities associated
with high voltage. However, lest these details be misinterpreted, the only reasonable
conclusion that can be drawn is that 75 volts are just as lethal as 750 volts.
The actual resistance of the body varies depending upon the points of contact and the
skin condition (moist or dry). Between the ears, for example, the internal resistance
(less the skin resistance) is only 100 ohms, while from hand to foot it is closer to 500
ohms. The skin resistance may vary from 1,000 ohms for wet skin to over 500,000 ohms
for dry skin.
When working around electrical equipment, move slowly. Make sure your feet are firmly
placed for good balance. Don't lunge after falling tools. Kill all power, and ground al l
high voltage points before touching wiring. Make sure that power cannot be accidentally
restored. Do not work on ungrounded equipment.
Don't examine live equipment when mentally or physically fatigued. Keep one hand in
pocket while investigating live electrical equipment.
Above all , do not touch electrical equipment while standing on metal floors, damp
concrete, or other well-grounded surfaces. Do not handle electrical equipment while
wearing damp clothing (particularly wet shoes) or while skin surfaces are damp. Do not
work alone! Remember, the more you know about electrical equipment, the more
heedless you' re apt to become. Don' t take unnecessary risks.
What to do for Victims:
Cut voltage and/or remove victim from contact as quickly as possible but without
endangering your own safety. Use a length of dry wood, rope, blanket, etc., to pry or pull
the victim loose. Don' t waste valuable
time looking for the power switch. The resistance of the victim' s contact decreases with
time. The fatal 100 or 200 milli-ampere level may be reached i f action is delayed. If the
victim is unconscious and has stopped breathing, start artificial respiration at once. Do

not stop resuscitation until medical authority pronounces the victim beyond help. It
may take as long as eight hours to revive the patient. There may be no pulse, and a
condition similar to rigor mortis may be present however, these are the manifestations
of shock and are not an indication that the victim has succumbed.
Activity:
1. Write your insights about the safety considerations of dealing with electricity and
electronics.

Digital Multi-meter Basics


Overview:
A Digital Multimeter (DMM) is used to read voltage, current, and resistance. A knob or
button is used to select the function (volts, amps, ohms) and the range (2, 20, 200 etc.).
The selector often has DC VOLTS, AC VOLTS, AC mA, DC mA, OHMS, and TEMP settings.
Wi thin each of these settings is the range. For instance, on the DC VOLTS setting, there
is 200mV, 2V, 20V, 200V, and 1K (1000V). These are the ranges. The range determines
the maximum reading the DMM can display. If the reading goes above that value, the
display flashes and the reading is meaningless. The display is an LED readout that shows
what the measurement is. The display often has 3 full digits of resolution, plus a 4th digi
t (on the left) that can be a 1 or blank. This is called a 3 1/2 digit display. The decimal
point is inserted depending on what range the DMM is set to. This al lows the meter to
read from 0.000V to 1.999V on the 2V range, or from 0.0mV to 199.9mV on the 200mV
range. The last digit on the right determines the minimum value that can be
distinguished. This is called the resolution of the meter. For instance, on the 2V range,
the last, or least significant, digit is the 1 millivolt digit. So the resolution is 1mV and the
meter can distinguish 1.495V from 1.496V. On the 20V scale, however, the least
significant digit (and thus the resolution) is the 10mV place. So on the 20V scale, the
meter cannot distinguish between 1.495V and 1.496V. The meter reads 1.49V or 1.50V
instead. For this reason (and others), you should usually make your readings on the
lowest range possible. The resolution is determined the same way for current, resistance,
and voltage.
In addition to the resolution of the meter, there are two other important parameters:
internal resistance and accuracy. Resistance: A voltmeter is connected in parallel with
the element you are testing, while an ammeter is connected in series. This is shown
below.

Ideally, a voltmeter should have infinite parallel resistance and an ammeter should have
zero series resistance. The series resistance for the current scales depends on the range.
The DC ammeter resistance is found using the formula

The meter resistance is an important parameter and can affect the reading. While i t can
be neglected at times, a good engineer will take it into consideration before making the
measurement.

Resistor Basics and Electrical Resistance


1. Definition:
A resistor is a circuit element designed to reduce or limit current flow in a circuit. All
conductors of electricity offer opposition to the movement of electrons and, therefore,
possess resistance. A resistor offers a certain amount of opposition and is used for this
purpose.
2. Rating of Resistors:
a. Resistance value in OHMS
b. Value tolerance in percent
c. Power handling capability in WATTS
The resistance value may vary from a fraction of an ohm to several million ohms. The
tolerance ranges from 0.1% to 20%. The power rating of various resistors varies from 1/4
watt to several hundred watts and is determined by the physical size of a particular
type.
3. Construction:
a. Composition
b. Wire wound
4. Temperature Effect:
5. Color Code:

1. fixed value
1. fixed value

2. variable
2. variable

Most composition resistors have their Ohmic value indicated by a series of colored bands
around the body of the unit. The colors used are those designated by the Electronic
Industries Association (E. I. A.), and have been universally adopted. You must become
familiar with this code.

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