Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
I.'-lrctrated by
D.{\'ID NURNEY
lOH)i SILL
FR.\\K KNIGHT
3RIAN SMALL
F{. DOUGLAS PRATT
rOHN GALE
D.{\'ID BEADLE
DI.{NE PIERCE
D.\\ LANE
loHN o'NEILL
\OR}TAN ARLOTT
Collins
All rights
9 8 7 6 513
HupcrCollins Publishcrs
77-85 Fulham Palace Road
London
w6
81n
Scott
clc
NLx, Inc.
Suite rro3
Contents
ryut
.&uzlledgments
,ct
lroduction
Rrites: Ostrich, Emu,
Cassowaries, Rheas, and Kiwis
r3
Flamingos; Screamers
6r
63
NewWorld Vultures
69
7t
Falcons
77
Megapodes
79
Grouse; Buttonquail
T'memous
19
Raguins
2I
NewWorldQrail
Loos@ivers)
25
ffi
Af,atrosses
3r
33
Sum-petrels; Diving-petrels
J/
Trropicbnds
Frigatebirds
39
43
45
Camorants;Anhingas
+9
5r
87
Chachalacas
9r
Guineafowl;Tirrkeys
93
97
Cranes
R5czns
83
99
r03
Mesites
Bustards
ro5
ro9
Jacanas
III
55
I15
5/
fi9
Contents
kctztt
lkbtorledgments
xl
[nrroduction
Redtes: Ostrich, Emu,
Cassowaries, Rheas, and Kiwis
13
Flamingos; Screamers
6r
63
NewWorld Vultures
69
7r
Falcons
77
Megapodes
79
Grouse; Buttonquail
T'm-amous
19
Raguins
2I
NewWorldQrail
I-oons (Divers)
25
ffies
-{Ibatrosses
3r
JJ
Storm-petrels ; Diving-petrels
Tropicbirds ; Frigatebirds
39
hlicans
43
45
Cormorants;Anhingas
49
5r
55
57
87
Chachalacas
9r
Guineafowl;Tirrkeys
93
e7
Cranes
37
83
99
ro3
Mesites
Bustards
Jacanas
S
Painted-snipes
Plovers and Lapwings
ro5
ro9
III
rr5
rr9
Thick-knees; Seedsnipes;
Plains-wanderer
123
Oystercatchers; Crab-plover
125
Ibisbill
129
Toucans
223
Honeyguides
225
Woodpeckers
229
Pittas
.))
r3r
Gulls andTerns
135
r37
Woodcreepers
239
Puffins andAuks
I4I
Ovenbirds
243
Sandgrouse
r43
Antbirds
245
r47
Tapaculos; Gnateaters
249
Parrots
15I
Cotingas
25r
Cockatoos
r57
Manakins
255
Turacos
159
NewWorld Flycatchers
257
Cuckoos
r63
167
Creepers ; Australasian
Treecreepers; Rhabdornises 263
Owls
17r
Nightjars
175
Potoos;Oilbird
179
Swifts;Tieeswifts
r8r
Hummingbirds
r85
Mousebirds
r89
Tiogons
193
Kingfishers
195
Todies
199
Motmots
20r
Bee-eaters
205
Rollers; Ground-Rollers;
Cuckoo-Roller
Broadbills;Asities;
NewZealandWrens
Scrub-birds
Bowerbirds
Fairy-wrens and Grasswrens
Lyrebirds;
265
269
27r
Pardalotes
275
277
Australasian Robins
283
Whisders
285
Logrunners; Australasian
Babblers; Australian
Mudnesters; N ew Zeafand
Wattlebirds
289
Whipbirds, Qrail-thrushes,
andJewel-babblers
207
.)/
29r
Hornbills
2tl
2r3
Drongos
297
Puffbirds
2t7
30r
Barbets
2t9
Birds-of-Paradise
305
AI
CONTENTS
Fantails
295
23
',\-:" nlsu-allows
25
z9
l3
37
Babblers; Rockfowl
397
Larks
40r
OldWorld Sparows
405
Weavers
407
Waxbills
4r3
4r7
32r
42r
309
\Iagpie-larks
3r7
- :-birds,Ioras,and
Fain-bluebirds
C -;
\\brld Orioles
C ::-<oo -shrikes,
)9
315
3r7
Tiillers,
.nd I Iinivets
' :aL)S
.)-)
Accentors
423
+5
: --::kes : Heimetshrikes
J2/
lr9
I :.::.hrike s
Sugarbirds; Flowerpeckers;
Berrypeckers
427
329
429
+3
5r
i-las
55
57
Shrike-flycatchers
333
and Canaries
r.\-:-rrr-ings; Silky-flycatchers;
5j
Palmchat
339
65
i:r.rshes; Dippers
)9
,-l -,1
-1
35r
357
\\Iorld Flycatchers
435
JJ)
34r
347
Hawaiian Honeycreepers
439
WoodWarblers
443
Flowerpiercers; Conebills
447
Tanagers
45r
OldWorld Buntings
455
\'rrhatches; Sittellas
359
46r
\\-rens
363
NewWorld Blackbirds
463
Gnatcatchers; Kinglets
365
369
Long-tailedTits
37r
469
375
Ss'.a11ows
)//
Bibliography
503
Bulbuls; Hypocolius
38r
\\'hite-eyes
385
General Index
505
389
391
Species
Index
509
CONTENTS
,7)
tt
Preface
PREFACE
,x
It is to let birders
and others know"what else is out there,"in terms ofbird families and species,
now available about the general ecology and behavior ofa substantial
proportion of the world's birds. And the illustration plates provide fieldguide-like images of a good sampling of species-more than thirteen
hundred total- found in each avian family. But ifthis book's introduction to
the world's birds sufficiently raises one's interest level, then there are myriad
other books that can further that interest, including bird encyclopedias,
country-by-country field guides, and even volumes devoted to single
bird families.
Many books ofthis kind offer, as an introduction, a primer of ornithology,
defining the characteristics ofbirds and telling generallv of their ecology and
behavior. Instead, in keeping with the "birds of the world" emphasis, at the
end of the book I discuss two basic, interrelated questions: how many types
of birds are there? and where do birds occur geographical\'? Also, because
bird diversityis increasinglvjeopardized,I discuss some ofthe major threats
faced bybirds.
My hope for this book is that it stimulates some readers rvho have only a
mild interest in birds orwildlife to further that interest and perhaps become
frequent or serious wildlife watchers, and that it propels some newer birders,
who have the time and resources, to begin exploring the world's birds-not
just in the pages of books, but in the field.
PREFACE
ers
tes,
of
res.
)ut
on
ial
rden
rto
ird
t1S,
qle
,g)1
Lnd
rhe
i-res
use
.lts
:- {\o\\'LEDGE THE
':
:- ,-: ook and helped put it together. trirst,I thank the artists who permitted
- . -: : erutiful bird images to be included here.They are, in descending order
'-
nle
1.1.:-r'of the African birds illustrated in this book (237 total bird images, by
, -::.:. Iohn Gale, Brian Small, and Norman Arlott) are reproduced from
,l:,
l=:r'
'rot
ACKNowLEDGMENTS
xi
Introduction
B i rds
and Bird-rotatching
=ammals
:erhaps the last, has its aficionados and defenders. But the great majorityof
:. rvho enjoy animal watching in the wild gravitate to birds. Many millions
,',f people in the United States and Europe watch birds at least occasionally,
nature activity is on the rise in many
"nd bird-watching as a participatory
other parts of the world, indicating the great general interest in these
:eathered animals. A case in point: on a recent trip to some of Thailand's
rational parks,I was surprised and pleased to find not only American and
European birders roaming forests looking for birds, but also manyThai
t)milies, clad in khaki and tan and outfitted with binoculars and telescopes,
doing the same.
What is the source of our fascination with birds? And why,when we
select wild animals to watch, do we tend to choose birds? Most of us could
quickly compile a list ofpossible reasons besides the obvious one: birds are
beautiful. Such a list might include:
'
Birds are mainly d ay - actrve animalsl like most of us, they are
out and about during daylight hours and asleep at night. Many
other kinds of large animals-especially mammals-are more
active at night,which makes finding and observing them much
more difficult.
'
as a
INTRODUCTION
do not always depart with all due haste after being spotted,
as is common with most other types ofvertebrate animals.
Their abiliry to fly, and thus easily evade our grasp, permits
many birds when confronted with people to leisurely go about
their business (albeit keeping one eye on us at all times), often
allowing extensive time to watch them.
-,-- -..r'
'
1g
1\'
--:- : :lese
- - .::::ciation
--
NT RODUCTI ON
families, is described on
Introductory Comments
This section identifies the group in question and relates, in a nontechnical
way, what distinguishes the group from others and which aspects of its
biology are especially noteworthy (if any).
Classf.cation
Classification information is used by scientists to separate birds and other
organisms into related groups.It is provided here as it often enhances our
appreciation ofbirds to know these relationships. Below is a quick review of
relevant animal classifi cation:
KI
species
detailedinthebook
)uP
of
:amily
sually
e text
rvork.
bird is
J view
s
as are
rhe birds.
were
o
TIMON
RD E
n:
rev are
rovide
-rclude
rs, and
-{ M I
ry
of
NewWorld vultures.
ments
'erslty,
havior,
:hnical
s of its
EN
that
I other
ces
our
rierv
of
-L
.:.n
I NT
RODUCTION
single
pH
47,ooo sPecies
c LAS s: Aves (Birds),with about 9,8oo species.
o
RDER
with
and eagles.
EN
spE
u s:
Aquila,with u
passerines and
the small land birds with which we are most familiar-flycatchers, robins,
crows,wrens,warblers, blackbirds, finches, sparrows, and so on,The passerine
order is the most diverse of the bird orders, including more than 5o percent
of all bird species (about fifty-eight hundred species) and about half the
*-:..:-.ent. Scientific names are less variable, but they sometimes change
-- :=.= -rchers make new classification decisions. For example, the same
- :- .::cies may have different genus names depending on the source
- -. --:ed.The names I have used in this book,both common and scientific,
- --= :r.rinlr'from Lynx Edicions Handbook of the Birds of the World or the
.-- :.'i:ion ofJ. F. Clements, Birds of the World:A Checklist.There is also
- -.:: --,\-e rsv over how best to write compound bird names, for example,
'
!q
es and
rching
These
rde all
-obins,
Seflne
refCent
alf the
,
about
have a
lratory
i more
ds and
:rs, and
,'-eight
e ratlte
counts
rirds.
arlingr
minimal concern.
,., itt,
..- : :=;hnical fields. Here, a diverse group, such as a diverse family, means one
:-.
- : -=
:- : Jifferent types of animals, plants, and other life forms found within
A group or family that is "ecologicaliy diverse" is one that exhibits
jitTerent
adaptations to the environments inwhich its members occur.
- .:',
- : .:.tance, an ecologically diverse groupr such as the jay and crow family
-- :-,-idae), might occur in several different habitat types, eat various types
:': , ,Js, and employ a variety of foraging methods.
\\'hen I provide a definite number of species in a given family, such as
'---.::: J.re ro species of motmotsi'I mean there are ro living species;recently
: -:-:-.t species are not included in these totals. Often I do not give exact
- -::.ie rs of species; instead I give approximations, such as "there are about
: - :':ecies in the jay and crow family." For reasons I detail in the book s
- ..:luding essay, exact species numbers are sometimes problematic.
.
r : .--,r o .
pe and
sPecles
refe afe
riversal
NT RODUCTI ON
Distribution
'
'
'
'
in
:erms
3
rica,
color
for
:o).A
:s
Icrphology
teans
vhere
ied to
Jrons:
ful in
niliar
,er1ca,
eglon
Lt
also
rroPe,
refers
:.ually both male and female are depicted. Bird sizes are usually given as
-,rgths,which are traditionally measured from tip ofbill to end of tail. For
--:.e passerine birds, when I use the words large, medium-size, small, or very
.:ra1l to describe their sizes,large usuallymeans more than rz inches (:o cm)
:::an 4 inches (ro cm).Typical bird lengths, sometimes ranges oflengths, are
: :ovided on the plates themselves. A large range may indicate that the male
ie these sections I describe some ofwhat is known about the basic activities
: rrsued by each group. Much of the information relates to the habitat qpes
:nvironments) the birds occupy,when and where the birds are usually active,
-,r'hat they eat, and how they forage.Arboreal birds pursue life and food in
::ees or shrubs; terrestrial ones pursue life and food on the ground.Whether
:irds tend to stay in social groups is also noted.
INTRODIICTION
Breeding Behaaior
Conseruation Status
formal
rting
ulars.
:male
n one
;with
:veral
:ffort.
3S,
3.
nO
more
lually
:alled
vu
LNE
ABr
Abo,'at-risk" or "near-threatened"
nales.
Eitat
;with
dhabitat destruction,
rating
ficnearfuture.
6cworld's birds.
'each
rctors
pecies
ations
'ee
on
lowed
tirds
their
of
bird
brmal
a
INTRODUCTION
of
.(
OSTRICH
rlhto tnnc/Lrs
ro6 5 in (r7o z7o cnr)
Africa
Slt
6;
EMU
D ron
n o.ta
Lh
ol la
dia L
SOUTHERN CASSOlVARY
()asuarius tatuat iur
5r - 67 in (r jo - r7o cm)
r\ustralir, New GLrinea
EROWN KI\\'I
CREA]'SPOTl
ATtcr.yx ousha/is
A7tcr.1'x haastii
19
5-:5
5 Ln
(5o
Nerv Zealancl
65
cm)
ED KIWI
19
2j t in (5o-6o crn)
Nerv Zerland
l.
Ratites:
Ostrich, Emu,
)
Cassowaries,
RhcaS, and Kiwrs
cAS sowARIos, and RHEAs are huge flightless
:::ds mainly relegated to the Southern Hemisphere. K I w I s are smaller
:::htless birds ofNew Zealard.Together, these birds comprise the world's
::r species of ratites, birds with flat, raftlike (ratite) sternums. Other birds
,-
srRrcH, EMU,
sternums with deep keels, upon which the breast flight muscles attach
:::ink of the deep keel to which attaches the main portion ofwhite meat in
-:.:.r'e
rckens and turkeys).The ratites, flightless birds that run along the ground,
---.r-e no need of thick, powerful flight muscles, so have no keel. Biologists
:elieve that Ostrich, Emu, cassowaries, and rheas lost their ability to fly
r c aus e they followed an evolutio nary p athw ay to become very large, which
-.0..:.s
beneficial for them; with their long legs, great weight, and sometimes
'i{ressive natures, they could run rapidly and defend themselves. But as
:::ev evolved to be larger, flying became more and more difficult and was
-e . s needed to escape predators; eventually it was lost. As for New Zealand's
-ru'is and some other flightless birds, such as some island-dwelling pigeons
:rd rails, they rrray have lost the power of flight because they evolved in
',1'hat were essentially predator-free zones, where large, powerful wings and
: nergetically expensive flight were not needed.
Ratite classification is controversial,with some authorities placing all
':ring groups in a single order, Struthioniformes; others divide the ratites
::rto Struthioniformes (the Ostrich ofAfrica), Rheiformes (the Greater and
L esser Rheas of South America), Casuariiformes (the Emu ofAustralia and
:hree cassowaries: one in northeastern Australia and it and two others in
:
13
Distribution:
S
ralia/Neu;
Netr Zealand
1l u.;/
No
oJ
Liring
Speties:
No
G u in ea,
to
oJ'Spccics
Vulncrable,
Dndangarcd:5, o
No.
oJ-Species
Sintc t6oo: z
Dxtinct
the New Guinea region), and Apterygiformes (three species of kiwi, all in
NewZealand).
The o
heaviest of living birds, adult males standing 6.9 to 8.8 feet (z.r to 2.7 m)
tall and weighing up to 33o pounds (r5o kg); females are a bit smaller (5.6
to 6.2 feetlr.T to r.9 m], up to z4o pounds [uo kg]). Males are mostly black
white,with either reddish pink or bluish gray necks and legs; females
with dull white wing feathers. Ostriches occur
throughout much of East and Southern Africa, and extend into Central
and West Africa,wherever their preferred habitats of savanna and other
dry, open, grassy habitats are found. Ostrich wings are used not for flight
but in threat and breeding displays, and they are fanned to cool the body.
Their legs are long and powerful, capable ofpropelling these birds at a steady
trot of about 19 miles per hour fuo kph) and a top speed of44 miles per hour
(7o kph) during short bursts, and with this speed, they can outrun many
predators. Ostriches eat leaves, flowers, and seeds. Walking slowly, their
heads down and movingfrom side to side,theypickup suitable foods,which
collect at the top of the neck. Occasionally they pause, stand alert, check for
danger, and swallow the accumulated ball of food. Ostriches occur alone, in
and
pairs, or in groups that can reach hundreds ofbirds.They are day-active, and
at night usually roost in groups, individuals squatting on the ground near
each other, typically holding their heads high.
r4
all in
st and
t.7 m)
:r (5.6
black
males
OCCUT
entral
other
flight
body.
,teady
-., m) tall
r hour
many
,
their
rvhich
for
)ne,ln
:ck
-e,
and
near
rically
Ll
nest,
1s.
The
br-the
rtched
)strich
to
r 1s not
rlmost
loss
valued
in (for
reavily
L
birds,
eet (r.5
-:
j'.
(SS
it
-\tier mating, a female Emu lays eggs in a nest of twigs and crushed
:.::lation in a depression on the ground, then departs; she may later mate
-::-mon,buttheyarestillpersecutedinagriculturalareasforbreakingfences
j raiding crops.They are farmed in Australia and some other countries for
:- -:rr leather, oil, feathers, and low-cholesterol meat.
c AS s owARt n s, rainforest and woodland birds, usuallyjust a bit
-::.JIer than Emus (to 5.6 feetlr.T m];to rzo pounds ISS kg]), are also dark,
.::h a bare-skin head and neck, and an unmistakable large, bony crest,
-helmet."They are chiefly fruit-eaters, taking mostly fallen tree fruit
.:
: -: also some pulled from plants; they also eat seeds, insects, other small
.:-
15
midsize mammals.
Cassowarybreedingis similar to that ofEmus.Two species, the Southern
fi
rmall
over
:SS1VC
each
rowel
:hern
Iered
lered
e
still
rples.
they
thers
res
to
errca
Ih uP
land,
Rhea
Both
small
---.: rret-erred
cund
,<.iressive and sexual contexts. Pairs sometimes duet or answer one another's
dess,
arem
n the
POOS
-55"'
rll of
rr'ho
:tear.
and
ingly
r slze
rrt
of
eling
rmes
-J..When
17
GREAT TI NAM O!
'finamur major
1'H
rt in
(46 cm)
South Anerica, CeI rral America, Mexico
TC
KE1' TI NA
Cr12 t ure l/ ut
il1
OII
nanon ome t s
rr in (28 cm)
Central Arnerica, Nlexico
rr in (28 cn)
Central America, Mexico
_:;*
LI1'TLE TINATIOI]
Cryt2ttrdlus soui
9 in (23 cu)
South Amer ica, Cen n aJ Arnericrt, Nl exico
UNDULATED TINAMOU
Crylterr/lu: tndu/alur
rzin(3ocrn)
South Aner ica
Tinamous
Di.;/ rih
No. of'Specir:s
TINAMou
Tinamous are perhaps best known for their songs, the loud, pure-tone,
melodious whistles that are some of the most characteristic sounds of
neotropical forests.They are often heard on the soundtracks ofmovies with
rainforest settings. Sometimes resembling organ- or flute-produced notes,
these vocalizations often occur all day long; the UndulatedTinamou, for
example, makes one of the most common sounds of AmazonianBrazTl.
Some claim that one ofthe most delightful parts ofneotropical forests is the
early evening serenade of tinamou whistles.
Six to 18 inches (r5 to 45 cm) long, tinamous have chunky bodies, with
tairly long necks, small heads, and slender bills. They have short legs and very
short tails.The backpart ofthe bodysometimes appears higherthan it should
be, a consequence of a dense concentration of rump feathers.Tinamous are
TI NA MOUS
t9
u/
io n.
Ntotrofics
No o.l'l,iring
Lnlortgr:rcd..1, z
No
o.f'Slccics Exti.n
tt
16oo'20trih\
Since
as
often marked with dark spots or bars. Males and females look alike, with
females being slightly larger.
Tinamous inhabit avariety of environments, including grasslands and
thickets, but most commonly they are forest birds. Except during breeding,
they lead a solitary existence.They are among the most terrestriat of birds,
foragrng,breeding, and usually sleeping on the ground (some larger forest
species roost in trees). Very poor flyers, they take fight onlywhen alarmed
bypredators or surprised, and then only for short distances; their main form
of locomotion is running.The tinamou diet consists chiefly of fruit and
seeds,but they also take insects such as caterpillars,beetles, and ants, and
occasionally, small vertebrates such as mice. Some South American species
dig to feed on roots and termites.Tinamous avoid being eaten themselves
primarily by staying still, easily blending in with surrounding vegetation,
and bywalking slowly and cautiously.If approached closely, tinamous will
fy upward in a burst of loud wing-beating and fy, usually less than r5o feet
(+5
-), to a new hiding spot in the undergrowth, often colJiding with trees
are
choosing.Apparentlyin all tinamous the male incubates the eggs and defends
the young. Nests are simple indentations in the ground, hidden in a thicket or
at the base of a tree. F'rom hatching, the young feed themselves.
Outside of protected areas, all tinamous are hunted extensively for food.
Tinamou meat is considered tender and tasry albeit a bit strange-looking; it has
been described variously as greenish and transparent. Still, tinamous'cryptic
coloring and secretive behavior must serve the birds well because, although
hunted, many species still maintain healthy populations. Some are known to
be able to move readily from old, uncut forest to secondary, recently cut forest,
demonstrating an adaptability that should allow these birds to thrive even amid
major habitat alterations such
as
MagdalenaTinamou
and Peru's Kalinowski's Tinamou, are critically endangered and,with no recent
sightings, are most likely extinct.
species are considered vulnerable.Two others, Colombia's
20
and
,vith
Penguins
and
ling,
irds,
)rest
med
orm
and
and
]C1CS
:lves
:10n,
will
feet
:rees
ulng
rales
and
: for.
:heir
ends
et or
bod.
t has
iptic
rugh
,'n to
)rest,
rmid
:lcan
mou
:cent
PENGUINS
2I
D itl ri
h tr
tion
Artturtlic, Soulhtrtt
HLn
i;lhtrt
No ot'I-i''ittg
Slttias't7
No
of'Sp,:cir:s
hr/rt arahl,:,
Enrlongeretl:
No.
7,.1
oJ'Speci cs Ex t i tt t t
Sirtc,:
t6oo.' o
their toes
braking underwater
and for clambering up steep and slippery slopes when going ashore. Penguins
they nest in burrows or natural cavities such as holes under rocks; two species,
King and Emperor Penguins, make no nest.
Some penguins receive more attention than others because they are
sometimes encountered bv or, indeed, marketed to, tourists and bird-watchers.
These include the Galdpagos Penguin; the Jackass Penguin, endemic to the
coast of southern Africa and named for its strange braving call; New Zealand's
ater
lrns
ally
:r
of
;lng
uin,
like
'uit.
IIUIIBOLDT
,nto
LTTTLE PE^-CUIN
PENCUI^.-
ninor
155-175in(4o 45cm)
buntboldti
:5 -5 z7 5 in (65-7o cm)
South Arner'Lca (CIrile, Peru)
Eud.yptula
SphLniseut
can
rnry
vto
rrnd
JUS;
l1e s,
are
INI}I
lers.
the
nd's
tror,
Iten
and
e
ast
the
SOCKHOPPER PENGUIN
I
ntc,
'rng
:: ;-:.1 5 in (S;-62
. ut]rcrn ocearts
crn)
ADELIE PENGUIN
YELLO!V-EYED PEN_GUIN
Plgottelis adeliat
:8 in (7r cm)
Megddyptet anti?ode\
r\n rarctica
Nerv Zealand
26-lo in (66-76
cm)
cles
) ns.
rof
'on
'eds
hrrn
nvo
i}]I\5TRAP
I
).t
lc
:--
; e Ii
1o
PENGUIN
s a n ta rct i
in (0S-77 crn)
South Arlanric
\nt,rrtic rnd
ETIPEROR PENCUIN
,4p te n o tly
tes
Jb
rs t ar
,+,1
in (7o cm)
Sorrrhern Africa
z7 5
NON-BRD
in (64 crn)
North Arreric,r
ELrr asi,L
PACIF]C I-OON
Catio 2acifi,a
26 iD (66 cilr)
n"orrh Arne r ica, Asirr
COIIN]ON LOON
Cni,ia intnet
lz in (8r crn)
North Aroeric,t, Europe
Loons (Divers)
F
L
feet are modified for underwater propulsion, set far back on the body and with
webbed toes. AII have dark bills (except the Yellow-billed Loon) and reddish
eyes.They have bright, contrasting breeding plumage and dull, brown to black
nonbreeding plumage. Like many animals that pursue prey underwater, they
are countershaded, dark above and
shadowed, causing them to blend in with the water, thus rendering them
harder for prey to detect. Being specialized for living on and under the water
LooNS (orvens)
25
Di';tribution:
North temptratc tnd
Arc/ic regions
No o.l'Liting
Spctic.r:5
No
ol'Sperias
Vu / nerabla,
Endan,qered: o, o
No of Speciat Extinct
Si ncc
r6oo: o
makes life in the terrestrial world difficult for loons. Because of the structure
of their legs and feet, they essentiallv cannot walk; thev move about on land,
when necessary,by messily hopping and flopping about. (The word loon may
come from an old Scandinavian word meaning "clumsy.")
killed duringAlaska's
z6
Lnd,
nay
Grebes
rnd
rter.
rere
)30
tof
lter,
Jed
sks,
ved
,be
the
sor
[ess
for
a1n
.irg
h.y
irg
ion
rnd
rge
.wo
irg
ing
life
lte,
Ple
:ble
'ere
GREBE
::-r them in your sight than they dive under water, only to pop up again some
Distribution:
Worldutilt
Species:
compact, streamlined bodies, short wings,very little tail, legs placed well
:rck
-e
GREBES
27
No. of Ltuing
r9
No. of Srccics
htlnerabla,
Endangarcd: z,
No. of S2uie.r
Extintt
Since 16oo: z
orj
WHITE-TUETDD GREBE
Podieps chilentis
Podire2s
5-r4in (24
36 cm)
Sourh Anrerica
6o cm)
Eurasia, Afiica, Australia
HORNED GREBE
auritus
r: r5 in (3r-3E crn)
Podilynbus
Poditel>t
EARED GREBE
PIED.BIL]-ED
rz-r5
Ln
CREBE
loditels
(3o
38 cm)
Podieps
WESl'ERN CREBE
lechmophcrut ouiden talis
Norrh America
nigriollis
rr-13 5 in (28 34 cm)
AUSTRALASIAN GREBE
Ta fi 1 bap tus norae h o/ landiae
9
tiiatut
18 zj 5 ir (46
-ro 5 in (:3
z7 crn)
zo-29 in (5r
74 cLn)
HOARY-HEADED GREBE
Pol ioce4 b al u s 2oliorel hal ut
ru in (3o crn)
Australia, New Zealand
:hrust of its powerful feet and then reappears some distance away,perhaps
u-ith a fish held crosswise in its bill.In a bout of foraging, a grebe will make
many consecutive dives, usually staying below the surface each time for less
rhan a minute (typically ro to 4o seconds), often remaining on the surface
tween dives for as little as ro seconds. Most dives are to depths of 3 to rz
teet (r to 3.5 m). Some grebes, such as the Western Grebe, use their sharply
pointed bills to spear prey; fish found in the stomachs ofthese grebes usually
be
have a hole through the middle. Grebes occasionally also take prey from the
GREBES
29
;-niT #
WAVED ALBAl'ROSS
Dioncdea irrorata
33 5-36 5 in (85-qj cnr)
Peci6c rvarers ofl northero Sourh Anrcrica
Diomedu tlbatrut
3j-;7in (lt4-94crrr)
Northern ])rcilic
BL]I-LER S
LBATRO55
Dionulea bulltri
3o-1: in (;6
8r crn)
Sourlrern Occ,ur (Pecitic sicle)
Diomcdn nigriptr
z7-u 9 in ((r8 74 cnr)
Norrhern Prcific
I)ER] NC ALBA f
Diott.Llca cntlanr
.12-;j in (ro;-rj5 cor)
Soutlrern Occrn
\1'AN
ROSS
io
tt
tl ea nt t h n
j in (tl3
t6
Sorrthcrn Oce.rl
ph
r.v
9; crrr)
Albatrosscs
ALBATROSSES
3r
Distrihution:
Southern oceans,
nortbern Pacific
No. of Liting
Speties:
r4
No. of Species
Vulnerahle,
Endungered:
B,
No
Extinct
oJ'Specier
Since 16oo: o
strong winds blowing across the ocean's surface. This efficient but peculiar
flight takes them in huge loops from high above the ocean,where the wind
is fastest, down toward the surface,where friction slows the wind, and then
up into the faster wind again to give them lift for the next loop-a kind
of roller-coaster flight that requires virtually no wing flapping. Albatross
wings are so long and narrow that these birds literally need wind to help
them fly, and on absolutely calm days (which,luckily, are rare on the open
ocean) they must wait out windless hours sitting on the sea's surface.To take
flight in windy conditions they need only spread theirwings, and the wind
provides sufficient lift to make them airborne. But in lowwinds, they must
face into the wind (like an airplane taking off) and make a takeoffrun; at
island breeding colonies, often there are actual runways, long, clear paths
on the islands'windier sides, usually on slopes, alongwhich they make their
downhill takeoff runs. Albatrosses are nicknamed "gooney birds"because
they are awkrarard on land and often make untidy takeoffs and landings.
Monogamous breeders, most albatrosses apparently mate for life. On
their remote breeding islands they engage in elaborate courtship dances in
which male and female face each other, flick their wings, bounce their heads
up and down, and clack their bills together. Nests are scrapes on the bare
ground sometimes surrounded byvegetation and pebbles. Male and female
alternately incubate eggs and brood young.The other adult flies out to sea,
sometimes for days, and searches for food. When it returns, it feeds the
chick regurgitated fish, squid, and stomach oil. When the chick's demand
for food becomes overwhelming, both adults leave it for long periods as they
search vast areas of ocean for enough food. A nestling albatross, at times,
can actually weigh more than its parents. They take 5 to 7 years to mature,
staying at sea during this period before finally returning to their birthplace
to breed. Many do not breed until they are Z to 9 years old; some live more
than 4o years.
Because they cannot become airborne readily from land, albatrosses are
easy victims for humans and introduced predators. During the r8oos and
early rgoos they were widely killed for their feathers, and entire breeding
colonies were destroyed. Currently eight species are considered mlnerable,
and one, the Amsterdam Albatross, is endangered;it has a population of
only about one hundred and breeds on a single Indian Ocean island.
32
ar
:Id
en
1d
)SS
Pctrels and
Shearwaters
lp
3n
ke
:rd
lst
at
hs
:ir
.se
)n
in
ds
.re
rle
12,
he
-rd
ey
3S,
IE,
CC
rfe
re
rd
ig
le,
of
pBrRpLs
major group of seabirds, but one largely unknown, unseen, and unappreciated
except by sailors and bird fanciers. The family, Procellariidae, is included in
of
their distinctly hooked upper bills. Like many seabirds, they have a large
gland between and above their eyes that permits them to drink seawater; it
filters salt from the water and concentrates it.This highly concentrated salt
solution is excreted in drops from the base of the bill and the nostril tubes
then direct the salt drops to the end of the bill,where they drop off.
Petrels comprise alarge group of mid- to large-size seabirds with long
wings and hooked bills. Shearwaters, small to midsize, are very similar
to petrels, but their bills are longer and thinner, and have smaller hooks.
Lengths range from ro to39 inches (z5to 99 cm);wingspans canbe up to 6.5
feet (z m). Both groups, along with other tubenoses, are usually dark above
and lighter below, although some are alldark or all light; coloring is limited
to black, brown, gray, and white.
Petrels and shearwaters are often excellent flyers, some using dynamic
soaring (see p.3r) like albatrosses, some alternating flapping flight with
gliding. The y feed atsea by day or night on squid, fi sh, and crustaceans. S ome
33
Distrihution'
A// orcans
No. ol'Litting
Spuier: 7z
No ol'Spetitr
l/ulntroblt,
f)nltngeted. zo, rr
No
Si
of Specics
ntt t6oo: o
Extintt
SOOl'Y SHEAR\\'ATER
NEWELL S SHEi\RWATER
NORTHERx- FULItAR
PuJfinus griscus
Ptffinut ncuelli
r4 in (35 cn)
Hrrvrii
I'ulmaru glarialis
17 5 19 5 Ln (45 -5o cm)
:o in (,1o 5r cm)
C)ceirns worldwicle
15
BROAD-BILLED PRION
ritata
(z; jo crn)
Parh.y?tild
ro-rz in
(.,:,
ANTARCT]C PE]'REL
SNOW PETREL
7h
PagodrofrM nirea
r5
16
in
Antrrrcrica waters
FORM
PlN'tADO PETREL
Dd?t;an cn?en\:
15 5
in (4o cm)
Sourhero Occan
sea
and shearwaters are sometimes solitary, but some species occur in small to
large flocks; some Short-tailed Shearwater flocks, for instance, number
in
the millions. Petrels and shearwaters are ocean wanderers, often traveling
huge distances; some, for example, breed in the Australian region, and then
mill about in a crowd on a dune above the water, then one by one run down
the slope of the dune toward the water, spread their wings, and fly. Given
their long, narrow wings, they usually need the takeoffrun, like an airplane,
to create enough lift to become airborne. Observing shearwater runway
launches is a special treat to bird-watchers who visit breeding colonies; the
birds generally ignore quiet human spectators.
Petrels and shearwaters breed monogamously, usually in large, dense
colonies, often but not always on small oceanic islands. Some nest in the
open,with nests simply small depressions in the ground,but most nest either
in a burrow they dig themselves or take over, or in a natural caviry such as
rock cavities in cliffs.The burrow or cavity is reused each year by the same
pair. Both parents incubate the single egg and feed and brood the chick.
These birds probably live an average ofr5 to zo years.
Some species ofpetrels and shearwaters are incrediblynumerous, and the
Sooty Shearwater has been nominated as the world's most abundant bird.
But because of their often highly restricted nesting sites on small islands
and vulnerability during the nesting period, many species in the group are at
risk; twenty are considered l,ulnerable, another eleven, some with extremely
small populations, endangered.The Hawaiian Petrel,sometimes considered
a subspecies of Dark-rumped Petrel, breeds only in Hawaii; in the past its
nests were regtlarly raided by introduced rats, cats, and mongooses, and it is
now endangered.
35
\VHI'IE
Oteanites
gratilit
65
in (16 crn)
BLACK STORXI-PETREL
Otednoironta me/ania
9 in (23 cm)
Prcilic rvaters of[Norttr nnc] SoLrrlr Arner ica
OceanodronuJiu
8 5
Ailcrica
BLACK.BELLIED S]'ORNI-PETREL
!regettu trtPiid
8
jr
(zo cm)
DIVING PETREL
natrit
PERUVIAN-D]VINC PETREL
Co!111O^..
Pelagodroma ntarina
E in (zo cm)
Pelecanoiltr garnotii
Pelecanoiies uri
8-9 5 in (:o
Atllntic rnd
otl
in (:z cm)
Northern Prcific
in (zo cm)
z4 crr)
Prcific rvaters o]fnorrherl Sotrth America
ro in (zo-25 cm)
Sorrthcrrr ()r:crn
Storm-pctrcls;
Diving-petrels
Highly agile in the aiq storm-petrels fly low and erratically over the sea
surface, almost like swallows; they settle on the water only occasionally.
They are perhaps best known for their feeding behavior, which occurs by
day or night. With their small mouths they take mainly tiny planktonic
sToRM-PETRELS; DrvrNG-PETRELS
37
STORM-PDTRELS
Distrihution:
A/l oceanr
No. oJ'Living
Speties zo
No. of
Spacies
Vulnerable,
Endangcrcd: t, o
No. oJ'S2ecies
Since
r6oo: t
Extintt
perhaps the best developed sense of smell of any birds (probably related to
the long tubular nostrils).Theyuse this ability to locate nest sites and young
when returning from extended foraging trips and probably use it to locate
some types offood.
I)irt rihtrtion
Sr, tt
ur
i rt
/lc t tt o, ttt tt t,
/.y', i ri tr nt
t\o
lo/l
of Lit.:irtp
Spttitr I
No ,tl S?,'tits
14r/nLtthlt,
litr,/turyl
No ol
L,/. ,t,
51,,';i1s Jia1i11s1
Sitttt r(tc',o-rL
jB
ng
to
nd
.11v
of
Tinpicbirds;
F'rigatebirds
'zy.
alk
:ek
ter,
lVe
Ito
lng
ate
,iry
ive
isit
ted
its
lies
irst
species) and
RIGATEBIRDs (familyFregatidae,five species) are members of order
Pelecaniformes, along with pelicans, boobies, and cormorants; both have
r ainJv tropical ocean distributions.topicbirds, considered among the most
.:riking and attractive of tropical seabirds, are midsize white or white and
:lack birds with t'wo very long, thin tail feathers, called streamers, which
:rovide the birds an unmistakable flight silhouette. A pair of tropicbirds
engaged in their spectacular aerial courtship display, tail streamers tracing
l:cs in the sky, is an unforgettable sight.Tiopicbirds have long, narrowwings,
walking on land (they spend most of their time in
isk.
red
ion
:re air or on the sea), and webbed feet. They range from z8 to 59 inches long
-o to ro5 cm; about half ofwhich is tail streamer) and have wingspans of
:bout 3.3 feet (r m). Frigatebirds are very large soaring birds (28 to 45 inches,
-o to rr4 cm,long), black or black and white, with huge pointed wings that
:ran up to 6.5 feet (z m) and long forked tails. Males have large red throat
rall,
to
reir
l,
rn8
ies,
uth
'i,i,',,)n",i,'")"'
TROPICBIRDS; FRIGATEBIRDS
39
l'ropica/ ocuns
No. af Living
STtcics;
No. of Spcrics
Vn lnerab/c,
Enlangered: o
No.
oJ- Sp
e ci
Sittre 16oo: o
l.)
xt
in
l; i-.tr
RD
i[ (9o ]oi.rrr)
I'roprcrl ocerrs
J'jrrci6c enJ
lnJirn
Occans
,
\\ [lt u- fl]l
Ftr)
rRoPtcBtRD
r:i
lriiu(;o-s:crn)
CRE\]
FR](;J1'EB]RI)
ll ) +r ; in (Si lo;.rr))
Trrl.rc,rl ocerrrr
:S ;:
nr
1 r,rl,icaJ
( r lt
errr)
:he sea surface, but not often; most of their time at sea is spent looking for
:r
these places.
Large and beautiful, frigatebirds are a treat to watch as they glide silently
but they have some patterns of behavior that among
No o[Liring
,'.'ian pirates.
Dndangared: t,
--
TROPICBIRDS; FRIGATEBIRDS
4I
l)is trihution:
Tro1>icaloccanr
Spaties:5
No
o.fSpaties
Vu/nerab/e,
No. oJ'Slerit;
5'inte 16oo: o
Dxtinrt
lXlXt
tsRD
.._--\
tsRO\!I
PELICAN
ANI ER LCAN
Pluanrt ottidcutali
4r 5-6o in (ro; r5z crn)
Arllnric lnrl Prci6c
coesrs
Pda
ofArncricrs
PERt]V]AN PELICAN
/hagut
+r s 6o in (roi riz cm)
Pacific \\ aters o]fPeru and Chile
PelcLanus
an
\! HITE
ut c ry t b rorhl
PET-ICAN
L
h o
A(]STRALIAN PEI-ICAN
n u t cott spi L i //at t t
6o ;4 in (r5z-rSE crn)
Pehta
....*.....,]'
1
PINK-BACKED PEI-ICAN
Pt/tctnut onotrotalus
(r4li r75 cm)
-58 5-69 in
ELtrasi:r, Airicir
Pth,antr rttJitrens
4q
1z
Aiiica
Pclicans
single
PELICANS
43
Vu/n anrble,
Endungcrad: r, o
No.
o.f'S1>ccies
Sincc
r6oo: o
Ex ti
nrt
from the lower mandible, and the upper mandible acts as a lid. Captured
fish are quickly swallowed because the water in the sac with the fish usually
weighs enough to prohibit the bird's lifting offfrom the water. Often, groups
of swimming pelicans cooperate in herding fish, trapping them between
birds, and then lunging. Brown Pelicans, common in the United States, are
the only ones that also plunge from the air, sometimes from a considerable
altitude (to 65 feet fzo m]) to dive for meals. Although pelicans eat fish
almost exclusively, some crustaceans are also taken.
Pelicans eat a lot, in some species up to ro percent of their body weight
per day; older nestling pelicans take fish up to r.3 pounds (6oo g) in weight.
As a necessary result of such intake, pelicans produce a lot of droppings,
United States
as an endangered species over parts of its range, but it is still common in
many areas.
+4
:d
ly
)S
:n
re
Boobies and
Gannets
1e
;h
It
It.
'c
io
AS
a
1e
)y
:k
ia
oo
people, which was considered stupid. Actually, these birds bred on isolated
)n
Distribution:
All
No.
oceans
ofLiuing
Species: 9
No. of Species
Vulnerable,
Endangered: r,
cr
islands and cliffs, which meant they had few terrestrial predators, so had
never developed, or had lost, fear responses to large land mammals, such as
rg
people.
Since
:s
.v,
1e
25
SC
IS
)n
le.
,St
n,
CS
in
45
No. of Species
t6oo: o
Exlinct
"r/?
KDD tsOOB
LlLtrlIldlrn
3:-36 in (8r 9z crn)
XIAS
Sil/n
1'r
opical occans
RDD-EOO I LD tsOOB\
BRO\\'\.. BOOBY
Su/a /,'ur
ogttto
z5-:9 in (64-:4
cnr)
1'ropicrl oceans
B]-UE-fOO I DD BOOBY
Suh ntbotrxii
1o 13 in (76 34 crr)
1-r ol,ical Pacilic oiI North a nd Sou rlr
A mcr
icr
breathing; the holes are closed over to keep seawater from rushing into
their lungs as theyplunge-dive. Some boobies,in addition to plunge-diving,
also surface-dive occasionally to chase fish underwater and are sometimes
spotted foraging on foot in shallowwater.
Boobies and gannets tend to breed in large or medium-size colonies on
small islands where there are no mammal predators or in isolated mainland
areas that are relatively free of predators. Some nest on cliffs or in trees or
other vegetation, but most do so on the ground. Nests in a densely packed
colony can be as close to one another as r.5 feet (o.S rn).(Before taking flight,
an adult nesting in the middle of such a colony has to thread its way past all
the neighboring nests, to the colony edge, and find space to make its takeoff
run. Birds returning to the colony simply drop straight from the air onto
their own nest.) Boobies are monogamous; mated males and females share
responsibilify for nest building, incubation, and feeding the young. High
ye^r-to-year fidelity to mates, to breeding regions, and to particular nest
sites is common. Females usually lay one or two eggs, but if two, typically
only a single chick survives to fledging age; one chick often pecks the other
to death. Young remain in and around the nest, dependent on the parents,
for up to 6 months or more.These are long-lived birds, an average life span
lasting ro to 20 years.
Several boobies-especially the Peruvian Booby, Blue-footed Booby,
and Cape Gannet-are among the globe's champion guano producers.
Guano, a sought-after ferttlizer, is produced from the phosphate-laced
droppings of seabirds, from deposits that have accumulated for thousands
ofyears.The islands on which these birds nest have accumulated guano that
is yards thick, and this valuable resource has been exploited commercially for
centuries. Indeed, the extraction ofguano from offshore islands by Peruvian
fertrltzer companies played a significant role in Peru's historical economic
development. Guano mining is destructive because it disturbs the nesting
ofseabirds and destroys nesting habitat.
Abbot's Booby, a tree-nesting species now limited to a single, small
breeding population on the Indian Ocean's Christmas Island, is critically
endangered.In addition to loss of some of its nesting habitat (some of it
by the guano industry), it is now threatened by an ant species introduced
to the island, which is spreading to its nesting sites; the ants can weaken
or kill nestlings. One other booby, southern Africa's Cape Gannet, is
considered lulnerable.
BOoBTES n ND
GANNETS
47
(iUl\,\\
[)/.,r
coRNI()tt1\1
/r, t c, cr,t s
:3-3o in (;r-;(,
.\r
Corrsti,l S,rLrrlr
\,t i ttr
r rn)
1,0 r,
rer
ic.r
Ncr
Ze.tl,rnJ
,ti
rrtt, tr/t
:t
RI]D.E,\L :D COR]IoRA\
l'h, t/,tt t a' tt,t t ttrt/,
:S 11in(;r 39cnr)
\,rr tltern l),reihc
L II]EPIII)COR]]OR\\I
Pht/i, 1 ot nil \ ttrl,t to/,
(,i(rr)
rr i-riiir)(;i
Iure:rr \trrcr
\Lr.rrrJr.i,r
\,
// r t
(;RF\t C()Rll()1\\f
LtTtttacoR)totla\
t,r,ora t,t i.i,.t
ro rr irr (tr i(, ( rlI)
Pht/,t
l)l',t/o.t o,ct,rt
rr
th ,\ rr
\Lrrorl],r
r,llre.r.L
er icrL
r; -rg
Dl (1,+-;+.r)l)
Ncu Zc,rlrnJ
tt,
ot
Cormorants;
Anhingas
LN
co
Cormorants,with long necks and long bills with hooked tips, inhabit
coasts and inland wate rways over much of the world. They are large (r8
to 39 inches [45 to roo cm] long;with wingspans of the biggest species
ranging up to 5.zfeet [r.6 m]),usuallyblackish or black and white.Anhingas,
closely related to cormorants, are fresh- and brackish-water birds mostly of
CORMORANTS; ANHINGAS
49
CORNlOR/\NTS
l)irtribuliotr
Wor/d'oid,:
No o.fl-iairrg
SVttics'.19
No. o.l-Spacitt
Vt/tttrahla,
Dn,ltng:rcrl.
8, z
No.
Extirrtt
o.f
Sincc
SVui's
t6oo. r
in [8o to 97 cm);
wingspan to 4 feet [r.z m]),darkwithwhite or silverypatches, and have long
necks with long, sharply pointed bills.
Diving from the surface of lakes, rivers, lagoons, and coastal saltwater
areas, cormorants and anhingas pursue fish underwater. To propel them
rapidly through the depths, they have powerful feet set well back on the
body and webbed toes. Cormorants, which take crustaceans also, catch
food in their bills; anhingas, which also take other aquatic animals such as
small turtles, baby crocodiles, and snakes, use their sharply pointed bills to
spear their prey. Cormorants dive to at least r65 feet (5o m).They are social
birds, foraging, roosting, and nesting in groups (sometimes with hundreds
ofthousands ofindividuals);anhingas are less social and sometimes solitary.
After swimming, cormorants and anhingas are known for standing on
logs, trees, or other surfaces and spreading their wings, presumably to dry
them (they may also be warming their bodies in the sun following dives
into cold water.)
Cormorants usually breed in large colonies on islands or in isolated
mainland areas. On islands and in coastal areas, they typically nest on the
ground but sometimes on cliffb or ledges; inland, they tend to nest in trees
or bushes, often near or surrounded bywater.They are monogamous, mated
males and females sharing in nest building, incubation, and feeding young.
Usually the male chooses the nest site and brings nesting material (seaweed,
plant materials) and the female arranges it. Anhingas, also monogamous,
usually nest solitarily or in small groups, and sometimes in association with
tropical and subtropical regions.They are also large Qr to
,\\ M\(;,\S
l)i'trihtrti,tn
.,ll/ ,otr/itrtnl; , t' tltl
,'l
No,
tt
o.l
ltn t/
ir
tt
I-ii,irr,q
S2,',
i,',
-r
.\'o of'SlLiitt
I1rItt,'t tr/t/L,
)
)n,lrtttyLt,',1. o
t thoo
ct
38
5o
nl;
)ng
ter
em
Herons, Egrets,
and Bitterns
;he
rch
IAS
;to
:ial
eds
ary.
on
d.y
ves
ted
the
:ees
.ted
1n8.
:ed,
)us,
rith
rds.
are
Iing
rd's
and
the
)8s;
one
had
Sars
Tall birds standing upright and still in shallowwater or along the shore, 1)istribution.
.tering intently into the water, are usually members ofthe heron family-the Al/ contintnt.r excefl
Antarctica
H E RoN s, EGRETS, and BITTERNs.These are beautiful, medium to
rrge wading birds that occur throughout temperate and tropical regions of No. ofLioin.q
Spccies: Q1
:orh hemispheres.The family,Ardeidae, has about sixty species;it is included
i:r order Ciconiiformes,with the ibises, spoonbills, and storks. Herons and No. of Specics
Vulnerab/e,
..:rets are very similar,but egrets tend to be allwhite and have longer nuptial
Dndangarttd. 5, j
:iumes-special, long feathers-than the darker-colored herons. Bitterns
No. oJ-Speciat Extinct
=ie elusive, mainly heavily streaked birds that most often prowl dense Since t6oo: z or j
::arsh vegetation.
Herons and egrets have slender bodies,long necks (often coiled when
:erched or still, producing a short-necked, hunched appearance), long,
:,,inted bills, and long legs with long toes; bittern necks are shorter.They
:.nqe in size from r to 4.5 feet (o.3 to r.4 m), and some have wingspans
:i-rt approach 6.5 feet (z m). Most are attired in soft shades of brown, blue,
.-l-, and black and white. Many are exquisitely marked with small colored
:.rtches offacial skin or broad areas ofspots, bars, or streaks (such as in the
i i:terns and tiger-herons). S ome species during breeding have a few nuptial
:-umes trailing down from the head, neck, chest, or back.The male and
:inile look alike, or nearly so.
Herons and egrets frequent all sorts of aquatic habitats: along rivers and
.:e ams, in marshes and swamps, and along lake and ocean shorelines. Many
'-nd most of their foraging time standing motionless in or adjacent to the
BITTERNS
5I
IM!1
BOAT.BILLED HERON
SNOWY EGRET
C oth I tati
E&fttta tbula
toth leari us
r75-uoin(45-5rcm)
Central America, South America
CAl..ILE ECRET
Bubutus ibis
18-z: in (46 56 cra)
Worldwide
- z7 in (48 68 cm)
North Arnerica. Sourh Anlericd
19
YELLOW-CROWN ED NIGHT-HERON
Nltlanasta dolatea
zo-z7,5in (5r
AMERICAN BITTERN
Botaurus lentiginosus
7o cm)
zu
n*
r'
GRAY H ERON
lrdea cinerea
lj.5-J8 5 in (9o-98 cm)
Africa, Eurasia
LITTLE BITTERN
Ixobrytbw minulut
ro 5-r4 in (27-j6 cm)
Aliica, Eurasia,Australia
POND.HERON
idae
18 -; in (47 crn)
Madagascar, Africa
NIADAGASCAR
P]ED HERON
,{rdeola
Egretta?icqta
r7-zr 5 in (43-5-; crn)
Australia, New Guinea,
IndoLresia
distance.Then, in
BITTERNS
53
\vooD s1'oRx
,Vv/elid nneritdnd
l2 j 40 in (8j ro: cm)
h-orth Amcricir. South ArDer ici
IAB] RI]
Jabiru tty,teria
;r
6o in
(rz9
15z
cm)
Sourh Arnerica
YELLOW.BlLLED
SADDLE-BILLED
STORK
Myncria ibit
375-4r 5in (95-ro5cm)
Dphippiothy nch u s v
n egt len
Afric:r, Nladagascrr
Africa
STORK
it
Ciconia e2isroTut
SHOEBlLL
HANIERKOP
Balaenirc4s rex
Sco?uJ ufrtbre/ta
in (rzo cm)
Atiic a
Atiica,
.17
19
zz
in
(5o
56
Nladagascar,
cm)
-\rrbia
Storks; Shocbill;
Hamcrkop
as
in herons, and
because ofthe legends of storks delivering newborn babies. Such stories have
eristed for 5oo years or more and are traceable to northern Europe, where
the EuropeanWhite Storkoften nests on rooftops and is one ofthe region's
most famous and celebrated birds.
Most storks are white with black wing patches, but some are predominantly dark and many have patches of red or yellow on head, bill, andl
or legs. Africas Marabou, the largest, stands up to 5 feet (r.5 m) tall and has
a rvingspan up to 9.5 feet (2.9 m), placing it among the largest flying birds.
-\notherAfrican species,Abdims Stork,is the smallest, at only3o inches (75
cm). Male and female storks look similar, but males are often a bit larger.
Storks feed bywalking slowly through shallowwater or damp fields and
marshy areas looking for suitable prey, essentially anything that moves: small
rodents, young birds, frogs, reptiles, fish, earthworms, mollusks, crustaceans,
and insects. Food is grabbed
55
Di.r/ ribution:
A// rcntinrilts
cxcL,?/
Anturdicn
No.
ofLiring
Spttie.r. t9
No. oJ-Spatics
Vr lnerahlc,
Endongeril: 2,3
No
Si
of'Spuias
ntt 16oo o
Exlirtct
Dislrihution:
nl ra//|Jiiru
Ce
No.
ofLiting
Spcc i ct: r
No. o.f-Spetics
Vulnerahle,
Endangercd: o, o
No. of Specics
Extinct
t6oo:
Sincc
HAM!]RKOP
Distrihution.
Africa, Madago.var,
/lrnhia
No
o.f
Liring
Speciu:
No. oJ'Spccias
Vu/ntra hle ,
Endangan'd: o, o
No. of Specia;
Sinca
Iixtinrt
r6oo. o
Some use their long pointed bills as daggers to impale fish. African and
Asian Openbill Storks have specially shaped bills they use to open the shells
56
Id
ls
L.
tS
te
Ibises and
Spoonbills
)n
re
rd
ar
)n
)g
"rs
:h
rd
wading birds that, although a bit alien to most Americans, are quite common 11 l/ ron tinen t.;,:xccpt
and conspicuous in many parts of the world. There are a total, of twenty-six llrtt a rctica
ibis species and six spoonbills (together comprising familyThreskiornithidae; No. ol-Living
le
ES
to
rk
3r,
n,
are largish,
strange-looking,long-legged
Distribution.
in order Ciconiiformes, along with herons and storks).They are globally Spacics jj
distributed, but only four species occur in the United States, all but one of No. of'Spacies
them mainly in eastern coastal regions.The anatomical feature that renders Vrr lncrah/c,
Dnlangerel: t, 6
the appearance of these birds strange, and allows one to rapidly distinguish
them from other large waders, is the bill: very long, thin, and down-curved No oJ'Speciu Dxtinct
Sinrc 16oo: o
in ibises;long and expanded at the end like a flattened spoon in spoonbills.
These are medium to large birds, zo to 43 inches (5o to rro cm) long;the
largest have wingspans of up to 4. 4 feet $ 35m). Most ibises are white, brown,
or blackish, often with a glossy patch on the wings, and have bare heads. Most
spoonbills are all or mainlywhite.As with manyotherbirds adapted to walk
and feed in swamps, marshes, wet fields, and along waterways, ibises and
spoonbills have long legs and very long toes that distribute the birds'weight,
allowing them to walk among marsh plants and across floating vegetation
without sinking.Within a species male and female ibises and spoonbills look
alike. Although the two groups look different because oftheir bills, they are
very closely related; there have even been instances of an ibis mating with a
spoonbill and producing hybrid young.
Ibises and spoonbills are day-active gregarious birds that feed in marshes,
swamps, coastal lagoons, shallow bays,lakes, and mangroves. Ibises insert
57
lMM
ROSEATE SPOONtsILL
WHlI
Ajaia ajaja
Eudotinut a/but
zz-27 5in (-56-7o cm)
North Americr, South ALrerica
z7
34 in (69
a6 cm)
E IBIS
PLUMBEOT]S ]B]S
Theris tic
us
caer
/tt cens
3o i n (7r 76 cm)
South Anrerica
z8
14y
lxlxl
.f,
-:s
BRD
tsUFE.NECKED IBIS
ROYAI, SPOONB]LL
ner;tt;cN caudahtt
:E jz in (7r-8r cnt)
Plataled regia
Thret
z9 joio(7q 76ctt)
:j
South Americ;r
Australlsia. Indonesia
SACRED IBIS
Thre s k
iornis
a e th
ioVi
ut
STRAW-NECKED IBIS
HADADA IBIS
Bottrythia hogcdasb
:5 5-;7 in (65-r45 cm)
35
iorn is rpin
in (59
ico
I li t
89 cm)
>
their long bills into soft mud and poke about for insects, snails, crabs, frogs,
or tadpoles. Apparently they feed by touch, not vision; whatever the bill
contacts that feels like food is grabbed and swallowed. Spoonbills also feed
by touch,lowering their bills into the water and sweeping them from side
to side, stirring up the mud, then grabbing fish, frogs, snails, or crustaceans
that they contact. Ibises and spoonbills are monogamous breeders, nesting
in colonies or solitarily.They make stick nests, sometimes mixed with green
vegetation, in bushes, trees, or reed beds.
59
A,
&q
T
GREATER FLANIINCO
Phoeiliio?/crL[ rLtbu
47 in (rzo crn)
CHII,EAN FLA}lINCO
Phoen i cop/eru tbi /e nsis
4r 5 in (ro5 crl)
Sourh Arnerica
West Indies
LESSER FLA}lINGO
Phoeniconaias
ninor
3r
HORNED SCREAMER
t'lnhima cot nuta
(84- 94 crn)
33 -37 i n
South America
SOUl'IIERN SCREANIER
Chauna torquata
jz 5-375 in (8j-95 crn)
Sourh Anrerica
Flamingos;
Screamers
\
Approaching remote lakes in some parts ofthe world, one may be bewildered
when, from afar,it appears as if the water is covered by a pink froth. As the
lake is neared, bewilderment turns to wonder as the froth is revealed to be
dense concentrations oflarge,slender,pinkwadingbirds,r lau I N co s.The
five species offlamingos (family Phoenicopteridae) have a broad but highly
specialized distribution, occurring in parts ofMexico, the Caribbean, South
America, and the OldWorld,but only in shallowlakes,lagoons, or estuaries
with very high salt concentrations or those that are strongly alkaline. The
'American Flamingo" occurs naturally in various parts of the United States
but does not breed here; it is actually a subspecies of the Greater Flamingo,
the world's most widely distributed species (which occurs in both the Old
andNewWorlds).
Flamingos have long necks, long legs, and heavy, black-tipped,
conspicuously down-curved bills.The sexes look the same, but males are
often a bit larger. They stand T to 59 inches (S5 to r5o cm) tall and are pink,
pink and crimson, or pink and white.The Greater Flamingo, a shocking
pink, is the largest and pinkest of the group.
Aside from their striking coloration and long-legged beaury flamingos
are best known for their filter feeding. A flamingo eats by lowering its bill into
the water, resting it upside down on the bottom, and sucking in water, mud,
and bottom debris.The materials are pushed through comblike billfilters,
which catch the flamingo's meal: tiny crustaceans such as brine shrimp.Th.
flamingos'food explains their choice of habitats, as salty or brackish waters
FLAMINGoS;SCREAMERS
6I
Distribution;
continents except
-41/
,4
t ra I i a,
An tarc ti ca
No. aJ'Ltuing
Species:5
No. of Species
Vulnerable,
Endangered. r, o
usually have high densities of tiny invertebrate animals. Flamingos are highly
social, occurring sometimes,where they have healthy populations, in groups
'i",,')),i),',
Neotropics
No. of Liring
Spctits:,1
No. oJ-STccicr
Vu lnerab/c,
l')ndangercd: o, o
o.f'52etics
Dxtinct
Since
t(too: o
6z
rly
IPS
ht.
lch
lhe
Ducks,Geese,
and Swans
ialt
IVC
:ed
ent
ud,
.ith
>tal
I)
,ith
Wor/datile
No of'|,i.-ing
rily,
'om
Sptrit:
mp
has
in captivity.
S everal species have been domesticated for thousands ofyears.The Muscovy
Duck, native to South America, in its domesticated form is a common
:ermvard inhabitant in many parts of the world, including Africa, and white
-domestic ducks" (there are other color forms as well) are descendants of the
-\ I allard, the world's most abundant wild duck. Wild ducks adjust well to the
::oximity of people, to the point of taking food from them, a behavior that
ion,
i.rds,
lish
Lela,
can
hof
Hunting
)ern
:rder
for
ong
:e
in
le
of
:ned
98os
SwANS
63
is
rih trti
tt:
t57
No oJ'Spetiu
Vu/nerah/c,
Entlongered. tq,
No. of S2atiet
Sinrc 16oo:
r:
Iixtintr
B]
L)
n,*
r: :r
N or
oi.ygn a
n (4j
t ut wn n t I i :
-;3
crrL)
th Americir.
Sou
}IUSCO\ Y DUCK
Cairinu tnotthtta
;3 ir (66 34 crr)
Cenrral,\nericr, SoutL Anrcrica
:6
rh l\merica
+ffi
IORREN I DIJCK
-Vtrgdn!11n nt iltd/d
L;, rr (45 cnr)
South Americr
Sorrtlr Amerier
,+"r_+-*
PI N,{ TEAL
ECIP'Ir\aioosll
,4ilntlrtd
r6
-;
in (42 cm)
r\merica
SoLtth
CO]] B DUC
Af ric.t
Sourir
Pltr
Siili li tt ti i t nt r/t
:: zq i in (;6 -;
t1
tol
cnr)
r\rrericr,,\fr
-:
TRUMPEf'ER SWAN
GREATER WHITE-FRONTED
Cygnut buttinalor
59 7r in (r5o r8o cLn)
Anser a/biJrons
Chen cdnagirus
z6-3-5 in
Norrh Arreric'r
GOOSE
ENTPEROR COOSE
(66
89 crn)
Ahska, Siberia
I
F
rr iLrlrvlrtaN coosr)
,:i
t;anrloirertit
:'
rn
(,6
CON]NION !IERCANSER
Mergttt ncrganstr
:3-:6 in (58-66
7r crr)
WOOD D I]C
cnr)
TUFTED DUCK
A.1trh.ya
f)r/iyrlu
5 rt;
in (1o-47cnL)
Eurasirt, Alire a
15
RED}{E]\D
,4))lhyi nilttridnd
r; 5 -:z
(4o
North \nrerrca
,4ix sponut
r;-zo in (43-;r cm)
1r-orth Anrerior
-56
N]ASKED DTICK
crn)
Oxyurt loruitir a
r.1in (3o- j6 cm)
Ccntrrl Arnericl, Sr)Lrrh Amcricr
\Vest Indies
r:
l-
-{f
}IAGPIE (]OOSE
Anstratos wni?nlntula
BLACK
CIPI] BARREN
S\\'AT..
5 in (7o 9o cro)
Ausrralil- Nerv (luinea
:75-j5
,+l
CLt
5 jj in (rro-r4o crn)
H/\RDHEAD
RADI;\H SI]ELI)UCK
CREE\ PY(;II\
,4y/ltv aurtrr/ir
7)tlot na rodfah
Ncttaptrs
r9 in (4E crn)
zo-z.1in(5r
;\usrr rliir
6r crn)
Ausrralia, Nerv (luiLrea
GOOSE
opti r noi,arholla nd ia t
:9 5- 19 5 in (7-5-roo cm)
ALrsrr rlia
C_\'{ilt$ ttlrtltils
COOST]
7tt/,htlhu
rz-14in (3o-36 cLn)
,\rrstralir, Nov (luiner
CAPE SIIoTELER
:o 5 in (;: rrn)
Atiicr
!o
5.5
preponderance within the group of grays and browns, and black and white,
but many have at least small patches of bright color.In some species male
and female lookalike,but in others there are differences; in the ducks,males
are
in or near the water. They eat aquatic plants or small fish, but some forage on
land for seeds and other plant materials. Many of the rypical ducks are divided
into divers and dabblers. Diving ducks, such as mergansers, scoters, scaups,
and goldeneye, plunge underwater for their food; dabblers, such as pintails,
shovelers, wigeon, teal, and the Mallard, take food from the surface of the
water or put their heads down into the water to reach food at shallow depths.
When not breeding, almost all waterfowl gather into flocks, usually of their
own species but sometimes mixed. Small ducks fly in clumps,larger ones in
lines, and geese and swans in V-formations.
Ducks place their nests on the ground in thickvegetation, in tree holes
or rock crevices, or on the water surface.Typically nests are lined with downy
feathers that the female plucks from her own breast.In many of the ducks,
females perform most of the breeding duties, including incubation and
shepherding and protecting the ducklings. Some of these birds, particularly
among the geese and swans, have lifelong bonds, and male and female share
equallyinbreeding duties.Young are able to run,swim, and feed themselves
soon after they hatch.
Waterfowl populations are much affected bythe draining ofwetlands (for
agriculture or development) and water pollution. Most species are abundant,
their populations secure, but a few are currently rare or endangered.The only
critically endangered duck in the NewWorld is the BruzTlian Merganser,
with a population of only several hundred.Two species endemic to Hawaii,
the Nene (Hawaiian Goose) and Hawaiian Duck, have been severely
reduced through predation by introduced mongooses, cats, and rats, along
with hunting and habitat loss; the duck, very closely related to Mallards,
is endangered, and the goose, even after intensive conservation efforts, is
still vulnerable.
67
I URKEY IULI(]RD
BLACI( VULf(]RE
Coilg.l,ft ttlrdlt/t
r: :- in (t6-6S crn)
\orrlr ,\rner ica, Sourlr Arner icr
:; ;: i n (61 Sr crr)
Norrh ArrLcricr, SoLttlr /\ntcricr
f,]NG VL]Ll'L]
RE
Stnoritnif)LtLi ?iln
:S 1: iI l-r-Er ct|)
Centrrl \mer
Lc,r.
Srnrtlr,\rre) i.i
,\\L)1.\\ ( ()\Da)R
lli;rt yr.1,2/,t,t
l! t jr in lroo rlo.llrl
SoLrth \rrrcr ic,r
NcwWorld Vultures
Dist rihution:
Nctt
v u LT u R E s are
WORLD VULTURES
69
No
World
of-l-i,Lting
Spatias: 7
No. of'STeties
Vulntruble,
Enlttngcred. o, r
No. of Speties Extinct
Sinrc 16oo: o
animals); their ingestion of poisonous lead shot from the carcasses they
fed on; and the thinning of their eggshells owing to the accumulation of
pesticides (o or ) in their bodies.The last few free-ranging individuals were
caught during the mid-r98os in southern Californian for use in captive
breeding programs.The total captive population is now more than one
hundred, and several have been released back into the wild in California
and Arizona, with varying success. The Andean Condor has undergone
considerable population declines (for similar reasons) and is now rare in its
high Andean habitats.
7o
v,
i,
e
v
S.
il
d
S,
Hawks, Eagles,
and Kitcs; Orprey;
Secrctatybird
rs
U
b
,f
rt
No ofLiting
Spccics: zq6
vultures.The approximately
235
OldWorld
v
d
,f
,e
e
e
a
e
:S
lilor/duid,:
l)ittribution.
IIAWKS, EAGLES,
AND KITES
Accipitrids vary considerably in size and coloring, but all are similar in
form-fierce-looking birds with hooked, pointed bills, and powerful feet
with hooked, sharp claws (talons). They vary in size from South America's
tiny Pearl Kite, at about ro inches (r5 cm) and with a wingspan of zr inches (53
cm),to large eagles andvultures up to 4.9 feet (r.5 m) longthatweighup to 13
pounds (6 kg) and z6 pounds (rz kg),respectively;the Himalayan Griffon has
the longestwingspan, about ro feet (3 m). Female accipitrids are usuallylarger
than males. Most species are gray, brown, black, white, or a combination of
those colors, usually with brown or black spots, streaks, or bars on various
parts.The plumage of these birds is quite beautiful when viewed close-up,
which, unfortunately, is difficult to do. Males and females are usually alike in
color pattern. A number of species have conspicuous crests.
Many accipitrids are birds ofopen areas, above which they soar during the
7I
Na
ofSpecier
Vulnttrable,
lindangeral:
t:, t:
No. of Spccitr
Dxtinct
Sinre
t6oo:
CNPE VUL'II]RI
(hP
'oli tlfurtl
4;; in iro
Cit,
r-;
nt)
\f
,\t]G{]R BL ZZAI{D
l:lt/.., t.:|.1!1,
:r;:;;ir(;;
rtt trtn
rg ;
ric:r
ir ot
tts
ir (++-+l c,r)
IrRICI \ CllO\\'\
E1) EAC LE
6ocnr)
\triLa
{tr
ice
\
,
D RK ( LIA\11N(]
,llt/icrtr rt/altt,,
L- -; iLr t+; c r)
-\tr icr
COSH \\VK
sECRE]'\RYtsI1ID
,\'t,tlitt,tt itrt ;tt 7tntnt irr;
.19-;9 in (r:; r;ocnr)
OSPREY
GOLDEN EAGLE
NORTHERN GOSHAWK
Pandion haliaetus
Aquila chrlsaetot
z9 5-j5 5 in (75-9o cm)
,4tipiter genti/is
19 z7 in (48 - 68 cm)
:3 in (58 cm)
Worldwide
B.
SHORT.TAILED
SWA]NSON,SHAWK
Buteo
tuaintoni
Buteo brachlurut
19
in (48-56 cm)
r4 5-rg in
zz
North
(tl
HAWK
+6 cm)
Norrh America, Soutlr America
BROAD-WINGED HAWK
Buteo
?latyterut
135 175in(34-44cm)
North America, South America
WHITE-TAILED KITE
E/anut leucurus
SNAI L KITE
Rostrhamur pciabilit
r5
17 5
in
(4o
-45 cm)
Florida, Cuba
W H
ITE
HARPY EACLE
Hdr?;n har?l)ja
35-41 5 in (89 ro5 crn)
Central Arnerica, Scuth America
HAWK
Le ucol tern is a/ b io // is
5 :o in (47 5r cm)
Cential Amer-rca. Sourh Arner-rca
r8
CRESTED COSHA!\/K
Acci?ler triairqdtut
r.1
r8 in
(3;-46
Sourhern Asia
S
WHISTLING
SoLrthern A'i:r,
,i
\1/EDCE-TAILED EAGLE
Aquila ar,lax
3:-4r
iLr
r\ust
:rliir,
KITE
Haliastrr tphenurus
zo z3 in (5r-59 crn)
Australir. Nerv (]uiner
(tr-ro.1 cnr)
Nel, Guincn
t't)'' -
SPOI"fED HARR]ER
Cirtut a*itnilis
19 5 :4 in (-;o - 6r cm)
Australir. Jndonesir
cm)
E
/
l*r*
meat-eaters. Most hunt and eat live prey, but many will also eat carrion.
They usually hunt alone, although, when mated, the mate is often close by'
Ilost take mainlyvertebrate animals, including some larger items such as
large rodents, rabbits, monkeys, and, in Australia, even small kangaroos. A
number of species specialize on reptiles, including snakes. Some, such as the
Bald Eagle, eat fish. About fifty species exist solely or largely on insects, and
some at least occasionally eat fruit. Prey is snatched with talons first, then
killed and ripped apart with the bill. Many raptors are territorial, solitary
individuals or breeding pairs defending an areafor feeding and, during the
breeding season, for reproduction. Displays that advertise a territory and
mavbe used in courtship consist of spectacular aerial twists,loops, and other
,rcrobatic maneuvers.
Nests are constructed of sticks that both sexes Place in a tree or on a rock
ledge.Usuallyonlythe female incubates andgives food to the nestlings.The
n-rale hunts, bringing food to the nest for the female and for her to provide
to nestlings. Both sexes feed the young when they get a bit older; they can
nrst fly at +to more than r5 weeks of age, depending on sPecies size. After
rledging,young remain with the parents for several more weeks or months
'rntil they can hunt on their own.
Atthough many raptors are common birds, they tend to occur at low
densities. Most species are secure, but some are threatened by habitat
Jestruction, and large raptors such as eagles are Persecuted by ranchers for
ellegedly kilting livestock. Conservation is difficult because raptors roam
r-en'large areas, some breeding and wintering on different continents, and
:or many, insufficient information exists about their ecology and behavior.
Globally, twenty-two accipitrids are I'ulnerable; four are endangered; and
ight are critically endangered.
Two accipitrid relatives are the oSpREy (family Pandionidae,with one
.pecies), alarge (zz inches [S6 cm]) fish-eating raPtor of coastal areas and
.ome inland lakes and rivers that occurs worldwide; and the long-legged
sECRETARyrlno (family Sagittariidae, with one species), a terrestrial
-\trican eagle (to 59 inches [r5o cm]) that strides about open grassland and
i.1\'annas, foraging for its prey of rodents, insects, and small rePtiles.
SECRETARYBIRD
75
oSPRIiY
Dit/ rihrr/iotr
l/
to tt
ti tt,' tt l.t,'
xtilt
No,Lf'l.ii'itrt
SpttiLr t
-\',,,,..'S7t,iLt
l'rr/tttrnItlt,
):rt,lottgtrL,l. o, o
,\'/o.
o.f',\1,
iLr
SitttL t(tctL>
S I.lC R
l:rl
ittct
,-t
fl'l;\ li
Y B I t{ 1)
h-
S'
h tr t rr
tt
/ f)
t.r
lt'o of-Lirirt,1
Sy'r'r
i",
.Yo ol'.\2,',itt
I'tr/tttr rtblL,
llttdn
No
tt,gLrL,l.
o,
o.f'SpL; i ;1 L)
Slrrc r(roo
ct
t," tt t/
-2CRESTED CARACARA
BLACK CARACARA
I-AUGHINC FALCON
Pollborrs 2lancus
r9 5 z3 in 149 59 crn)
NorrJr Arnerica, South America
Dd?triilt
16
rE
dt?]
in (4r-4; cm)
Sourh Americr
APLOIIADO FA]-CON
PEREGR]NE FA]-CON
Ie rpe lo
r7
thtre.r t achi
zr in
(45
-53
n na n
crn)
GYREALCON
Falco
14
2cregrintts
r3 5-r9 5 in (3.1-;o crn)
Worldu,idc
5-175 in (;7-+S."r)
19
z3
in (,1E-6o cm)
G^
COLLARED FALCONET
NANKEEN KESTREL
Falo centhroides
n s
r4-15
Aliicr
in (j5-39 crn)
rz
r.1io
(3o
35
cm)
Falcons
smaller birds out of the air, have long had close relationships with people.
Falconry, in which captive falcons are trained to hunt and kill gzme at a
Distribution:
Al/ continents except
Antarctica
No. ofLiaing
Species: 6t
No. of Specier
Kestrel,
as
well
as the "true" falcons. Some have very broad distributions; at the extreme,
the Peregrine Falcon is found globally, enjoying the most extensive natural
FALCONS
77
Vulnerable,
Endangered:4, o
No. of Species
Since 16oo'
Extinct
useful for their fast, aerial pursuit and capture offlying birds: they are
birdhawks. Most people are familiar with stories of Peregrines diving
through the atmosphere (called stooping) at speeds aboye roo mph (16o
kph) to stun, grab, or knock from the sky an unsuspecting bird. But some
falcons eat more rodents than birds, and some even take insects. For example,
the small kestrels perch on trees, rocks, or wires, scanning the ground for
large insects or small mammals, birds,lizards, or snakes. Kestrels also have
the ability to hover over a site where prey has been sighted. Some falcons
specialize on particular prey. Latin America's Laughing F alcon, a bird of
open fields and forest edge, specializes on snakes. After grabbing its dinner,
it immediatelybites offthe head, a smart move because it even takes highly
venomous snakes.Another species specializes on catchingbats on thewing
at dawn and dusk. Caracaras, slow flyers, have long legs and often forage by
walking on the ground; some forest dwellers consume mainlywasps and
fruit. Forest-falcons perch motionless for long periods on tree branches,
waiting to ambush prey such as birds and lizards. Falcons usually live and
hunt alone or in solitary pairs.
Falcons nest on cliffedges, in rock cavities, in tree hollows, or in old
stick nests of other birds; some make a stick nest, others apparently make
no construction. In most, the male hunts for and feeds the female while
she lays eggs and incubates them; both sexes feed nestlings. The parents
continue to feed the youngsters for several weeks after fledging until they are
proficient hunters.
Four falcon species are considered r,ulnerable, three of them Old World
kestrels; no falcons are currently endangered. Only one New World species
may be at risk, southern South America's Striated Caracara.Conservation of
falcons and other raptors is difficult because the birds are often persecuted for a
number of reasons (hunting, pet trade, ranchers protecting livestock), and they
roam verylarge areas. Peregrine Falcons disappeared from the eastern United
States by the mid-r97os, a consequence mainly of decades of exposure to
pesticides like D D T , which caused their eggshells to thin and break. After o o r
7B
re
o
'b
ro
M.gapodes
IC
.e,
)r
te
IS
cf
)f,
ly
rg
)y
rd
]S,
rd
ld
ke
le
Lts
.re
1d
CS
of
ra
ey
ed
to
)T
SC
rle
ey
in
The
l)irtrihtr/iott
tr
M EGAPODE
NIALLEEFOWL
ORANCE-FOOTED SCRUBFOWL
Megapodius reinuardt
Leipoa orellata
z3 5 in (6o cnr)
I4 r8 5 in (35-47 cnr)
Ausrralia, New Guinea. Indonesia
Australia
5-275in(60-70cm)
Austrelia
MALEO
Macrocephalon malco
zr 5 in (55 cm)
Sularvesi
crubfowl
its population declining, mainly from habitat loss and predation on adults
and eggs by foxes.The Polynesian Megapode, endemic to Tonga, and the
MEGAPODES
8r
SCALY-BREASTED PARTRIDCE
,4rbot oThila chloroput
rz in (3o crn)
roin(:5crn)
Sourheasr,{sia
Borneo
S]Lf ER P]I!ASAN I
RED ]UNCLEFO\YL
()a/lrrt gal/ut
Lo?hurn n_\'ith!nttm
2.1-47 in
SorLrheast
(6r-rzo
cm)
16
Asin
i-:9 ;
SoLrthcr n
in (1.
Asia
;;
crr)
GREAT ARCUS
,4rgurhnut argrt
28
78
iD
(7:
zoo crn)
Southcast Asia
LoVhura ignita
ro in (26 crn)
Sourheest
Asil
CRESTED ElREBAC(
Sourhelst Asia
7o cnr)
PheasantS,
Partridges,
and Grouse;
Buttonquatl
America's
p H EA
ANT
s,
pA RT
ID
GE
s, c R o u s e, and P TA R M I GA N
are not generally considered real beauties, being known more as drab brown
PHEASANTS AND
PARTRIDGES
Distribution:
a natural
striking larger birds, chiefly among the pheasants,like the Silver Pheasant,
Crested Fireback, and Common Peafowl illustrated here.The most historically
(and gastronomically) significant, if usually unheralded, member of the group
is Asia's
r55 species,
chickenlike bills; and short or long tails, some of the pheasants having tails
to 5 feet (r.S -) long. Some small quails, such as the Harlequin Qrail, are
only about 6 inches (r5 cm) long. Many species, particularly among the
pheasants, are exquisitely marked with bright colors and intricate patterns,
83
Old World
No. of Liring
Specie.r: t15
No. of Sptcies
Vu/nerable,
Endangered:
No.
oJ'Species
Since
r6oo:3
jz,
Extinct
NON-BRD
-4'
RUFFED GROUSE
SPRUCE GROUSD
ROCK PTARMIGAN
Bonasa umbel/us
h-a I cipenni s
Ldgo?us mulut
r3-r-5 in (33-38 cm)
17-19 in
(4j
48 cm)
North America
r5 rTin (38 4j
cm)
N-orth America
NON-BRD
BLUE GROUSE
CH UKAR
Dendrugapus olttrurut
Lagopus /eucurus
A/eclori,:hukar
in (3: cm)
-yNorth America
12
17
zz 5io (++
S7.-)
North America
KAL]J PHEASANT
Lophura leucomelanot
19 5 :9 in (5o 74 cm)
Southern Asia
rz
5-rvj
in
(3:
Sourhern Asia
CONTTlON PEAFOWL
Pavo ffistatus
35
5-9o
Southern Asia
39 cm)
!,
r4 in (35 cm)
RED-BILLED FRANCOLIN
Frant o / i n u t a ds1> er s us
13-15 in (3j-38 cm)
Southern Asia
Africa
BLACK FRANCOLIN
Fra
nco
lin usfranc o I in us
HARLEQUIN QUAIL
Coturnix delegorguei
CRAY-WINGED FRANCOLTN
Francolinut africanus
YELLOW-NECKED SPURFOWL
rz 5 in (32 cm)
Africa
Africa
Ftan
co
/i n u s
BROWN QUAIL
Coturnix ypsilophora
8
in (zo cm)
/e
ut
o s c eb u
in (r8 cm)
BARRED BUTTONQUAIL
Turnix suscitator
6 5 in (16 cm)
Southern Asia
cRot)s!l
Dis/r ihtr/iorr
Nor/h/lntt
ica,
liu nrrio
No of'Liuitt,{
12,'r:i,'r'r,9
No ol SptiL;
l/ulrtct trh/t,
EnlotrgLttl. t, t
t\o
of',\5,t,
itr
ll^-t
intt
Sitttt r6oo
ll
r.t
-t'o N (lU /\ I L
Ditt rihrrtiort:
.4f iirr, torrt/ttrrt ,4:iu,
tIu
tl ru /i tt
No o.f'l,ittittg
SpLtiLt: t(t
No ol Sltcict
14r
l.)
rt
ltr
/rt,
rt,,4t
nr h1,',
rti. t,
No o/ Si1>trtts I',.ttitt,t
Sitttt thcto.
and conspicuous crests are common.The long tails of male peafowl (the
peacock) are among nature's most ornate and colorful constructions. Other
species are dully colored.The sexes can look alike or different; males are often
The females incubate eggs and rearyoung by themselves. Nests are placed on
the ground, either in a bare scrape or perhaps one lined with leaves or grass.
Young are born covered with downy feathers and are soon ready to leave the
nest, follow parents, and feed themselves.
In the grouse family, one species is r,ulnerable and one, the Gunnison
Sage Grouse (restricted to Colorado and Utah), is endangered.Within the
pheasants and partridges, more than thirty species are r,.ulnerable and nine
are endangered. About half of these are pheasants, which all occur in Asia.
Because they are forest birds at a time when Asian forests are increasingly
being cleared, and because they are desirable game birds, the large, shor.r,y
pheasants will remain a conservation problem for some time.
B urroNeuAI r looklike small quail but differ in foot structure, in
having more pointed wings, and because males are considerably smaller than
females.The group is actually more closelyrelated to rails and cranes than to
any ofthe quails, and, indeed, the small buttonquail family (Turnicidae,with
sixteen species) is included in the raillcrane order, Gruiformes. Buttonquail,
which occur in Africa, southern Asia, and Australia, inhabit grassy areas,
eating grass seeds and small insects from the ground. Breeding behavior is
peculiar in that many of the roles of the sexes are reversed, and one female
mates with several males (polyandry).Two buttonquail species are urlnerable
and one, in Australia, is endangered.
86
:IC
.er
en
NcwWorldQuail
:re
be
ler
en
rce
of
eir
fly
US,
\ E w wo R LD euAI
ES,
Central, and South America, are included in order Galliformes with other,
.rmilar birds-pheasants, partridges, grouse, guineafowl, and turkeys. The
-milv, Odontophoridae, has thirty-one species, variously called quail,
::ee-quail, wood-quail, wood-partridges, and bobwhites. M any are drably
;trlored-various shades of brown and gray with black and white spots and
.:reaks, colors and patterns that serve them well as camouflage in their on:re-ground lifestyles. But some have exquisitely marked faces and heads,
:he iormer detailed with fine dark and light stripes, the latter equipped
',rith conspicuous crests. It is for these often perky crests (along with their
:eputation as important game birds), in such common species as California
,es.
on
tSS.
:he
on
.he
i,ne
;ia.
glv
wy
,l[
ran
lto
ith
ail,
)as,
ris
ale
ble
Qrail, Gambel's Qrail, and Mountain Qrail, that this group is probably best
s.nown in North America.
NewWorld quail have stocky, compact bodies with short necks; short,
:road wings; short, strong legs; and short, thick, slightly down-curved bills.
\ Iost have short tails.They range in size from 6.5 to r4.5 inches ft7 to 37 cm),
:he largest being Mexico's Long-tailedTiee-quail.The sexes can look alike
,rr different.
Qrail are terrestrial birds that feed and nest on the ground. Most flights
:.re very briee but over short distances, such as when making a quick escape
from a predator or a hunter, these birds are powerful, swift flyers.In fact,
one of their main defenses is the speed with which they can take flight.
\\'hen approached, they initially hide and remain motionless, but then make
87
i;tribtt/ iott.
Neu [,[/or/t/
No. of
Lititrp
.it
S1tcie:
No ol
57,:cit.t
/n,:nrh/t,
Endan,ryrc,l. q, t
[4r
No.
o.f- SVIL
Since
t(too
t;
L,rt i nct
POTTED-BELLIED
Co/inut leuropogon
E 5 in (zz cm)
CeLr tral America
S
BOBWHITE
NORTHERN BOBWHITE
SCALED QTIAIL
Callipepla tquamata
Colinus tirginianus
95
in (24 cm)
ro io
North Arnerica
,.t,
CAMBEL,S QUAlL
Callipcp/a gambelii
CALIIORN]A QUAIL
Callilcpla calfurnica
ro in (25 cnr)
ro in (:5 cm)
Norrh America
Norrh America
SINGIN-C QUAIL
d r
4t I a r 4t x t h a rd.i r ils
NIONTEZUMA QUA]T
Clr/on)ta frontezumae
8 5
io (:z cm)
(u-5
cm)
North ALrerica
in (zz crn)
-5
North Arnerica
8
NewWorld quail occur in diverse habitats, from forest and forest edge
to savanna and open agricultural lands.They spend most of their time on
the ground, although some in Central and South America roost at night
in trees. They are mainly vegetarians, eating seeds and other plant matter
.uch as shoots, some leaves, buds, berries, roots, and tubers, but also fairly
opportunistic, taking insects and other small invertebrate animals, especially
during the breeding season.Allpeck at food but some also scratch the ground
s-ith their large feet, clearing awayvegetation and soil,looking for buried
delicacies. Most species are gregarious, traveling in small family groups,
called coveys, of up to thirty individuals, but some, such as the California
Qrail, sometimes congregate in groups of a thousand or more.
manv
89
HIGHI,AND GUAN
CHACO CHACHALACA
Ot lalis canicollis
19 5-zz in (5o-56 cm)
Penelopina nigra
z-3-25 5 in (59 65 crn)
Cenrrel Amer ica
Sourh Americr
SPECKLED CHACHALACA
SPIX S GI]AN
Orlalit guttala
r7-5-23 5in(45-6ocm)
Penclopcjtcquacu
Sourh America
SALY]N S CIIR,{SSO\1'
z6
3o
zj;-2,-in (6o
in (66-76 crn)
BA
RD-FACED CLIRA
SSO\1/
()nx.fircioluta
:9 -5-;5 in (75 t9 cm)
South,{nrericir
69 cm)
South America
29
i lt j in (;i
South r\rrerica
3S
crn)
Curassows, Guans,
and Chachalacas
c u RA s s o
w s, c uA
N s, and the
entertainingly named c H A c H A L A c A s
of the New World. Their habits are little known because, being mostly
forest birds of Central and South America that often inhabit relatively
inaccessible areas, studying them is difficult.The group is noted for the
striking handsomeness and odd head ornaments of some of the curassows
and guans; the loud morning and evening calls (sound like "cha-chaLAW-ka") of chachalaca males, which are some of the most characteristic
background sounds of tropical American forests; and the fact that, owing
to forest destruction and hunting, fully z5 percent of the fifty species in the
tamily are currently on conservation watch lists. The family, Cracidae, is
included in order Galliformes, along with other chickenlike birds such as
pheasants, partridges, quail, grouse, and turkeys.
llany
rvith gray, brown, olive, or black and white ; some appear glossy in the right
light.They typically have small patches of bright coloring such as yellow,
red, or orange on parts oftheir bills, their cheeks, or on a hanging throat sac.
)Iale Great Curassows, for instance, all black above and white below, have
a bright yellow knob on the top of the bill; and Horned Guans, also black
91
Dirtrihrrtion'
South 1'exts, Mtxiro,
Central anl Sorrlh
,tltncrica
No.
o/'Liring
Spttits:5o
No. ol'SpaciLt
Vrrlnerahle
Ertdartge rtrl: 7, 7
No
of'Sfaciat
l:rtirttt
generally similar in coloring, except for the curassows, in which females are
drabber than males.
Birds in this family tend to inhabit moist forests at low and middle
elevations. Guans and curassows are birds of deep forest, but chachalacas
prefer more open areas such as forest edges and even clearings. Guans and
chachalacas are mainly arboreal, staying high in the treetops as they pursue
their diet offruit,youngleaves, and tree buds, and the occasional frog or large
insect. For such large birds in trees, they move with surprising grace, running
Paired offduring the breeding season, members of this family rypically are
found at other times of the year tnsmall flocks of ten to twenty.
Curassows, guans, and chachalacas are monogamous breeders, the sexes
sharing nesting duties. Several of the guans are known for producing loud
whirring sounds with their wings during the breeding season, presumably
during courtship displays. A simple, open nest of twigs and leaves is placed
invegetation or in a tree.Young leave the nest soon after hatching to hide in
the surrounding vegetation, where they are fed by the parents (in contrast to
most ofthe chickenlike birds,which feed themselves after hatching). Several
days later, the fledglings can fly short distances.The family group remains
together for a time, the male leading the family around the forest.
Significant conseryation problems exist for members of this group,
especially the larger guans and curassows.They are chiefly forest birds at
time
virgin forests in Central and South America, one ofthe first chores ofworkers
is to shoot curassows for their dinner. Unfortunately, curassows reproduce
slowly, raising only small broods each year. Seven species are considered
r.ulnerable, and seven others, endangered (three of them critically so).
92
e
,e
'e
Guincafowl;
TUrkeys
IS
d
.e
'e
o
b
o
:y
1l
ow L and r u R KEys
rs
GUI
S.
EAF
own families, and some recent research supports this view.All are contained
)S
d
ly
d
n
;o
a1
ls
P,
IC
1e
le
rS
le
,d
GUTNEAFOWL;
TURKEYS
93
Distrihution
Afrim
No.
oJ'Liting
Species: 6
No. of Species
Vu/nerable,
Endangered. t, o
No. of Species
Since 16oo: o
Extinct
VULTURINE CU]NEAEOWL
Acr1, I /i
z3
Afr ica
CRESIED CUINEAFO\1
() ullcrt purhcrdn i
LS z: rn (46 ;(r crn)
Aiiica
,/
...
+-a.:t"-, ----.eT*
OCELLATED TURKEY
Mcleagris ou//ata
zE j6 in (7r 9r crn)
Central AnLerica
5-zt 5 in (6o-;:
cm)
frogs.They use their powerful legs and feet to scratch the ground in search
of food and to dig for roots and bulbs. Although reluctant to take to the air,
they invariably fly up into tree branches to sleep at night; theywill also fly to
escape predators.
cUTNEAFOWL; TURKEYS
95
TURKEYS
Distribution:
North and Central
America
No.
ofLitting
Speries; z
No. of Species
Vu/nerable,
Endangered: o, o
CRAY-NECKED WOOD-RAIL
PURPLE CALLINULE
Aramides cajanea
Por2byru/a
13-15 5 in
(3j-4o
EURASIAN COOT
martiniu
cm)
15
in (38 cm)
'E-
CLAPPER RAIL
Rallus longirotlris
rz 15 5 in (jr -4o cm)
WHITE-BREASTED WATERH
,4
ru
maurorn
rr-r3
is
2hoenirurus
in (28-33 cm)
Southern Asia
....-:_:+
PorVhyrio 2orphyrio
15 r9 5 in (j8-5o cm)
ALrstralia
PURPLE SWANlPH EN
H EN
BLACK CRAKE
A ma uro r n i t
8 5
jl a-o ir
in (zz crn)
Aliica
os /
ris
EN
Rails, Gallinules,
and Coots
\
E.
97
Distribution:
Worldztide xcept po lar
e
regrans
No. ofLioing
Specics: 134
No. of Species
Vulnerable,
Endangered: r7, t5
No. of Species
Extintt
Since 16oo: zz
among marsh plants and across floating vegetation without sinking. Species
that mainly inhabit forests or grasslands specialize on animal foods, taking
98
les
ng
Crancs
to
ISC
ny
en
:d.
rys
ral
nd
US:
tly
ter
c RAN
en
or
tic
les
)ve
en
ng
SO
s,large,long-necked,long-leggedwadingbirds,
ric
America, cranes are also recognized for their role in the emergence of the
wildlife conservation movement and remain symbols of conservation.
Cranes (fifteen species, family Gruidae; in order Gruiformes, with rails
and bustards) occur on all continents but South America and Antarctica.Two,
Sandhill andWhooping Cranes, occur in North America. Cranes range in
length from 3to 5.2 feet(o.9 to r.75 m);the largest, the Sarus Crane ofAsia and
Australia, has a wingspan up to g.z feet (2.8 m). Colored mainly gray, white,
and black, most cranes have a patch of red, naked skin on top of their head.
Bills generalTy are longish but relatively delicate, especiallywhen compared
with those ofthe similar-looking storks. Cranes have special ornamental inner
nd
ng
wing feathers that hang down over a short tail, often giving the appearance
a bustle.Within a species, male and female cranes look alike.
tre
he
[or
AS
'ey.
ric
)SS,
of
'ed
ric
slowly and steadily in water or on swamPy ground, searching for food; they
CRANES
99
Distribution:
Old World ani North
America
Na. of Ltuing
Speties: 15
No. of Species
Vulnerab/e,
Endangered: 6,3
No. of Species Extinct
Sinte 16oo. o
SANDH]LL CRANE
WHOOPING CRANE
Grut ameriana
5r-63 in (r3o 16o cm)
North America
Grut canadensis
39 5-+7in (roo-rzo
cm)
RO
LGA
Grut rubiunda
3r 5-5r in (8o-13o cm)
Australia, New Guinea
tsLUE CRAN
Ba/earica regulorum
39
5-4j 5 in (roo-rro
Africa
cm)
43
t hr
o2o
id e s para dis e a
Southern Africa
animals-just
about anything they can swallow.They are particularly attracted to graingrowing areas after harvesting, feeding in fields on grain spillage. Their
sharp bill is sometimes used as a probe, and their feet scrape out roots and
rubers of marsh plants. In some areas, following breeding, cranes gather
in great numbers. They fly with the neck fully extended, often in flocks,
and sometimes soar to great heights. Northern Hemisphere species are, in
general, highly migratory, moving to distant wintering grounds. They use
the risingwarm airofthermals to circle higher and higher on setwings,then
glide offin the appropriate migration direction to find another thermal and
repeat the maneuver. Some migrations are impressive: the Eurasian Crane
flies over the Himalayas at altitudes near33,ooo feet (ro,ooo m).
Cranes are monogamous and the same partners often remain together
for many years, returning annually to the same nestin g area. Pairs defend
territories while they breed, and they maintain their long-term pair-bond
with haunting calls and exuberant dancing. Courtship dances can include
jumping in the air, giving elaborate bows and wingspreads, and pulling up and
tossing bits of plants and soil. Pairs share breeding duties, building a bulky
mound nest ofvegetation.The young often leave the nest soon after hatching
and follow the parents; they are fed by the adults until they gradually learn
how to feed themselves.They remain with their parents for their first year,
and,where migratory, accompany the parents in their first migrations.
Owing to their large size and conspicuousness to hunters, as well as to
habitat loss, many cranes are now at risk. Six species are considered vulnerable;
three are endangered (Siberian and Red-crowned Cranes ofAsia and North
America's Whooping Crane). Efforts to save the Whooper, one ofAmerica's
most spectacular birds, have been ongoing for half a century, and the near-
CRANES
LI}I P KIN
GRAY-WINCED TRUMPETER
oe?;tdnr
Aramus guatauna
zz-zB in (56-7r crn)
P.to?b;d
South America
r/5 205in(45-52cm)
5-zo 5 in (45
5z cm)
Sourh Arncrica
RED.LECCED SERIEI{A
Cariama tristala
BLACK-LEGGED SERIEMA
Chunga burmeisteri
z7
5-33
in (7o
Sourh Arnerica
85
cm)
Limpkin;
Trumpcters;
Scriemas
Limpkins, family Aramidae, are large wading birds, smaller than cranes
but having much the same shape,with longlegs, neck, and bill. Camouflage
coloring-brown with whitish markings-renders them highly suited for
their lives among tall marsh vegetation.The single species,which ranges in
length from zz to z8 inches (56 to 7r cm), occurs from Florida to northern
Argentina. Limpkin sexes look alike.
Inhabiting marshes,ponds, swamps,riversides, and mangroves, Limpkins
eat mainly snails, but also take freshwater mussels. They forage by poking
around in shallow water, finding snails by touch, then cracking open their
shells to devour the inhabitants. Limpkins, usually monogamous, build a
nest ofleaves and twigs on the ground, in a marsh, or in trees. Parental duties
are shared. Soon after young hatch they are mobile, able to follow parents
and run from predators. By z months ofage,young can fly and can open
snails themselves.The Limpkin is common in manyparts ofits large range.
However, following decades ofintensive hunting as a game bird, Limpkins
in some areas, such as Florida and the West Indies, were at risk by the
early twentieth century, but with conservation measures, their populations
have rebounded.
are terrestrial
r03
LIMPKIN
Distribution:
Florida, West Indies,
Central and South
America
No.
ofLiving
Species:
No. of Species
Vulnerable,
Endangered: o, o
No. of Speties
Since 16oo: o
Extinct
lt{l }tt,}tt}.tts
l)it/t
i/,tr/iotr
\ctt//t:lt't, t i,,r
-\'a
r,r.t,n,',
i,'' l')rtitt,t
.-\illi,'.,0oo
rr
:l.Rlll\1.\S
l)t'lt
ii,rrtian
'\'orrlhAtnLti,rt
\c oll,ir
itt,1q
\,r,,i,':
,Yo ol '\i7t,i,'
I1t/nit rt/,li
l. tt,ltt
,\'o of
tt.;,' t,
tl r, it
S1u;i,'s f.11i11,1
Sintr'thoo
Trumpeters feed by walking along the forest floor, looking for fallen
fruits and scratchingwith their feet to stir up insects.Their flying is generally
limited to flights into trees to escape danger and to roost at night.Tiumpeters
are almost always in flocks offive to fwentyor more individuals.The breeding
of trumpeters is poorly understood. Some appear to breed in cooperative
groups, with only the dominant male and female actually nesting, the other
individuals helping.Nests are often in tree cavities.The young followparents
away from the nest soon after hatching, being fed by adults for several weeks.
None of the trumpeters are currently at risk; they apparently maintain
healthy populations in undisturbed areas ofrainforest.
The two Seriemas species (family Cariamidae) occur in central and
eastern South America.Tall,long-legged birds of open habitats, they rarely
fly, even to escape predators; instead they run or try to hide. They will fly,
however, to a high night roost or if a predator gets too close. Running for
these large birds is not an inconsiderable defense: the Red-legged Seriema
is known to speed along at more than 3o mph (5o kph). Seriemas are grayish
and brown,with hawklike heads and long necks and tails.They range in
length from z8 to 35 inches (7o to 9o cm), the Red-legged Seriema being
larger and more brightly colored than the Black-legged Seriema.
Birds ofsemiarid savanna, grasslands, and open woodlands,seriemas stalk
about, usually alone or in pairs, foraging for small animals.They take mainly
insects but also frogs,hzards, snakes, and rodents. Small prey is grabbed and
swallowed; larger items are held with the feet and ripped apart with the bill.
Breeding in seriemas is not well studied. Apparently monogamous, a pair
builds a stick nest in a tree and lines it with leaves and perhaps cattle dung.
Both parents feed the young. Neither seriema is currently at risk.
ro4
)e
)y
a
;2
,S;
al
d,
Sungrcbcs;
Sunbittern; Kagu;
Mcsitcs
IC
)d
ro
'b
n
ly
rS
The best known members oforder Gruiformes are the cranes and rails,both
r8
re
lr
tS
:S.
n
d
ty
Y,
)r
ta
h
n
rO
'b
tk
ty
[.
ir
g.
Southeast Asia. Despite the Sungrebe's name, the group is not closely related
to grebes,but are ducklike and largely aquatic. Sungrebes and finfoots swim
among the roots and overhanging leaves of thick vegetation along lakes,
rivers, and streams, where they feed on insects, snails, worms, crustaceans,
and the occasional frog.They do not dive, but instead take their food from
riverbanks and vegetation.They take cover in vegetation at the slightest
hint of danger and will "run" across the surface of the water and fly low to
escape predators.The Sungrebe and finfoots make flat nests of sticks and
reeds, often on branches ofdead trees low over the water. Parents share
r05
SUNGREBES
Distribution:
Africa, southern Asia,
Centra/ and South
America
No.
ofLiting
Species;
No. of Species
Vulnerable,
Endangered: t, o
No. of Species
Since 16oo: o
Extinct
sLINGREBE
IIASKED FINFOOT
He/iornisJulira
ro-rj io (26-33 cLr)
Central America, South Americr
He/iopais 2ertonata
17- zr 5 in (43 -55 crn)
Souttreasr Asia
SUNBITTERN
Dury2yga helias
17-175 in
(4j
45 crn)
KAG
WH]TE-BREASTED
Mesitornt oariegata
rz in (3r cm)
JlIadagascar
MESITE
some nesting duties. Males have a unique adaptation to protect their fledged
young.In
No o.l'Liting
Sp,:cicr r
No. oJ'S2ritt
htln,:ruhlt,
linfung,:rtd. o,
[55
cross between a
Kr\CU
D i:/ ri hrr tia n:
NntL
Dir/ rihtr/iort
Ot/tloniu
No of'Lit,ing
Sl,:t i,'s r
No. ol'SlLcits
Vl /n t ra h/t,
Although fightless, the Kagu often uses its wings to help move through its
forest and shrubland habitats, flapping to move faster when, for example,
running from predators.The Kagu eats only animal food, including insects,
Enlangtrtl.
o,
No
Extintt
heron and
It
oJ'Sptti,:t
Sinu 16oo
ct
share breeding duties. Nests, on the ground, are simple affairs ofleaves.The
NIHSI'I'ES
Kagu,
D i slri httion:
Muio{ustrr
No. oJ'Lit,in,q
and are brownish with lighter underparts.They eat seeds, insects, and fruit.
In the past, some of the mesites were thought to be flightless, but all can fly,
albeit weakly. Little is known about mesite breeding. A stick nest is built in
a bush, tree, or clump ofvegetation. Depending on species, the female only
or both parents incubate eggs and care for the young. Madagascar's mesites
are considered one of the world's most threatened bird families; the three
species are all vulnerable, suffering from habitat loss and degradation.
No. oJ'52,:ri,:t
Vulntrubl,:,
MESITES
IO7
Speci,:t:
-i
I)ninrtgtr,:r1.3, o
No. af'Spcticr
Since
r6oo: o
Lxtintt
AUSTRALIAN BUSTARD
,4rdeotis aus/ralis
WHITE-BELL]ED BUSTARD
E ulodo tis
en ega
r9 5-23.5 in
lensis
(5o
6o cm)
KORI BUSTARD
,4rdeotit kori
j5 5 -47 in (9o - rzo cm)
Africa
BLACK-BELLIED BUSTARD
Litrotis me/anogaster
zj 5 in (6o cm)
Africa
ELUE KORHAAN
WHITE-QUILLED BUSTARD
E upo d o ti s c aeru I e t t e ns
Eupodotis afraoides
r9 5 in (5o cm)
zr
in
(55 cm)
Southern
Aliica
Southern Africa
Bustards
as
BUSTARDS
IO9
l) i ttri h rr lio tt
O/d ll'or/J
No. ol
Lit,irrg
.!,'rl,'.r'-u.;
No. of'SVnitr
[1t /n,:rn hlL,
Etrdrtrttttttl. t,,i
broad wings, they are fairly strong fliers.To avoid detection, they often lie
female selects
male and mates, she departs and nests on her own; no pair-bonds are
formed between the sexes.The advertising displays of male bustards can be
spectacular.In southern Africa's Red-crested Bustard, a male utters a series of
increasinglyloudwhistles interspersedwith tongue clicks, then dramatically
launches himselfinto the air to a height ofperhaps 5o to 65 feet (r5 to zo m),
closes his wings, and falls back to the ground. Males of some species grow
elongated chest feathers that are puffed out during displays, briefly turning
themselves into seeming "bird balls."Males also inflate throat sacs during
displays, furthering their rounded images. After mating, a female lays eggs
in a simple depression or scrape in the ground and incubates them. Young
bustards leave the nest within a few hours but stay with the mother fo r 4to 6
weeks.In monogamous species, such as the Blue Bustard, pairs (sometimes
with offspring from previous years) live in permanently defended territories;
only females incubate, but both sexes care for the young.
Although bustards are generally in decline because of hunting and
habitat loss to agriculture, only a few are currently threatened: one species is
considered r,'ulnerable and three others, restricted to India and its environs,
are endangered.The Australian Bustard has been eliminated from some
parts ofits range by human settlement and byuse ofits grassland habitats by
sheep. Also, some bustards are in demand for training falcons to kill, notably
in the Middle East.
a
IIO
r8,
lie
Ie.
Iacanas
ht
to
.in
,ty
ed
nt
rls
rd
rlk
'ly.
9S,
lts
.re
be
of
llv
n),
)w
rg
ng
gs
ng
)6
tes
ES;
rd
;is
15,
ne
by
>ly
rail.Jacana bodies are relatively narrow, making it easier for them to push
through dense vegetation, and they have short tails (all but the Pheasant-
tailed) and rounded wings. Most have brown or blackish bodies but come
equipped with bright yellow or blue bills and red or blue foreheads; some
have striking white or yellow markings. Some species spread their wings
JACANAS
Ditt t ilrtion:
[,[/or/lui l,: tro]>i rs a n d
rtrhtt opict
No. ol-Litting
52,'ii,rs 8
No
o/ Spccic:
Vu /t t,: ra b/,:,
Enrhngcrr:tl: o
No. of Spetics Extinct
SirtLa
t6oo:
NORTHERN IACAN
6
ir (r7-zl
cLr)
tsRONZE.!Y]NGED IACANA
Mttopiiius indius
ruio(3ocrn)
r; 5
Soutlrern Asia
in (39-58 cm)
Sorrthern i\sia
z1
!
," .-- -_ *="jL-
AFRTCT\N JACANA
Art o2hi/ornis aJri ca n us
rz in (23-3r cm)
Afr-Lca
insects, snails, small frogs and fish, and some vegetable matter, such as
.eeds. Often they turn over leaves in search of prey.Judging by the care
s'ith which they place each foot, carefully distributing their weight on their
long outstretched toes and testing each leafin turn,lily-trotting is a tricky
business.In Africa they sometimes walk close to feeding elephants and
,r nto basking hippopotamuses in their search for insects flushed by the large
rammals.They do not rely heavily on flight but rather swim in the water or
..r'ilk on and through vegetation near the water. Several species have a sharp
:pur on each wing that is used for fighting other jacanas and predators.
Africa's LesserJacana, the smallest in the farrrtly,is a monogamous
rreeder, but the other species employ polyandry, the rarest type of mating
svstem among birds. In a breeding season, a female mates with several
:nales, and the males then carry out most of the breeding chores. Males
each defend small territories from other males; each female has a larger
:e rritory that encompasses several male territories. Males build nests of
ioating, compacted aquatic vegetation. Following mating, the female lays
e3:gs in the nest, after which the male incubates them and then leads and
f rotects the chicks; the young feed themselves. Females sometimes remain
:lear nests and attackpredators that approach chicks.Jacana fathers are able
io move their young chicks in case of flooding or danger by holding them
under their closed wings and running to safery. Young are dependent on
lhe father for up to 3 months. Meanwhile, the female has mated with other
males in her territory and provided each with a clutch of eggs to attend.
None of the jacanas are currently considered at risk (but little is known
about populations of the small and secretive LesserJacana). The main
threat to these waterbirds is the destruction or degradation of their wetland
habitats,which occurs with increasing frequency throughout their range.
]larshes are drained for agricultural development, and sometimes floating
aquatic vegetation in lakes is removed for navigation or aesthetic purposes,
rendering habitat unsuitable for jacanas. On the plus side, some jacanas do
u'ellin agricultural areas, especiallywet fields and rice paddies.
JACANAS
I13
SPOTTED SANDPTPER
Actitis macularia
7 5 in (r9 cm)
North America, South America
SANDERLINC
Calidrtu a/ba
in (zo cm)
Worldrvide
RUDDY TURNSTONE
Arendria intcr?rct
ANDEAN SN] PE
Ga/linago janesont
WANDERINC TATTLER
8 -5 ro io (zr-:6
r: in
rr in (:8 cnr)
North America, Siberia, Australia,
New Guinea, tropical Pacilic Islands
cm)
Worldwide
(3o cm)
South America
Heteroste/us incanns
Sandpipers,
Phalaropes,
and Snipes;
Painted-snipes
Shorebirds are the small to medium-size,leggybirdswith slim bills thatone
sees along coasts and around wetlands
s,\Nt)l,tPtit{s,
t,il r\ t_,\R()1,L5.
r\\l) sttt)|s
[)i'1t i/'tttit,tt
ort ti tt, t / \,
mudflats, and owing to this, shorebirds are highly successful, often occurring
in huge numbers. Because they are plain-looking and common, shorebirds
;l/i,
No
ol
S7t,
i,''
intriguing
not endowed with
r15
,\'r, ol
J.,
lt
l,iititry
,97
\i7, , i,
'
No ol
\1,
Sl,p,',
\itt,t t(trto :
ROCK SANDPIPER
SI]RFBIRD
Aphriza rirgata
ro in (25 cm)
North America, South Amer'Lcr
Calidrit ptilotncnis
I 5 in (z: cm)
North Arnerica crstcrn Asia
BRD
:
DUNLIN
Calidris alpina
6 5-8 5 in (16
zz crn)
WI],I,ET
i?dlmdt ur
r6 in (33 4r crn)
North ALnerica, South America
13
UPLA\.-D SA\..DPLPER
Bartrania longiaudn
ro r:5 Ln (26-3: cnr)
ir (zj cm)
North Arnerica. Sorrh,\rner ica
9
C d ta? tro?h or il t tc nt
WILSON S PHALAROPE
Phalaropus lt itclot
RED KNOT
Calidris ranutut
9 5 in (2.1 cnr)
Worldrvide
NoN-BRD $
_i
:5
COMNTON REDSHANX
COIlMON SANDP]PER
TEREK SANDPlPER
Tringa totanus
rr in (28 cm)
,4ttitit
Xenus cinereus
Eurasia. Africa
bypo/eucos
in (zo cm)
Asia, Ausrralasia
CT]RI,EW SANDPTPER
Calidrisferruginea
8 5
in (zr cm)
in
(24 cm)
EASTERN CURLEW
Numeniut madagatariensis
:r-26 in (53-66 cm)
RUFF
Philonuchus pugnax
.1
COMNION GREENSHANK
Tringa nebu/aria
in (34 cm)
-5
EurasLr, Aliica, Ausrralia
r3
,:
i.'
\l
\" ,t \l',,,
['t,'t ',t1,1,.
|,tt,/tt rr,t1, t . ,f rt. ,t
.t,t,
i,i
\,
rrB
)S
Plovcrs and
)S
1t
t,
Lupwings
d
ls
h
rf
I
n
rt
tf
,e
n
1.
:S
)r
.e
s,
d
o
s,
h
o
)S
S.
S.
ofsmall to medium-size
Distribution:
birds that,with a total ofabout sixty-seven species,is the second most diverse
All rontinents
o
b
NG s comprise a family
except
Antarctita
No.
ofLioing
Species'67 (inrludes
Mage//anic Plover)
Endangered:5,
TI9
No. of Species
Vulnerab/e,
No. of Species
Since 16oo:
Extinct
--
ED LAPWING
mlanus
9 in (23 cm)
South America
--t{kP"''
Pl
D]ADEM ED SANDPIPER-PLOVER
Vanel/us
Phegornis mittbellii
(r8 cm)
Z in
rj 5 in
South America
Southern Asia
MASKED LAPWINC
6 5 in (16 crn)
Eurasia, Africa
r:-r4
[/anellut miles
5
in (3o
37 crn)
-.- -+:a*'
i.:
',#+.i
AFRICAN WATTLED LAPWING
BLACK-HEADED LAPW]NC
Vanel/ut senegal/us
r3 5 in (34 cm)
Vane//us tectus
MACELLANIC PLOVER
Plurianellus pcia/is
ro io (25 crn)
8 5
Aiiica
A1-rica
in (zr cm)
for their "run, stop, and pecli'foraging behavior: they typically run or walk a
few steps, then stop with head held high, presumably scanning for prey and
predators, then move again or bend to peck at food spotted on the ground.
Many species maintain feeding territories during nonbreeding periods, small
areas that they defend from others oftheir species for a few days up to a few
months. In the air, lapwings, on broad wings, fly somewhat slowly; plovers,
with pointed wings, fly fast and straight. Some of the plovers are among
the globe's champion long-distance migrants. Many make long journeys
a good example being the Pacific Golden
Plover,which flies apparently nonstop from wintering sites in Hawaii to its
arctic breeding grounds in Alaska, and from wintering sites in Australia and
southern Asia to breeding grounds in northern Russia.
Most lapwings and plovers are territorial during breeding, pairs
defending an area around the nest; territories, however, are sometimes
small and grouped together. Monogamous, these birds have nests that are
simply small depressions in the ground; some of these scrapes are lined
with pebbles or shell fragments. Lapwings that breed in marshes pull plant
materials together to form a nest. Both sexes incubate eggs. After hatching,
.1&-
BEACH THICK-KNEE
Burbinus magniroiris
zr-z:.5 in (53-57 cm)
Southeast Asia, Australia
BUSH STONE-CURLEW
Burbinur grallarius
zr 5 z3 in (54-59 cm)
Australia, New Guinea
RUFOUS-BELLIED SEEDSN]PE
,4ttagit gafi
rr 5 io (29 cm)
South America
t
LEAST SEEDSNIPE
7h
7
in
oc
or us r
mi c it or us
in (r8 cm)
South America
PLA1NS WANDERER
Pedionomu torqudtus
6 75in(r5-r9cm)
Ausrralia
Thick-knecs;
Scedsnipcs;
Plains-wandercr
from
12
to
23
THICK-KNEES;
SEEDSNIPES; PLAINS-WANDERER
r23
Distribution:
All continents except
Antarctica
No.
ofLiuing
Species: 9
No. of Species
Vulnerable,
Endangered: o, o
No. of Species Extinct
Since 16oo: o
sutit)sNlPlts
I)i;tt
ihtrliott
No
Lit'irrt
of
SpetiL; 1
No of'SVttit'
Vtr/ntrah/,',
Ettin
tt,qtrad: ct, o
Extirtrt
,\irttt 16oo.
Pl AINS \Vr\Nl)ERER
I)ittr ihrtir'n
A
tr
strl/i
No o.f'Litirt,q
Speti,'t
No
l,tt,/rt
No
tt
of'SptriLt
[1r /rr
g,'t
of'STLIi'
SinLt
ru h/1,
tt/. o, t
lix/in,r
r6ort
incubated by both sexes. Within a day of hatching, /oung can move from
the nest; parents feed and guard them. Young fly at z to 3 months of age;
some are not independent until older than 6 months. Africa's WaterThickknee is known to nest near brooding crocodiles-presumably because the
crocodiles keep (other) predators away. Thick-knees ar e fairly secrerive, so
not much is known about the sizes of their populations; fwo species, in Asia
and Australia, are considered at risk.
s EED s N I p E s,with their short bills and short legs, look like crosses
between pigeons and quails and are considered to be the most bizarre and
unusual of the shorebirds due to their physical forms, habitat choices, and
vegetarian diets.There are four species (familyThinocoridae, in the order
Charadriiformes), which are restricted to western and southern South
as
slopes and ridges high in the Andes Mountains (to just below snow line).
are
found in semidesert
areas or grasslands.
Seedsnipes (6 to rz inches [16 to 3o cm] long) are mottled brown above and
whitish or reddish brown below,coloringthat makes them highlycamouflaged
in their natural habitats. They are browsers, taking small leaves, buds, and
seeds from low vegetation as theywalk along. Seedsnipes are apparently
monogamous and are often seen in pairs or small familygroups.The nest is a
scrape in the ground, sometimes lined with moss or other vegetation.In some
species, only the female incubates,while the male stands guard nearby.Young
from the nest by parents soon after they hatch. None of the seedsnipes
are threatened, but some species are poorly understood.
Closely related to seedsnipes is the pLAr N s -wAN DE RE R, an odd
bird endemic to southeastern Australia. The only member of its family,
Pedionomidae (in the order Charadriiformes), the Plains-wanderer is a
drab, mainly light brown bird, about 7 inches (r8 cm) long, with a short
yellow bill and long yellow legs. Like the seedsnipes, it differs from most
of its shorebird cousins by its habitat of sparse, open grasslands (where it
are led
r24
)m
ge;
rkrhe
,so
Oyrtercatchers;
Crab-plovcr
sia
les
nd
nd
ler
Lth
:ky
e).
Js.
nd
;ed
nd
tly
SA
ne
ng
)es
td
ly,
;a
rrt
rst
it
)n
CS
te
rg
rS
re
oy s r
oYSTERCATCHERS; CRAB-PLOVER
I25
OYSTERCA'TCIIERS
Distributiort:
Wor/duidt
No. of'I-it,ing
Sl,cties'rrt
No. oJ'Spuits
Vulnera hle,
Endangtrcd: o,
No.
of-Spticr Ex/irrt/
Since r6cto'
ANIERICAN OYSTERCATCHER
flaematoput
BLACK OYSTERCAI'CHER
Haematolut bathmani
fallialus
in (4: cnr)
Norrh Arnerica, Sourh America
16 5
r7 5 in (44 crn)
Nor rh Americr
P] ED OY51'DRCATC H ER
Haemd
r9
+'
CRAB-PLO!'DR
I)romat ardeo/a
r5 5
S
ou
in (4o cm)
rhcrn As i a, Alii ca, Itladagascar
CR,\I]-PLOvER
Distriht/
iort.
Ittdiatt Otcurr
roas/s
who gather shellfish. Three current at-risk species are southern Africa's
African Black Oystercatcher, New Zealand's Variable Oystercatcher, and
Australia's Sooty Oystercatcher. In addition, the Chatham Oystercatcher,
endemic to some tiny islands offNew Zealand,with a population of only
a few hundred, is endangered.The Canary Islands Oystercatcher became
extinct about r94o.
The cRAB - pLovBR is a medium-size shorebird that shares with
oystercatchers a long, robust, daggerlike bill. The single species (family
Dromadidae, in order Charadriiformes) occurs only in Africa and Asia,
breeding along the Persian Gulf Red Sea, and parts of the Indian Ocean
and wintering mainly alongwestern Indian and eastern African coasts.The
birds, about 16 inche s (4o cm) long, are distinctively black and white with
long grayish legs.Their most conspicuous trait is the powerful black bill,
which they use to stab and dismember their main food, crabs. They also eat
other crustaceans and some worms and mollusks.They feed in flocks on
mudflats, sandbanks, rocky shorelines, and coral reefs, being most active
at dusk and nocturnally. Breeding is not well studied, but they appear to be
monogamous, pairs nesting in colonies. Unique among shorebirds, Crabplovers nest in burrows, which are excavated in sandy areas. The species,
although of limited range and abundance, is not considered at risk.
OYSTERCATCHERS; CRAB-PLOVER
r27
No. o/ Lit,itty
SVctit:: t
No. oJ'Sltci.:s
tr'u
lncru h/1,
Ent/unytrL,/ o, o
No.
ol- S ptr
Sincc t (to<t
ts f,x
r>
t i tt
tl
HAWAIIAN STILT
BLACK-NECKED STILT
BLACK-WINCED STILT
HimantEw
Himantolut mexicanw
r4-r5.5 in (35-4o cm)
Hamiian Islands
HinanrEus bimantEut
r4-15.5 in (35-4o cm)
Euasia,Africa
knudseni
BANDED STILT
C la dorbyneb u s le ucocepbal w
Re
r4-17in (35-43
cm)
Australia
Australia
PIED AVOCET
Rec u ra iros tro aaor e I ta
IBISBILL
r7.5
in (44 cm)
Eurasia,Africa
I bi dorblnc
15 5
ha
ilr utbers ii
in (4o cm)
Asia
Ibisbill
srI
Fourteen to
19 inches (35
with their pied plumage, mostly involving patches of black and white,
although three species have areas of reddish brown on head or chest. The
widely ranging Black-winged Stilt differs in form geographically, from white
rvith black back and wings to having varying amounts of additional black
on the head and neck (three ofthe birds shown,labeled Black-necked Stilt,
Black-winged Stilt, and Hawaiian Stilt, illustrate some of this variation).
Stilts, usually in small groups but sometimes in aggregations in the
r29
Vu
lncrnblc,
l')ndnr.q,:rtl. o, r
No.
o.f' 92,:cics
Since t(tc>o'o
Ext
in
tt
thousands, wade about in shallow fresh- and saltwater, using their bills to
probe mud for small insects, snails, and crustaceans.In some,worms, small
fish, and aquatic plant materials are also taken. A11 in the family also swim to
take food in deeper water. Food is detected visually or by touch; in the latter,
IBISBILL
I)istr ihrrtiott.
Ctn/tr/,4sirt
No. o.l'l.irittg
SVttics:
No. o.l-Sprticr
[ru
/rtLmhl,:,
l')nltngcrttl. o, o
No
oJ STatier
llrtinct
Sittct: t6<>o: o
birds swish their bills through shallow water or soft mud while comblike
parts of the bill filter out small prey, or they probe the bill down into mud
and food items contacted are grabbed and swallowed. Stilts and avocets
occur in a variety of coastal and other wetlands, but they prefer shallow, salty
inland lakes in open areas. They are knorn,n for their variety of sharp, brief
calls-given frequently when foraging, while flying, and especially when
alarmed, such as when potential predators approach nests.
Avocets and stilts are monogamous and tend to breed in small colonies
near water. The nest scrape, into which eggs are placed, is often lined with
vegetation. Both sexes incubate. Soon after they hatch, young are able to run
from predators and feed themselves. Parents usually guard young at least until
they can fly, perhaps 3 to 6 weeks after hatching.These birds first breed at r to
years
130
ll
'o
r,
.e
Pratincoles
and Coursers
d
-S
v
)f
n
:S
h
n
i)'
t.
river beach, they seem to resemble terns. But when they run, they move
fast along the ground,like plovers, and when they fly, their forked tail and
,\'.
long pointed wings give them the look of large swallows (they used to be
il
o
I
e
j
n
on
PRATTNCOLES AND
COURSERS
13I
t;1',,,';,1,
()i,t u',,ti,t
\,, .i / r:i,rl
'i'' , '
r,
17 \'7,,
1,
/,ti,i,tt.q , ,/
..',
\r r/\/,,,,,.1,'.t;,
\,,,
ORIENTAL PRATINCOLE
AUSTRALIAN PRATINCOLE
G/arcola maldirarum
9.5
in
Stiltia isabe//a
in (zj cm)
(24 cm)
Asia. Australia
]F
Lt
TEMMINCK SCOURSER
Oursorius lemminckii
8 in (zo cm)
Smutsornit aJriranus
8 5 in (zz cm)
Africa
A[rica
BRONZE-WINGED COURSER
Rb in optilu
s t hahop
rr in (:8 cm)
A[rica
tcru
THREE-BANDED COURSER
Rbinoltilut cinttut
ro 5 in (22 cm)
Afri ca
reveal ayery large gape, which helps funnel food into the mouth. Aerial
pursuit of insects is, to put it mildly, an unusual habit among shorebirds.
Coursers, birds chiefly of hot, dry, open habitats, with much longer legs
than pratincoles, are mainly terrestrial runners (hence, "coursers"), taking
all their food (insects plus some snails and seeds) on the ground.They have
squarish tails, not requiring the forked tails that give extra flight agility to
pratincoles for their aerial insect eating. Some ofthe coursers have relatively
long bills that they use to dig for bugs in loose soil. And some, such as the
Double-banded Courser, are unusual among shorebirds because theyprefer
to spend their days hiding in the shade and only become active at twilight.
Many pratincoles also rest during daytime heat, being most active at dawn
and dusk. Pratincoles are highly social, almost always in groups; some of the
coursers, howeve! are seen only singly or in small family parties.
Breeding habits are well documented for only a few pratincoles and
coursers. Pratincoles nest in colonies; coursers, in single pairs. Apparently
by panting while incubating, thus radiating from their mouths excess heat
that they are drawing away from the eggs, and, in at least several species, by
wetting their chest feathers just before taking over incubating duty, putting
the cool water into contact with the eggs. Young are able to run from the nest
and feed themselves soon after hatching. Posthatching parental care is well
developed in the ways that parents protect young.If a predator is spotted
nearby, they may feign injury, flaring out their wings and flopping about on
the ground, all the while moving away from the nest or young to lure away
the predator, and in some species, parents have been seen covering their
chicks with sand to hide them from predators.
Only one species among the pratincoles and coursers is threatened: the
Jerdons Courser of southern India is critically endangered; it was thought
extinct until rediscovered in 1986. Many other species, although currently
safe, are experiencing declining populations, mainly owing to loss of their
natural habitats as wild lands are altered for agricultural use and water levels
are lowered as the result ofdams and humanwater demands.
r33
RD
ic
'-<F+ii
G
a' -*
SABINE SCULL
sabini
ro -5-r3 in (27-33 cm)
Norrh Arnerica, Sortth America,
Alrica, norrhern Asia
Larut hlperboreus
Xtnt
HEERtrlANN S GULL
Lartrs hetrnmnni
17-r9 5 in (+t-+q cro)
North America
S]LVER GULL
lNCA TERN
Larotterna inca
r6 in (4r cm)
ol 1a n di a c
17 in (38 43 cm)
Australia
r5
Souttr Americl
NON BRD
BRI)
nc
NON-BRD
BRD
le
ur op
te r u
ro in (26 cnr)
Eurasil, Africe, Australia
BROWN NODDY
/nous stolidut
r5-r7 5 in (38-45 cm)
CRESTED'fERN
Sttrna iergii
r7 zr in (4j 53 cm)
Tropical oceans
Coasts of
Aiiicr,
cuLLs
and
rERNS
r35
I)itt t ibtr/iotr
lfo t /l .r'ida
No ol'l .i'c,ing
itt
'SJ,tt
r).i
No ol ,\Tttits
lit/tr, nth/t,
Ettt/lttg,:r
No
Ltd. 6, z
o./'STtci ct
Sirt,L
rtioo:
l)t
t i rt t
goodies fall or are thrown overboard.They also scavenge, taking bird eggs and
nests from seabird breeding colonies when parents arc gone or inattentive.
Gulls also follow tractors during plowing, grabbing whatever insects and
other small animals are flushed from cover when the big machines go by.
Many larger gulls also chase smaller gulls and terns in the air to steal food the
smaller birds have caught, an act termed kleptoparasitism.Terns,which eat
mainly fish, squid, and crustaceans, feed during the day but also sometimes
at night.Their main food-gathering technique is a bit messy: they spot prey
near the water's surface while flying or hovering, then plunge-dive into the
water to grab the prey, then rapidly take offagain, the prey held tightly in
the bill. Some terns also feed frequentlyby simply flying low and slow over
the water and picking prey, including some insects, from the water's surface.
Most terns seem to fly continuously, rarely setting down on the water to rest.
Many in the family are long-distance flyers; the ArcticTern has the longest
migration route of anybird.
These seabirds usually breed in large colonies, often in the tens of
thousands, on small islands, where there are no mammal predators, or in
isolated mainland areas that are relatively free ofpredators. Gulls and terns
usually breed on flat, open ground near the water (but some breed on cliffs, or
inland, in marsh areas, and noddies breed in trees,bushes, or clilfs). Most are
monogamous, mated males and females sharing in nest building, incubation,
and feeding young. Young are fed when they push their bill into a parent's
throat, in effect forcing the parent to regurgitate food stored in its crop, an
enlargement of the top portion of the esophagus.These seabirds reach sexual
maturity slowly, often not achieving their full adult, or breeding, plumage
until they are 3 to 4 years old (terns) or 4 to 5 years old (gulls).
Most gulls and terns are abundant seabirds. Some species have even
been able to capitalize on peoples'activities (for instance, using as feeding
opportunities garbage dumps and agricultural fields; or,like some noddies,
establishing new breeding colonies in trees on islands that, previous to
human plantings,were treeless) and during the past few hundred years haye
succeeded in expanding their numbers and breeding areas. Worldwide, six
species are considered urlnerablel two, New Zealandt Black-fronted Tern
and eastern Asia's Chinese Crested-tern, are endangered.
r36
d
v.
.e
It
Skuas; Skimmers;
Sheathbills
]S
:y
re
n
ar
e,
;t.
St
sKuAs
)f
n
1S
)r
re
n,
,
:S
.n
al
ie
n
o
b
s
o
.e
x
n
to their brown plumage, heavy, hooked bills, and predatory natures, might
be mistaken for hawks, but are acrually closely related to gulls. Skuas are
known chiefly for their feeding, being predators on small rodents and,
especially, on seabird eggs and young, and for their kleptoparasitismstealing prey from other birds that have already captured it. In nature
films, skuas are often seen dragging squirming penguin chicks from their
defenseless parents. Sometimes skuas are included in family Laridae with
the gulls, but many recent classifications place the seven skuas in a separate
"parasitizes" gulls and shearwaters at sea, and the Parasitic Jaeger pursues
gulls and terns feeding near shore.When a skua sees a bird capture prey, such
as a fish,
skua,
usually larger, has an advantage, and the original captor often drops its prey
quickly after a brief chase. Small gulls and terns often attempt escape, but it
r37
SKUAS
Di
.4/1
r/
rihu / ia
rr.
o,nrts
No. af'Lirtin,q
Spttits:7
No. of'SVttit:
14rltrtrohlt,
EtttltrttgLrc,/: o, o
No. of- Sl,'t i,' t E t
Sitrrt t(too'ct
/ i tr,
?
I
i
r.+
r6 ; in
(36
.1: crrr)
SN')\\Y
\I]EATHBIII
\t..1-\tlil t{\
it is chasing.If the prey is not dropped quickly, the skua will grab the other
bird by the wing or tail and spin it in the air.The prey is then dropped, and
the skua typically catches it before it hits the water.
Mainly monogamous, skuas breed in colonies or in widely scattered
I );,ti iktrrit,tt
vsingle pairs. Nests are open scrapes on the ground.The sexes share breeding
duties. Young remain at or near the nest, being fed by the adults, for z or
more months, until they can fly. Parents are highly aggressive around their
.\,,
flight
as
nests,
r39
-.1)
.\;
) ,;itq
,,1 ,\7,,', ,,
l.tt,l,tii11,', I :.,
slil,r ,\ilililtI\
J),:',':il)tt,,,,'
.tl
l,', t t, / i,
t! t
i,
\'
I t
l')
J
CoIINION
NIURRT:
AN CI
EN'I II
Ut ia mlge
Sy n
r7 in (1E 41 crn)
Norrhern oceans rrn,:l coasts
r5-
U R
RE]-81'
/hlibom nphut an
t i q tr
ttt
HORIED PUFF]N
I'mla trtla, orn i t u/a la
14 r6in(j6
4rcLn)
Coasts rnd islands oflorthern
Plcilir
No\-BRD
::--:<---:1'I!
FIED
PT] F
FI
PIC EON
l)-aturtrh ritrhala
I4-r6 in (36-4r cm)
Coasrs rnd islanLls
of
G I) I
RHI\OC};ROS AUKLET
Cerorhin,a ntonatmtq
r 1 5 in (37 ern)
LLE,\] O1'
Cclphtts ,ohrntba
r:-14
in
(3o-j;
cru)
northern Pici6c
LEAST AUKLEl'
CRESTED ATlKLEI
,4c/hia pusil/a
-/lctbia cris/a/Llht
in (rj cm)
75in(r9cnr)
Coasts anrl is[,rnds ofnorthcrn P:rci6c
pu FFtN
mainly only to fishermen and other mariners. Now some of these birds are
popularly recognized: puffins, ofwhich there are three species, for their
massive, colorful, photogenic bills and overall cute appearance, and in the
North American wildlife conservation movement, the Marbled Murrelet,
a threatened species that nests in the canopy of old-growth forests and
has become a symbol of the fight to protect these forests. Furthermore,
puffins and auks, along with other members ofthe family,Alcidae, including
murres, guillernots, and auklets, are now routinely spotted at sea and in
their breeding areas by nature-lovers on whale-watching cruises or pelagic
trips undertaken especially to view seabirds.The twenty-three species in
the family, collectively called alcids, are included in order Charadriiformes
with the gulls, terns, and shorebirds.Alcids are restricted to the colderwaters
of the Northern Hemisphere. Because they pursue fish underwater like
penguins, using their wings for propulsion, they are often thought of as the
Northern Hemisphere equivalents ofpenguins (which are restricted to the
Southern Hemisphere). Unlike penguins, however, alcids fy.
Six to 16 inches (r5 to 4r cm) long, alcids are stocky birds with short
wings and a very short tail-in fact, on the water, they are usually identified
by their compact bodies, short necks, and tiny tails (in the air, they look like
No. o.l-Liting
flying footballs). Their feet are placed well back on the body, which aids in
swimming. They are mainly dark gray or black above,light below. Bright
r4t
Norlherrr ott'anr
Spttics::.1
No o.[SpLtiar
Vrr
/n
tra/tl,:,
EnlangLrtl: q,
<t
No ol'Spuits lixtinct
Sintt t(too t
coloring is restricted to their bills and feet, which, in some, are red orange
and perhaps yellow.These colors are enhanced in the breeding season in
puffins and a few others by the growth of an additional hard plate at the
base of the bill, which adds more size and color to it. In the Rhinoceros
Auklet, that plate includes a "horn"that dramatically alters the shape of the
bill during the breeding season. In some species,long feathers that form
conspicuous head plumes are also grown forbreeding seasons.
Alcids are champion divers, feeding underwater like grebes and
cormorants.Th.y prey mostly on fish and crustaceans, but some also eat
mollusks and worms, and some specialize on plankton, the ocean's huge
population of tiny floating organisms. Unlike loons, grebes, and cormorants,
which use their feet for underwater propulsion, alcids use their wings,
thus when viewed underwater (possible now for many people in the huge
transparent water tanks at some aquariums), they appear to be "flying"
underwater.Theirwings, although small enough to move through thewater
rapidly for this wing-propelled diving, are still large enough to hold them
in the air ifbeat fast enough. Alcids swim rapidly underwater, quick enough
to chase down the fish upon which they feed. Not only are they fast, they
dive quite deeply; some murres are known to have reached depths of about
6oo feet (r8o m), and even small species such as some auklets dive below
roo feet (:o *).
Alcids are monogamous and probably mate for life; both sexes incubate
eggs and feed young.Th.y tend to breed in groups, sometimes in vast
colonies. Nesting sites, on small islands or coastal cliffs inaccessible to
mammal predators, are varied: murres nest on cliffledges, many species
nest in rock crevices, and puffins and guillemots nest in crevices on rocky
islands or dig their own burrows. Eggs are placed on the ground or in a
burrow Marbled Murrelets are an exception.When not nesting on tundra,
they nest in forests,where their nest is a depression on awide, mossybranch
high in an old-growth conifer.
Alcids in the past were widely hunted for meat, oil, and feathers. All
or most species experienced seriously reduced populations through the
first half of the twentieth century. One, the Great Auk, the largest alcid,
whichwas flightless,became extinct around r85o.With hunting nowmuch
reduced, many alcids enjoy healthy populations. Currently four species are
considered r,rrlnerable: North America's Marbled, Xantus's and Craveri's
Murrelets, and the Japanese Murrelet.
r42
e
1
Sandgrouse
e
o
I
t
e
l,
;,
r
l)
1
Y
Dis/t ihtrtiort
O/t/ l'l/orll
of'Lititte
N'o.
s71-ttitr tb
No
ol'57,:r iLr
Vrr /tr
their pigeonlike long, pointed wings, plumage, and some pigeonlike elements
No
SincL
well
SANDGROUSE
r43
t nth/1,
Ett rl rr
tr,qa
o.l
rLtl. o,
ct
Sltril Extinc/
t6oo
("\
\
(
".
CHESTNUT-BELLIED SANDGROUSE
Pteroc/es
exuttut
BLACK-EACED SANDGROUSE
Pterodet decoratus
rz 5 in (3u cm)
Africa, southern Asia
rr in (28 cm)
Africa
gutturalis
in (3o cm)
Africa
Pteroc/es
ru
NANIAQUA SANDGROUSE
Pterodes namaqua
rr in (28 cm)
Southern Africa
patches of gray, black, and white. Males usually have more distinct markings
than females.
Sandgrouse favor hot, dry environments, such as savannas, semiarid
scrublands, and deserts.They spend most ofthe time on the ground, moving
a shufling walk. They feed mainly on small seeds picked up from the
ground, and,like pigeons, collect small pebbles in their stomachs to help
grind and digest the seeds. With their strong,long wings, sandgrouse are
powerful fliers.They are often seen on the wing, commuting between feeding
areas and drinking sites.The daily flight that sandgrouse make to and from
water, sometimes involving a round-trip of more than 6o miles (roo km),
is one of the most characteristic features of these birds; because they feed
entirely on dry seeds and derive no moisture from these, access to open water
is crucial. Sandgrouse are sociable birds, sometimes gathering in thousands
with
a
F-
SANDGRoUSE
I45
INCA DOYE
Co/umbina inta
8 5 in (:r cm)
rr-r4
WHITE
EARED DOVE
Zenaida auriculata
8 5-rr in (zz-28 cm)
South America
Co/umba
13 5
FACED QUAIL.DOYE
Ceotrygon albfocier
2icazuro
in (34 cm)
South America
in (28-36 cm)
SCALY-NAPED PIGEON
Co/umba quamosa
13-r6 iLr (33-4r cm)
West Indies
PACIEIC DOVE
Zenaida me/oda
ro-r3 in (:5-33
Sourh America
cm)
surprising because they are largely defenseless and quite edible, regarded as
a tasty entr6e by human and an array of nonhuman predators. Th e famrly,
Columbidae (placed in its own order, Columbiformes), includes about 3o8
Dirtribution:
All rcntinents
except
/lntarctica
No. ofLir-,ing
Species:3o8
No. of Species
Vulnerable,
j4
Endangered:
plump-looking birds with compact bodies, short necks, and small heads.
Legs are usually fairly short, except in the ground-dwelling species. Bills are
small, slender, and straight.Typically there is a conspicuous patch of naked
skin, or cere, at the base ofthe bill, over the nostrils.The soft, dense plumage
of most arc gray or brown, although some have bold patterns of black lines
or spots; many have splotches of iridescence, especially on necks and wings.
But some groups, such as the fruit-doves (about rzo species),which mainly
occur in the Indonesia/Malaysia and Australia/New Guinea regions, are
easily among the most gaily colored birds. Green, the predominant hue of
fruit-doves, camouflages them in their arboreal habitats. Some pigeons have
conspicuous crests, including the three huge, ground-dwelling crownedpigeons of New Guinea,which have large, elaborate crests. Male and female
pigeons are generally,but not always, alike in coloring.
are
r47
No. of Species
z6
Extinct
to
IIJICK-BILLED C REEN-PICEON
'lieron turtil'attla
(:4 jr
9 5-rz in
Sourherst Asia
Euresia
RA]-D DOV
crn)
Southeast Asia
NA
Oena
ro in (26 crn)
Dutula badia
t7-zo in (43-5r crn)
rr in
Southern Asia
ENIE
Chilopbals india
AFRICAN CREEN-PIGEON
Trcron catoa
ro-ru in (25 jo
Afiica
crn)
XlAQUA DOVE
ta2enti
(u 8
cro)
Alrica
BROWN CUCKOO-DOYE
COMMON BRONZEWING
M acroplgi
Phaps
ilakoptera
rr-14 in (28 36 cm)
a a m b o in e ns i s
Australia
6-
ROSE.CROWNED FRU]T-DOVE
Ptilino2ut regina
9
io (:3 cm)
Australia, Indonesia
CH
STN
WOMPOO FRUIT-DOVE
Pti/inopus magnifcus
rr 5 -r8 in (29 - 46 cm)
Australia. New Guinea
CRESTED PIGEON
Oq0ha?t /a?hotet
rz-14 in (3r-j6 cm)
Australia
PARTRIDGE PIGEON
smitbii
Petrophassa
Geophaps
rz in (3o cm)
Ausrralia
Australia
Most pigeons are at least partly arboreal, but some spend time in and
around cliffs, and others are primarily ground dwellers.They eat seeds, fruit,
berries, and the occasional insect, snail, or other small invertebrate. Even
those species that spend a lot of time in trees often forage on the ground,
moving along with their head-bobbing walk. Owing to their small, weak
bills, they eat onlywhat they can swallowwhole; "chewing"is accomplished
inthe gizzard, a muscular portion of the stomach in which food is mashed
against small pebbles that are eaten expressly for this purpose. Fruit-doves
swallow small fruits whole, and the ridged walls of the\r grzzards rub the skin
and pulp from the fruits. Pigeons typicallyare strong,rapid flyers,which,in
essence, along with their cryptic color patterns, provide their only defenses
milk,"
I5O
t
.,
Partots
[,
l
l
S
n
n
S
S
e
S,
e
,
IS
o
n
Lt
S,
,f
;S
'e
S,
it
Le
h
rt
PARROTS
15I
Distrihution
/]
Ncotro2its,
routhcrn
)'ita,
lsiu,
Austra/trsirr
No. oJ'Li',tirtg
Species:.1.7t
No. of 52,:cias
Vu.lnerahlt,
Endangcrd.
No.
oJ'Sptc
Since
q.1,
q6
ts lir t i n ct
t6oo r9
SCARLET MACAW
BLUE-AND-YELLOW
CHESTNUT-FRONTED MACAW
Ara setera
MACAW
,4ra mano
HYACINTH }IACAW
n odorblnrhut hya t i n thin
19 5 in (roo cm)
South America
,4
34
io
us
WHITE NECKED
r8-zo in (46-5r
(86 cm)
South America
L]LAC-CROWNED PARROT
COBALT.WINGED PARAKEET
4mazonafnsthi
Brotagerir c!ano?tero
(r9 cm)
7 5 in
rj in (33 cm)
Mexico
PARAKEET
cm)
South America
South America
BLUE-HEADED PARROT
Pyrrbura albipectus
9 5 in (:4 crn)
ro in (:6 cm)
South Arnerica
Pionus menstruus
GOLDEN PARAKEET
Guarouba gtnroubt
ROSE.THROA]'ED PARROl'
Antazona /n,o,tlbala
I2 -t in ( 12 crn)
Wesr Indics
ROSY-FACED LOYEBIRD
Aga!ornit roteico/lit
6 5 in (r7 cm)
Soutlrern Africa
AUSTRALlAN KING-PARROT
A/isterut tapu/aris
16 -5 in (42 cm)
Australia
ROSE-RINCED PARAKEET
Psittatula lrameri
r4 5-17 in (j7-43 cm)
Africa, sourhern Asia
Platycercus e/egant
14
io
(36 cm)
Austr:dia
PURPLE-CROWNED LORIKEET
G I o s o? t i t ta ? or? h))r o ce? h a /a
6
in
(r5 cm)
Australia
and the riotously colorful Rainbow Lorikeet. The Scarlet Macaw, red, yellow,
and blue, is certainly one ofthe NewWorld's most striking birds. Green, the
mostly fruits, nuts, and seeds,leaf and flower buds, and some flower parts
and nectar. A-lthough considered fruit-eaters, they often attack fruit just to
get at the seeds within.The powerful bill slices open fruit and crushes seeds.
Some parrots are specialized feeders. For example,lorikeets, a brilliantly
colored subgroup, confined mainly to Australasia and Indonesia, have long
tongues with brushlike tips that they use to gather nectar and pollen.
\
\
1'
During
PARROTS
r55
k"
RED-TAILED BLACK-COCKATOO
Calyptorhyntb us banksii
5-u 5 5 in
ArLsrralia
19
(5o
65 crn)
GANG-GANG COCKATOO
Ca
rz
II ocepba I o n 1l m b r i a t unt
5-r4 5 in (j:-j7cm)
Australia
SULPI{UR-CRESTED COCKATOO
Cacatru galerita
17 5 - zr 5 in (+;-ss .^)
Australia. New Guinea
CALAH
LITTLE CORELLA
EoloVbus roseiu2i/la
r4 in (36 cm)
15
Australia
Ausrralia
Cacatua nnguinea
"{
,|
COC KATl EL
Nymphitus hollandicut
13 in (33 cm)
Atrstralia
in
(38 cm)
^\
Australia
Cockatoos
Like other parrots, coc KAToo s, a spectacular group that occurs only
in the Australia/New Guinea and Indonesia regions, have long captured
people's imaginations andbeen kept in captMty.With theirlonglife spans,
their ability to bond with people, and often, their large size, cockatoos
especially have been kept as companion animals.The twenty-one species,
family Cacatuidae (placed in the order Psittaciformes with the typical
parrots), are medium to large parrots (rz to z5 inches,3o to 64 cm, long) with
crests that they can erect.The most recognized member of the family to
many North Americans is probably the Sulphur-crested Cockatoo, which
is large, white, with a yellow crest, and is a commonly kept pet.
Sharing their general form with other parrots, cockatoos are bulky birds
with short necks and short, hooked bills. They have medium to longish
tails and their legs are short,with feet adapted for powerful grasping and
a high degree of dexterity. Cockatoos come in two main colors, blackish
or white.The blackish or dark gray species include the huge,large-billed
Palm Cockatoo ofAustralia and New Guinea,which, at up to z.z pounds (r
kg), is the largest cockatoo, and the smallest cockatoo,Australia's Cockatiel,
cage bird
COC KATOO
r57
l)ir/ t ihtrliort
.tltrrliititrii,t, ltil /\ t/
o1 l-ir
.\l('.it'\ )r
,\'c,
.\o
itt,11
ol'Sil.'r i,
'
11rltt, t,rbl,'.
l)n,llti,1;,''i,l 1,;
.\'o
o1
.\7,',,;. \
Siilir t()ao
t)
l'.\/ rtt/
I58
3S,
en
st.
Tirracos
ng
tse
tu1
OS
)ts
he
tu1
tit
.zt,
ih.
Ch
Tu
ed
*'oodlands, and savannas.They are known for their brilliant plumage and
have long been hunted for their feathers; turaco feathers are commonly
:sed in ceremonial headdresses ofvarious African groups, including East
-\rrica's nomadic Masai people. Being large and tastybirds, turacos are also
lursued for the dinner table. Visitors to African forests and savannas are
nade quickly aware of these birds by their raucous, often repetitive calls,
.ome of the most characteristic sounds of these habitats. The twentythree turaco species are all confined to Africa; they are known as louries
in southern Africa.The family, Musophagidae, although its classification
i: controversial, is usually placed in order Cuculiformes with the cuckoos.
-llusopbagidae refers to banana or plantain eating, but despite being fruiteaters, turacos rarely eat wild bananas.). Some of the turacos are formally
called plantain-eaters and others are known as go-away-birds, for their loud
d i s tinctive " g' w ay, g' w ay" calls.
Turacos, all with conspicuous, sometimes colorful crests, are 16 to
:9 inches (4o to Z4 cm) long and have short, strong bills; short, rounded
u'ings; and long, broad tails. Many have bare, brightly colored patches of
skin around their eyes. Most species are primarily a striking glossy blue,
green, or purplish. Studies ofturacos show that their bright coloring at least
partially reflects the foods they eat. Some fruits in their diet provide copper,
and a red copper-based pigment (turacin) unique to turacos provides the
brilliant reds in their plumage. Similarly, the deep greens of some species
llv
CS;
in
tre
ng
ES,
ran
ers
for
:d'ed
be
eir
gs.
Les,
ha
:ed
nd
Ac
TURACO
r59
D itlrib ution'
Sub-Saharan,4ft.itu
No of-Lioing
Spcti e s: z,j
No. of Spccies
Vu/nerahle,
Endangcrtd; t,
No. of Specics
Sincc
t6oo. o
Extintt
ROSS S TU RACO
,Vusophtga rotne
Tauruto haftlauhi
:r in
r7
(s3 crn)
in (43 crn)
Africa
27
29
Africa
PURPLE-CRESTDD TT]RACO
7h
r7 5
ra t o 7 orp
h y re
in (45 cm)
Aiiica
/ op b us
\in (7o
75
cnr)
:nd greener the forest habitat a given turaco species occupies, the deeper
ireen its plumage.The go-away-birds (three species) and plantain-eaters
:t'o species) inhabit scrublands, savanna, and open woodlands, instead of
:,rrests, and they are clad mostly in soft gray, buff, brown, and white. Male
:nd t-emale turacos look alike.
Fairlyweak and reluctant fliers, turacos are extremely good at moving
:.:ound trees on foot, often running or hopping along branches; they have
::rong legs, and feet with an outer toe that can point forward or backward,
:llportant for their agile arboreal behavior.When they do fly, turacos often
:limb to high points in tree canopies and then launch themselves with floppy
:lides and a few quick flaps to other trees nearby. Gregarious birds, often
;ongregating in large groups,theyflyfrom tree to tree in "strings,"or single;:le sn4e.They are more or less sedentary birds, making only short flights
:: search of food. Most turacos specialize on eating fruit (particularly figs
ir the forest species) but also take some leaves, buds, and fowers, and the
,rccasional caterpillar, moth, or beetle. Lacking the powerful, seed-cracking
rills of parrots, turacos select smaller, softer fruits, and regurgitate large
rerd seeds that are swallowed.They often gather in fruiting trees in noisy
lroups. Birds will return to the same trees day after dayuntil the fruit there is
erhausted. Go-away-birds, although also taking fruits, berries, and flowers,
.oncentrate their feeding on Acacia buds and seedpods; the two species of
:lantain-eaters consume chiefly fruit.
Turacos, monogamous breeders, in pairs defend territories during the
ereeding season and nest solitarily.The go-away-birds may sometimes have
helpers at the nest, other adults that do not breed but help the nesting pair
rv aiding with territory defense and caring for young; helpers are usually
voung from previous broods.Turacos build flat, flimsy twig nests in trees or
aushes. Both male and female participate in nest building, although one may
remain at the nest and accept materials gathered by its mate. Both parents
incubate eggs and provide regurgitated food to the chicks.
Where not widely persecuted (by fruit growers or by people who want
ro eat them or capture them as cage birds), many turaco species are common
or even abundant. Two are threatened: Ethiopia's Prince Ruspoli's Turaco
rulnerable) and Cameroon's Bannerman's Tirraco (endangered). Both occur
o\-er very small ranges and have small and declining populations, mostly
ou,ing to continued destruction and degradation of their forest habitats.
r
TURACOS
r6t
RREL CUCKOO
Piala cayana
18 in (+6 cm)
Mexico, Central America, Sorrth America
SQUT
YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO
Coccyzus americanus
rz in (3o cm)
North America. South America
PLAINTIVE CUCKOO
NIANGROVE CUCKOO
Coiclzus
ninor
Cacontantis metulinut
7-9 in (r8
in (3.1 cnr)
North America, Sourh America
13 5
z3
cm)
Southern Asia
COMMON KOEL
GREEN-BILLED NIALKOIIA
Erdynam_vs scolopatea
P ha e ni tobha
15
5-18 in
(j9
46 cm)
19 5
in
s t t i t I is
(-;o cm)
Southcrn Africa
Cuckoos
cuc Koo
employing some of the most bizarre breeding practices known among birds.
I{any Old World cuckoo species are brood parasites: they build no nests
of their own, the females layrngtheir eggs in the nests of other species.
These other birds often raise the young cuckoos as their own offspring, to
the significant detriment of their own young. Brood parasitism by cuckoos
gave rise to the word cuckold,meaning that a maris wife was unfaithful
and so he raised offspring genetically unrelated to him, which recalls the
cuckoos'reproductive habits.The name cuckoo comes from the calls made
by a Eurasian species, the Common Cuckoo,which is also the source of the
sounds for cuckoo clocks.
Cuckoos (which include coucals, couas, and malkohas, among others)
comprise family Cuculidae, included in order Cuculiformes with the turacos.
There are about rzo species, distributed worldwide in temperate and tropical
areas. Most are small to medium-size birds (6 to 18 inches 116 to 46 cm] long),
slender, narrow-winged, and long-tailed; bills curve downward at the end.
Male and female mostlylookalike,attired in plain grays,browns, andwhites,
often with streaked or spotted patches. Several have alternating white and
blackbands on their chests and/or tail undersides. Some are more brightly
clad. Many of the nine couas, restricted to Mad agascar,are greenish, and all
have bare blue skin around their eyes. Bronze-cuckoos, five small species
of the Australia/New Guinea region, have metallic green backs and wings,
and the twelve long-tailed malkohas, of southern Asia, have red or bluish
cucKoos
t63
Dirtribution:
A// runtinents excef
Antnrctica
No oJ'l.iting
Speties'
No
zz
ol-S1ecies
/L:,
Enlangcred:6,
Ceniro?Lts
tiilentis
18
rz in (-lr crn)
in (zo crn)
Aiiice
SH]NING BRONZE-CUCKOO
LITTLE BRONZE-CUCKOO
Chrltococcyx lucidut
6 5 in (r7 cm)
6.5
Austrrlasia, Indonesia
CTTANNEL-BILLED CUCKOO
S clt t h rop s not a e h o / / a n dia e
z3 5 in (6o cm)
Australia, New Gui nea, Indonesia
E
\
x n in uti //u s
in (r6 cm)
Southeast Asix, Australia
C hrls otortl
PALLID CUCKOO
Cutu/ut pa//idus
rz 5 in (3u cm)
Australia
PHEASANT COUCAL
Centra?a ?batianinLB
zr jr 5 in (5j
8o cm)
eye rings and yellow and/or reddish bills. Coucals, a group of nventy-eight
mostlyground-feeding species, mainly ofAfrica and Southeast Asia, include
some of the largest family members, ranging up to about 3o inches (76 cm).
Cuckoos are mainly shy, solitary birds of forests, woodlands, and dense
thickets. Most are arboreal, and are known for their fast, graceful, undulating
flight.They eat insects and insect larvae, apparently having a special fondness
for caterpillars. Larger cuckoos will also take fruit, berries, and small
vertebrates. A few cuckoos, such as the Pheasant Coucal, are chiefy ground
dwellers, eating insects, but also vertebrates such as mice, small lizards, and
snakes.These coucals,which live in dense vegetation areas, do fly, albeit not
gracefully or for long distances; they prefer to run along the ground to catch
food or to escape from predators.
About 5o of the rzo-odd cuckoos are brood parasites. (In the New
World, only 3 cuckoos are parasitic, but they are in the ground-cuckoo
group, covered in the next account.) Coucals, couas, and malkohas are not
parasites, building their own nests and breeding monogamously. A given
parasitic cuckoo species usually parasitizes many different "host" species
(hosts are all passerines, or perching birds), but an individual female usually
lays in the nests of the same host species. A female cuckoo lays an egg in
a host nest usually when the host couple is absent, and she often removes
a host egg before laying her own (presumably so the same number of eggs
is in the nest when the hosts return). Many host species are smaller than
the cuckoos that parasitize them, so some cuckoos actually lay eggs that
are smaller than those of similar-size birds, so that their eggs more closely
match the size of the host's eggs. Other cuckoos lay eggs that resemble the
host's eggs in shell color and patterning.All these machinations are thought
to be adaptations so that the hosts cannot recognize the cuckoo eggs and
eject them (as happens in some species).When the cuckoo chickhatches,it
tosses other eggs and the host's own chicks out of the nest by pushing them
with its back. If any host chicks are left in the nest, the cuckoo chick, usually
larger, out-competes them for food brought to the nest by the host parents,
and the hosts'own young often starve or are significantly weakened.
Cuckoos, chiefly birds of forests, are threatened mainly by forest
destruction and degradation. Currentlysix species are consideredvulnerable
fi6
BrRDS
or rHE
woRLD
rt
le
)
;e
c
'b
Ground-cuckoos;
Anis; Hoatzrn
;S
1l
d
d
rt
o
rt
n
:S
v
n
:S
's
t]
cRouND-cucKoos, ANts,
rt
lizards, eggs, and small snakes, birds, and mammals, and occasionally seeds
and fruit.Three ground-cuckoos (including the Striped Cuckoo) are the
New World's only brood parasitic cuckoos: females lay their eggs in the
t
e
nests of other species, which then raise the young cuckoos as their own
offspring. Other ground-cuckoos, including the roadrunners, are traditional
monogamous breeders that place their stick nest on or near the ground. Some
ground-cuckoos are fairly common; one species is considered vulnerable.
Anis are conspicuous,gregarious birds of savannas,brushy scrubs, fields,
and river edges. The family, Crotophagidae, contains three ani species,
r67
LESSER ROADRUNNER
Geococtyt
rr in (28 cm)
Central America, South America
LESsER GROUND-CUCKOO
SMOOTH-BILLED ANI
Crotolhaga ani
r4 in (35 cm)
GROOVE-BILLED ANI
CUIRA CUCKOO
Guiraguira
r4 in (j6 cm)
South America
relox
I9 in (48 cm)
C r o t op h aga
rz
su
hiros tris
in (jz cm)
NLo/
No
57,:titr
l)it/tihtr/ion:
rolit;
o_l'Lit,ittg
No. o.f'STtcitr
ILr/trtrtb/,:,
litt,llttgtrd:
o, o
No ol STctitt E:rtittct
Sintt t6oct'o
threatened, are not often hunted because, owing to some of the plants they
eat, their meat smells and tastes aw{ul.
16g
IIOATT-IN
I)it/t ihtrlion
Not
/htt n South
tlnrr:ritn
No of'Litin.q
SpLtiLt. t
No o.l'Spttits
14r/trLroh/c,
liniong,:ru/: o,
No
Sirrtr r(tot:: o
Glaucidium ruruloides
9.5 in (24 cm)
Southern Asia
SUNDA SCOPS-OWL
Otu lem?ii
in (zo cm)
Southeast Asia
MARSH OWL
,4sio capentis
AFRICAN WOOD-OWL
Strix uoodfordii
I:-I4in(3o
ro in
Africa
36cm)
(u
Africa
cm)
PEARL-SPOTTED OWLET
Glaucidium ler/atuu
in (r9 cm)
75
Africa
Owls
as symbols of
wisdom (from
rhvsical traits-forward-facing
OWLS
T7T
Distrihution
A// continent.s cxcept
An/arctica
No. of Liring
Species
dB
No. ol Spccier
Vu/nerable,
Endangered: ro,
No. of Speties
Since 16oo: I
r.1
Extintt
BARN OWL
Tlto alba
rr 5-r7 5 in (29 .14 cm)
North America, South America, Europe,
Africa, Ausrralia, southern Asia
FERRUGTNOUS PYCMY-OWL
G / auc id i um b ras i / ian um
6-7
BLACK-BANDED OWL
Cictaba bubula
r3 5 in (34 cm)
South America
in (r5-19 cm)
IMM
BURROWING OWL
SNOWY OWL
Atbene cuniu/aria
Nlttea scandiata
75-ro in (r9-25
cm)
.4
{'
zj-z7in (59-69
cm)
BOREAL OWL
NORTHERN HAWK-OWL
Surnia u/ula
15
in
Aegoliusfunereus
8 5-rr in (zr-u 8 cm)
North America, Eurasia
(38 cm)
WESTERN SCREECH-OWL
Otur Aennicottii
9 io (u3 cm)
North America
-r4 in (25 j6
Australia
Etrix occidenta/is
16-19 in (4r-48 cm)
North America
North America
SOUTHERN BOOBOOK
Ninox boobooA
ro
SPOTTED OWL
cm)
RUFOUS OWL
Ninox rufa
15
BARN OWI,S
Distrihtiion:
tI//
ro n
ti n t n ts
^/l
r:xccf>1
ntorctico
No ol'Liring
Spacits: r6
No
Vrr
of'Spccics
/n c ra
h/t,
Endatt,qarcd: t,
No. a.f Spccil
SittcL
.1
l:xtinct
16oo:
c:
night, taking prey such as small mammals, birds (including smaller owls),
and reptiles; some take fish from the water's surface. Smaller owls specialize
on insects, earthworms, and other small invertebrates. Owls hunt by sight
and sound. Their vision is very good in low light, the amount given offby
moonlight, for instance.Their hearing is remarkable.They can hear much
softer sounds than most other birds, and the ears of many species have
different-size openings and are positioned on their heads asymmetrically,
the better for localizing sounds in space. In darkness, owls can, for example,
actually hear small rodents moving about on the forest floor and quickly
locate the source of the sound. Additionally, owing to the owl's soft, loose
feathers,its flightis essentiallysilent,permittingpreylittle chance ofhearing
its approach.The forward-facing eyes of owls are a trait shared with only
a few other animals: humans, most other primates, and to a degree, the
cats. Eyes arranged in this way allow for almost complete binocular vision
(one eye sees the same thing as the other), a prerequisite for good depth
perception,which, in turn, is important for quicklyjudging distances when
catching prey. On the other hand, owl eyes cannot move much, so owls
swivel their heads to look left or right. Owls swallow small prey whole, then
instead ofdigesting or passing the hard bits, they regurgitate bones, feathers,
and fur in compact owl pellets.These oblong pellets are often found beneath
trees or rocks where owls perch and, when pulled apart, reveal what an owl
has been dining on.
Most owls are monogamous.They do not build nests, but either take
over nests abandoned by other birds or nest in cavities such as tree or rock
holes. Incubation is usually conducted by the female alone, but she is fed by
her mate. Upon hatching, the female broods the young while the male hunts
and brings meals; later, the young are fed by both parents.
Because owls are cryptically colored and nocturnal, it can be difficult
to determine their population sizes. However, many species are known
to be threatened, especially among those restricted to islands. Most owls
inhabit tropical forests and, ofcourse, the extent ofthese forests is being
inexorably reduced. Among the typical owls, ten are vulnerable and thirteen
are endangered (seven of those critically); one barn owl is vulnerable and
three are endangered.
174
ns.
tat
1'),
Nightjars
ize
Iht
by
Lch
tve
llv,
rle,
dy
)se
ng
,ly
he
on
rth
.en
vls
.en
)rs,
rth
wl
ke
ck
by
1ts
rlt
NIGH
rrls
n8
en
nd
common and diverse oyer many parts of the planet, are considered to be
among the most poorly known of birds. Like their close relatives the owls,
they are active chiefly at night and this, combined with their secretive habits
and frequent silence, renders them difficult to observe and study. Nightjars
(family Caprimulgidae, in the order Caprimulgiformes with frogmouths
and potoos) are distributed essentially worldwide outside of polar regions,
u'ith the eighty-nine species occupying a broad range of forested and open
habitats. Many North American nightjars are called nighthawks (because
they were once mistaken for hawks flying at night) and poorwills (after
the vocalizations of some species). Nightjars as a group are sometimes also
called goatsuckers. At nvilight, some species fly low over the ground near
grazingmammals, such as goats.The birds flyright next to the mammals to
catch insects that flush as theywalk. Long ago the assumption was that the
birds were trying to suckthe goats'milk, so theywere called goatsuckers; this
fanciful name has stuck.Their order and family name comes from the Latin
c
VN
TJA
NIGHTJARS
175
Distribution:
A / I con tin
nts e xce/>t
/n/arctira
No.
ofLitting
Speries: 89
No. oJ-Specier
Vulnerab/a,
Endangered.3, 4
No
of Specics
Since
t6oo'
Extinct
LESSER NIGHTHAWK
SAND_COLORED
Chordeiles acuti2ennk
Cbordei/es rupestris
75-9 in (r9-23
cm)
5-9 5 in (r9-r4
NIGHTHAWK
cm)
South America
LYRE-TAILED NIGHTJAR
Uropsalis lyra
ro.5 in plus long tail (27 cm plus long tail)
South America
NACUNDA NIGHTHAWK
BUFF.COLLARED NICHT'AR
Podager nacunda
rz io (3o cm)
South America
Caprimulgus ridgeuayi
in (zj cm)
North America, Central Amelica
LARGE-TA]f,ED NIGHTJAR
CREAT EARED-NIGHTJAR
Caprimulgus nacrurut
Eurotto?oduJ macrotir
ro 5 in (:7 cm)
Southern Asia. Ausrralia
rz-15
in
(jr-4o
Southeast Asia
cm)
:iack. They often have white patches on their wings or tails that can be
.een only in flight. Nightjars range in length from 6 to 16 inches (r5 to 4o
:n); a few in Africa and South America have long tail streamers (modified
:iathers) that can add another 20 or more inches (5o+ cm).Two Southeast
-\sia species known as eared-nightjars have elongated feathers at the sides
ritheir head.
)Iost nightjars
NIGHTJARS
177
]AVAN FROGMOUTH
B atratb
os
tomus j aoent
TAWNY FROGMOUTH
it
Podargus strigoides
75-ro in(r9-z5cm)
r3
Southeast Asia
Ausrralia
MON POTOO
Nynibiut grieus
rj-r5 in (33-38 cm)
Nyctibius grandis
175 :r 5 in (45-55 cm)
COM
GREAT POTOO
5-zr in
OILBIRD
Steatornis cari2ensis
r5.5-19 5 in (4o-49 cm)
South America
(;l S:.-)
NORTHERN POTOO
Nyctibiusjamaiensis
r5-175in (38-44crn)
Mexico, Central America, Wesr Indies
F'rogmouths;
Owlct-Nightjars;
Potoos; Oilbird
The nocturnal birds discussed here are close relatives of the betterknown and more diverse nightjars and are included with them in order
Caprimulgiformes.
The twelve species of rnocMourns (family Podargidae) are
distributed in southern Asia and the Australian region. Named for their
massive, broad, slightly hooked bills, frogmouths are medium to largish (8
to z4 inches lzo to 6o cm]) gray or brown birds with short legs.They roost by
day on exposed tree branches, making use of their extremely cryptic plumage
and behavior to avoid detection by predators; they perch motionless with
their bills pointing upward, and strongly resemble dead branches. The
likeness is so close that bird-watchers sometimes stare and stare through
binoculars, trying to decide if the object they see is bird or branch. At dusk,
in their forest and woodland habitats, solitary frogmouths begin foraging.
They sit on various perches, detect prey-insects and spiders, snails, small
vertebrates-and then swoop and grab with their bill. Frogmouth nests
are small platforms or cups of twigs, moss, and lichens built fairly high in
trees. Eggs are incubated by the female only or by both sexes and young are
fed by both parents. No frogmouths are currently threatened, but five are
considered near-threatened.
owLET-
IGHTJAns (familyAegothelidae)
179
f'taoGNl()U'flls
l)ittt
ihtrtit,n
Soulhtru llsirt,
tl tr;tra/utiu
No
of
Lit,ittg
S/',:rics tz
No.
11
ol Slccitt
Dndongart:t/. o,
t>
Sintt 16oo: o
intt
OWI,ET-NIGHTJARS
Distrihtrtion'
/ustnr/rsitr
t6oo:
Dirtribution:
catch
egg in a crevice of
to both nightjars and owls, Oilbirds have a batlike existence. Brown with
whitish spots, approximately 18 inches (a6 cm) long, they have wingspans
No. ofLiting
of about 3.3 feet (r m) and hawklike bills. They live in immense colonies
Specias: r
associatedwith large caves.The Oilbird is one ofthe fewbird species to use
No ofSpetics batlike echolocation to help navigate the night and cave darkness. Birds
Vtlnarah/e,
emerge from their cave entrance every evening to spend the night searching
l)ndongered: o, o
for fruits; before dawn they return to the cave. They stay in pairs and roost
No. aJ'Spccies Extinct
year-round at their nest sites on ledges within the cave.The nest is made of
Sinrc t(toct: o
droppings and partially digested fruit pulp. Both sexes incubate and feed
young. Fed only fruits (a low-protein diet), young develop slowly. Oilbirds
are not threatened, but young oilbirds have long been harvested from caves
for their fat deposits, used to provide oil for lamps and cooking. Many oilbird
Nortbern Sottb
Atncrica
r8o
rills,
[h.y
lh.y
Swifts; Treeswifts
des,
lian
[.ale
bate
iletJae)
o23
ings
:ads,
s sit
into
I ate
Lally
rtch
nful
ngle
exes
sual
rted
rrith
ans
ries
use
rds
ng
)st
of
:d
is
3S
.d
SWIFTS; TREESWIFTS
r8r
Distrihrttiort
A/I rcntirrutIr txtarbt
tl rr /trn tiu
No oJ-l,irittn
,S7cci,':; Ahou19.;
No. a/'Sptcitt
Jittlrr ttwrci: .i, t
No
o.f SpiciLs
SittLL't(t<>o.
t>
l')xtitttr
SHORT-TAILED SWlFT
Stre?/o?rotne zonariJ
Chaetura brachluru
in (z: cm)
Centrzrl America, South America
8 5
HOUSE SWIFT
,4pus niValentit
6
in (r5 cm)
Southern Asia
in (ro cm)
South America
ASIAN PALM-SWIFT
Clpsiurut balasiensit
5 in (r3 cm)
Southern Asia
WgITE-THROATED NEEDLETAIL
CRESTED TREESWIFT
Hirundapus caudatutut
8 in (zo cm)
Asia, Australia
Hemiprocne coronata
9
in
(24 cm)
Southern Asia
EDIBLE-NEST SWIFTLET
AerodramusJfuipbagur
4 5 in (rz cm)
Southeast Asia
WHISKERED TREESWIFT
Hefri?rocne comata
6 5 in (16 cm)
Southeasr Asia
in
1evel
birds'saliva.
A few species ofswifts are known to be rare and are considered threatened;
tbr many others, so little is known that PoPulation sizes or r'rrlnerabilities are
uncertain. Frve are classified as vulnerable and one, the Guam Swiftlet, is
endangered.In general, people dont disturb or harm swifts, aside from the
Slt,I/IFTS;TREESWIFTS
r83
Distribtttion
Pa r t.; oJ's
th cr n
r.t
tl s i a,
Malrrrtesiu
No. ol'Lioing
Spctirr: I
No. oJ'Spccits
Vu
lnarahlc,
Enlangercl: o, o
No
o.f'Spct
ia
Sin.ct 16oo: o
l:x
tin
GREEN VIOLET-EAR
WHIl'E-1'IPPED SICKLEBILL
Colibri thalassinur
4 5 in (rr cm)
Eutoxeres aquila
in
(r3 cm)
Sourh America
CREEN THORNTAIL
FORK.TAILED WOODNYNIPH
Ditotura contcrsii
Tbaluraniafuriata
3-4 in (8 ro cm)
South America
Palagona gi&aj
8 5 in (zr cm)
Sourh America
CIIINIBORAZO HILLSTAR
Oreotrocbi I us ch in bo razo
5 in (r3 crn)
South America
Hummingbirds
HUMMINGBIRDS
I85
N,:rt WorlJ
ol'Lit,irtg
STttir; t1bout33o
No.
No of Slctits
Vr/rttruh/,:,
llnittrgtrul.
Nc
of'STeci
t:
Sinct r6oo. z
t1,
zo
l-)x/ i n
tl
SWORD-BILLED HUMMINGBIRD
Ensifera enstfera
6 5-9 io (r7-uj cm)
South America
GORGETED SUNANGEL
H e li an ge I u s s tr o2 h ian
4 5 in (rr cm)
South America
45
t b ra
ro th o
us
rax nigr
i c o // i
HERMIT
Phaetbornis hispidut
5 in (I3 cm)
in (rz crn)
WHITE-BEARDED
BOOTED RACKET-TAIL
Ocreatus underuoodii
6-7 in (r5-r8 cm)
South America
South Americr
LONC-TAILED SYLPH
,4glaiotertrs kingi
4-7 5 in (ro r9 cm)
South ALrerica
PERUVIAN SI]EARTAIL
'lhawnaslura rcta
3-5 in (8 ri cm)
SorLth
ALrerica
te
r I o ngiro s tri t
CRIMSON TOPAZ
Topaza pel/a
in (rz cm)
in (r3-23 cm)
South America
South America
3-4 in (8-ro
cm)
Sorrth America
\I]OLET-CRO!VNED
.4gvtria u-iolire2t
in (ro cm)
Norrtr Arnerica
+
RED.BILLED STREAMERTAIL
Troililm 2olltnus
4.5-ru in (rr -jo cm)
West Indies
HUNIMINCBI RD
BUll BLF,BEE
Atthis beloisa
j in (7 cm)
Nlexico
H U Nl NII
^-G
BIRD
specialized tongues to lick nectar from slender fower tubes, which they
do while hovering. Because nectar is mostly a sugar and water solution,
hummingbirds need to obtain additional nutrients, such as proteins, from
other sources.Toward this end they also eat the odd insect or spider, which
they catch in the air or pluck offspiderwebs. Hummers are capable of very
rapid, finely controlled, acrobatic flight, more so than any other kind of
bird.The bones of their wings are modified to allow for perfect, stationary
hovering flight and for the unique ability to fly backward. Their wings
vibrate in a figure eight-like wingstroke at up to eighty times per second.
To pump enough oxygen and nutrient-delivering blood around their little
bodies, hummer hearts beat up to ten times faster than human hearts-six
hundred to one thousand times per minute. To obtain sufficient energy
to fuel their high metabolism, hummingbirds must eat many times a day.
Qrick starvation results from an inability to feed regularly. Predators
on hummingbirds include small, agile hawks and falcons, as well as frogs
and large insects, such as prayrng mantises, that ambush the small birds as
theyfeed at flowers.
Hummingbirds are polygamous breeders in which females do almost
all the work. In some species, a male in his territory advertises for females
by singing squeaky songs. A female enters the territory and, following
courtship displays, mates. She then leaves the territory to nest on her own.
Other species are lek breeders. In these cases, males gather at traditional,
communal mating sites called leks. Each male has a small mating territory in
the lek, perhaps just
leave the lek or territory and build their nests,which are cuplike and made
Habitat loss and degradation are the main threats to these stunning
little birds. About twenty-nine hummingbird species in Mexico, Central
America, and South America are considered threatened,with about twenty
of these currently endangered. Nine of the latter are critically endangered,
with tinyranges and miniscule populations.
r88
ey
rflr
Mousebirds
:h
ry
of
ty
gs
.d.
1e
ix
}V
)J
Ly.
rS
gs
AS
MousEBI RDS
and foliage, they frequently anger and frustrate farmers and gardeners,
but
spcti."
St
they are also appreciated for their sociable, playful habits. They are named No of'Spt:cic;
CS
r8
n.
rl,
in
ty
SS
ES
le
o
6'
3r
Ld
rg
al
ry
d,
and
[1r/rt' rnhlt:,
I'tttltttt?ititl o'o
drab,withlongtails)andtheirtypicalsmall-rodentlikebehaviorsofscuttling
through vegetation,living in groups, and huddling together. There are only ltll' o1"\lLti
six mousebirds (called colies in some parts of Africa), comprising family '5tttiL'I()oo"
Coliidae (placed in its own order, Coliiformes, the only order wholly endemic
to Africa). Mousebirds are noted among ornithologists mainly for their
classification: although they resemble perching birds (order Passeriformes)
and historically were placed in that group, research over many decades
indicates that mousebirds are actually a distinct, probably ancient group, not
closely related to other birds, which is why they now have their own order.
All mousebirds (rr to 15 inches [28 to 38 cm] in length, including long
tail) are similar in appearance.They have short necks; short, rounded wings;
short, robust, somewhat finchlike billsl pronounced crests that flatten when
theyfly; and long (7 touinches [r8 to z8 cm]), stifftails.Their short legs have
curious feet; all four toes can face forward, but one or tvvo are flexible enough
to be turned back for gripping. Mousebirds often hang from branches,
instead ofperching like other birds. Feathers are soft and frilly, and owing
to this, their plumage is less waterproof than that of most birds; they easily
MOUSEBIRDS
r8g
Exl intt
WHITE-HEADED
Colius leucoce2lsa/us
rz io (jo cm)
Afiica
MOUSEBIRD
persecuted by farmers for this reason, and many are also killed by agricultural
\-_-
MOUSEBIRDS
r9r
RESPLENDENT QUETZAL
GOLDEN-HEADED QUETZAL
Pbaromachrus auritept
Pbaromachrut mocinno
WHITE.TAILED
Trogox
South America
TROCON
oiridit
Priatelus temnurus
in
ro 5 in (27 cm)
West Indies
(24 cm)
Har?ac te t e rl t br o reqba I us
13
in (33 cm)
Southeast Asia
Ttngons
o c o N S,
TROGONS
193
Di;tribtrtion;
Nezl Lforll,tll) iru,
to
thtrn
/1 si
t,
nt u i n
/y
in tht 7)'opit;
No
o.l
Litittg
Spctit:..19
No. o.f-Sltrit:
Vulrttrahb,
EnJon.garLd:
c:t
No. o.f'S7 a t i t s l: r
,9intL
t6oo'ct
tint
end of the male's typical trogon tail. This large trogon was revered or even
considered sacred by the ancient inhabitants of Central America, including
the Mayans, and is now a national symbol of Guatemala.
I94
/en
irg
Kingfishers
reir
;tic
lan
ch.
.ge.
)n8
the
his
3nt
:ch
FCS
ils,
rit.
in
'ed
eir
tes
ted
of
ill
;tS
le
ly
al
ie
,e
;,
a
I N G F I s H E R s are handsome,
the seashore.
Kingfishers range in size from small to largish birds,but all are similar
in form: large heads with very long, robust, straight bills, short necks, short
legs, and, for some, noticeable crests. The smallest species is the 4-inch
(ro-cm) African Dwarf Kingfisher, and the largest is Australia's Laughing
Kookaburra,atup to 18 inches (+6 cm). Kingfishers are usuallyquite colorful,
often with brilliant blues or greens predominating (and sometimes both).
There are some regional patterns, such as in Australia,where blue and white,
alongwith chestnut-orange is common,and in the NewWorld,where dark
green or blue-gray above, and white or chestnut-orange and white below, is
the norm. Male and female kingfishers often look alike, but in some the two
sexes differ in plumage pattern, especially on the breast.
Many kingfishers, as the name suggests, are fish-eaters. Usually seen
hunting alone, they sit quietly, attentively on a low perch, such as a tree
KTNGFTSHERS
I95
BELTED KINCFISHER
AMAZON KINGFISHER
WH]TE-THROATED KINGFISHER
Ceryle a/c1on
Cb/orocerl/e amazona
rz in (3o cm)
Halcyon smyrnensit
Southern Asia
rr-r3 in (:8-33
cm)
rr in (28 cm)
BLUE.BREASTED KINGFISHER
SHINING-BLUE
Halclton ma/imbica
ro in (25 cm)
,4ltedo quadribruchys
6 5 in (16 cm)
Af rica
Africa
KINGFISH ER
BUFF-BREASTED PARADISE-KINGFISHER
BLUE-W]NCED KOOKABURRA
Tanytip*ra ryltia
rr 5 14 5 in (29 -37 cm)
Dacelo leacbii
r5.5 io (4o cm)
SACRED KINCFISHER
Todiramphus nnctus
8 5 in (zz cm)
Ausralasia, Indonesia
bridge spanning
a stream,
territory but remain there for up to 4 years, helping their parents defend
the territory and raise more young. Manyyoung kingfishers aPparently die
during their first attempts at diving for food. Some have been seen first
practicing predation by capturing floating leaves and sticks.
Most kingfishers are moderately to very abundant; some do quite well
around human settlements. Being primarily forest birds, the main threat
they face is loss of their forest habitats. Eleven species, most restricted
to small islands, are vulnerable; one is endangered (French Polynesia's
I'Iarquesan Kingfi sher).
KINGFISHERS
tg7
AD-BILLED TODY
JAMAICAN TODY
Todus todus
4 5 in (rr cm)
Jamaica
Todies
199
body weight in a day. Typically a tody sits quietly on a twig with its head
cocked upward, alertly scanning the leaves above. Upon spotting an insect,
the bird flits upward in an arc, snatches the bug from, often, the bottom of
a leaf, then settles on another twig, and begins the process again.Todies in
some habitats will also dart out from a perch and catch insects in the air,
like flycatchers, and sometimes even hover a bit, like hummingbirds. When
alarge prey item is caught, a todywill often beat it on a branch to stun it
so it can be easily swallowed. Occasionally these birds consume spiders,
millipedes, small fruits and berries, andtinylizards.Todies are territorial and
may stay in pairs allyear. Sometimes they temporarily join mixed-species
foraging flocks with such other birds
as
2OO
Motmots
IS,
rh
r),
)d
IC
]S
h
)S
:e
St
o
'6
v
S,
1t
Mo
it
c
b
MOTMOT
Dislt iittr/iott
NLotrclitt
No o.l'l,iring
sft(LiL't. to
littlttt,ii, rLl. t,
No
ol'Sil','t
t'
,\ittLt tr'toc:',t
t:
L,s t i tt, /
Motmots
'c
'",
:h
r),
)d
IC
)S
h
]S
:e
St
o
'b
v
S,
o
b
1t
it
e
0
lr
I s, although
Mo
MOTMOTS
l-)itlt ibtrttotr
llo.
o,/
Lirittg
SVLcit.r: rr.t
No.0.7"\pttitt
lirln,'r,rhit,
L,t
it.\,' r,',/ :
No of'S/',:tiLt
S'inct t(t<><t
ct
t,
ts
]')xr i tt;1
RUEOUS MOTMOT
Barypbthengus
nartii
BROAD-BILLED MOTMOT
Eletron platyrbynchum
rz-r5.5 in (3r-39 cm)
Ceutral America, South America
BLUE-CROWNED MOTMOT
MofrotL$ fiomola
15-17in (j8-4j cm)
NIexico, Central America. South America
TURqUOISE-BROWED MOTMOT
KEEL.BILLED MOT]\TOT
Euilofrota su?eftiliotq
r3-r5 in (jj j8 cm)
E/*tron tarinalunt
rz-15 in (jr-38 cm)
Central America
Cenrral America
TODY MOTMOT
Hllomanes momotu/a
6 5 in (r7 cm)
Central America
RUSSET-CROWNED MOTMOT
Momotus mexicanus
rz-r4in (3r-36
cm)
brushing against tree branches and other wearing, resulting in short lengths
of barbless vane and, below this area, in racketlike feather tips. Male and
female motmots are alike in size and coloring.
Motmots are arboreal residents of, mainly, forests and woodlands,
but they also occur in more open habitats, such as orchards, tree-lined
plantations, suburban parks, and some drier scrub areas.They are predators
on insects (particularlybeetles, butterflies, dragonflies, and cicadas), spiders,
and small frogs,lizards, and snakes, which they snatch in the air, offleaves,
utility
sometimes idly swinging their long tails back and forth,
wires, or fences,
until they spy a suitable meal.They then dart quickly, seize the prey, and ferry
it back to the perch. If the item is large or struggling-like a big beetle or
lizard-the motmot will hold it tight in its bill and whack it noisily against
the perch before swallowing it. Motmots also eat small fruits, up to the size
of plums, which they collect from trees while briefly hovering. Motmots
occur either solitarily or in pairs and may remain in pairs throughout the year
(although the sexes may separate during the day to feed). An unusual feature
of their behavior is that motmots typically are active well into twilight, going
to sleep later than most other birds.
Following suitable courtship activities (such as male and female calling
back and forth high up in the trees or holding bits of leaves in their bills),
motmots begin breeding.They are monogamous and nest solitarily in burrows.
Both male and female dig the burrow, often placed in the vertical bank of
river or road.Tunnels range up to 13 feet (4 m) long, but most are on the order
of5 feet (r.5 m). Both parents incubate eggs and feed the young. Nestlings are
fed insects and,when older, other animal food, such as small lizards.
Several ofthe motmots are rare over parts oftheir ranges,but they are not
but is common only in small, isolated areas within that range, in southern
Mexico, Belize,Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica; because of this
highly fragmented distribution and an apparently small total population,
the Keel-billed is considered mlnerable.The forests in which this species
occurs are continually reduced and degraded, so habitat loss is the prime
threat to its existence.
MOTMoTS
2O3
CHESTNUT-HEADED
BEE-EATER
RED-BEARDED BEE.EATER
amittus
ro 5-ru in (27-3r cm)
Merops /escbenaulti
8 in (zo cm)
Nlttlornit
Southern Asia
Southeast Asia
Merops putil/u:
6 5 in (r7 cm)
Africa
Bee-eaters
- EAT
ER
and hornbills.
Slender, streamlined birds with long, thin, sharply pointed, down-curved
bills, bee-eaters are often dazzling in their bright plumage of greens, blues,
and reds.They range in length from 6 to 15 inches (16 to 38 cm). Most have
thick black eye stripes and long tails. In some, the two central tail feathers
grow very long, and these streamers can add up to 4 inches (ro cm) to a bird's
length.The sexes look alike or nearly so.
as
bare branches or
BEE-EATERS
205
l)isrribution'
O/d Wror/l
No of'Lit,int
Spetics'2.;
No. of-Spcciar
[/u lntro h/t,
l)nlun,qertd. o, o
No. of Spetit:
Since r(too. o
Extintl
their surroundings carefully, then sally out to catch prey that flies by.They
snatch insects out of the air with the tip of their bill, then return to a perch,
often the same one they just left. They take many different insects, but
between 6o percent and 9o percent oftheir prey consists ofbees,wasps, and
hornets.To avoid being stung, they grip these insects by their abdomens and
beat and rub them against a tree branch or other surface until the venom
is discharged; the bird then removes the insect's wings and swallows the
bodywhole. Bee-eaters may also have some immunity to bee venom. Some
species in Africa routinely attend brush fires to feast on insects driven up
by the flames, and they will follow grazing mammals and even large birds
such as Ostriches to catch insects flushed out of hiding places as the large
animals walk. Bee-eaters, highly soc ral,are usually in pairs or family groups,
or during the winter, in large flocks. They are very vocal; individuals in
groups call frequently to each other during foraging sessions. Mostly aerial
animals, bee-eaters only occasionally come to the ground. Many species
are migratory, probably because insect availability in any one region often
changes dramatically through the year.
Bee-eaters nest in horizontal burrows (some up to 8 feetlz.4m] long)
that they excavate in steep hillsides, earthen roadsides, riverbanks, or the
ground. Breeding is monogamous,with both sexes contributing to nesting
chores. Some species nest solitarily, but many breed in colonies of various
sizes, sometimes thousands nesting together. In several species, mostly the
ones that nest in colonies, the nesting pair has adult helpers, relatives of
the breeding pair, that aid in bringing food to nestlings; in these species,
anywhere from two to eight adults tend a single nest. Adults bring insects
to the young (after rendering bees and wasps harmles s), feeding them at the
nest tunnel's entrance; young know to move there when they hear adults
arrive with food.In some species, mated pairs stay together for life.
None of the bee-eaters are considered threatened, and many species are
very common.These birds are killed in some parts of their range because
of their habit of perching near commercial beehives and feeding on the
stinging insects. Some forest-dwelling species suffer when their forest
habitats are logged or altered for agriculture. For instance, Southeast
Asias Red-bearded Bee-eater has experienced a significant reduction in its
range where its tropical forest habitats have been converted to oil palm and
rubber plantations.
206
rey
,Ch,
)ut
rnd
md
)m
the
me
Rollcrs;
Ground-Rollcrs;
Cuckoo-Rollcr
up
rds
rge
IPS,
;in
rial
:ies
ten
rg)
the
irg
fus
the
;of
ies,
)cts
the
rlts
are
use
the
'est
ast
L
its
rnd
207
ROI"LERS
l)istri/tu/ion'
Oll
Worltl
No.
o/-Liting
SVtcits tz
No of Spttia:
ht/ntrahlc.
llndangartd. t, o
No
o.l'Spetics
Sittcc t6oc>'o
Extintt
RUFOUS-CROWNED ROLLER
Coracias nqetia
14-r5
Africa
P]TTA-LIKE CROUND-ROLLER
,4telonis ?iiloider
ro-rr 5 in (25-29 cm)
Leptosomus discalor
Madagascar
Madagascar
CUCKOO-ROLLER
r5-r9.5 in (38-5o cm)
in (35-4o cm)
As befitting birds that sometimes chase and catch insects in the air,
rollers are agile fliers.Their prowess is especially evident when (in some
species) they perform their exuberant "rolling" aerial displays, which are
thought to be directed aggressively at other rollers and territorial intruders
(including people).They dont actually ro11, that is, they do not somersault
in the air. Rather, in these displays the bird flies straight up into the air, then
dives toward the ground while turisting its trunk this way and that, beating
its wings, and giving loud, raucous calls; near the ground it levels out, swoops
up again, and repeats the process.The displays may also help maintain pair-
No oJ'Liling
STacias:5
No. of STtcits
L1 /ntrablr,
Endungtril:.7,
No
of-Sfacits
Sincc
t6oo
Dxtintt
CUCKOO-ROLLER
Disl rih u/ iott
Matlagastar, Oamoro
I.;/nn ds
No.
ofLit,ittg
Spccics:
No ofSpttitr
14r/ncrah/,:,
in rock crevices. Eggs are incubated by both parents, and both feed the
)'oung. Some rollers may have long lives, estimated at more than zo years or
more. Indonesia's Azure Roller, an island-dwelling forest species, is the only
threatened roller, considered vulnerable.
D irtribu /ion.
Moda.gosctr
2O9
Lttdangcr,:d.
No
ct
of Sparics Extintt
Si nte
16oo o
n
BROWN HORNB]LL
,4norrbinus tirAelli
z3
Sourheast Asia
WREATHED HORNBlLL
Rhytiterot undu/atus
z9 -;-33 5 in (;S-8S cm)
Southeasr Asia
RHINOCEROS HORNBILL
Buctrot rhinoceros
3r -5
1-5 5
in (8o 9o cm)
Sourheirsr
Asia
I]EL}IETED
Rhinoplu
,6
.+l
HORNBII,]
tigil
in (rro-12o cm)
Sourheest
Asil
EEKED HORNBILL
By,anites brcris
S] I VERY-CL]
tj ;-
z7 5in
(6o ;o
SOU
I]IERN YELI-OW-BlLLED
ll'otkus
cro)
15 5
Aiiica
/tutomc/rr
in (4o cnr)
Sourhern
Africr
CRO\ryNED HORNB] LI
Tctlut albotrrninalts
l)
in (-5o cLr)
AfLica
5 39 -; i[ (9o
,\fricr
19
j5
to
t.t r
r a h y.t
us
roo cm)
HORN BII,L
Hornbills
HoRNBILLS,with their large size, huge bills, often bold colors, and
I)it/ribttiort
t1f
New Guinea region, the sole places they occur, hornbills are often at or near the
top of must-see lists.The sounds hornbills generzteare almost
as
impressive
as
>
HORNBILLS
2rl
)'irt,
Me
wu thcr n
titt,
lantria
No. ol'Littin.q
Spt, iar: 5q
No. o.l'Sft:citr
Vu
lncrah/t,
Endangarel. 5,
No.
of- Slac i t r
Sinrt 16oo: o
I:x
t i tt
ct
small family groups. Many species spend most of their time in the canopy of
forests butwill move lower to exploit a good food supply, such as a fruiting
tree; some
known
species,
ground hornbills, are large, turkey-size black birds with long legs
and red and blue throatwattles; they spend most oftheir time on the ground,
flying only reluctantly. Hornbills eat a wide range ofplant and animal food,
from berries and fruits to insects,lizards,snakes, and small mammals.They
can even use their massive bill to delicately gather termites. Small prey is
killed with a nip, tossed to the back of the throat, and swallowed; larger prey
is passed back and forth along the bill until it is crushed, then eaten.
Hornbill breeding is among the most unusual in the avian world. After
as
cavity in alarge tree, the female enters it and, with the male's
help,begins to place mud and droppings to make the entrance to the cavity
a
pair selects
tiny vertical slit. She lays eggs and incubates them, dependent on the
male to bring her food. When the young hatch, the male brings food for
them as well.In at least some species there are extra adults, probablyyoung
from previous years, that help feed the female and her young inside their
"prison."In some hornbills,the female chips herwayout ofthe cavitybefore
the young are ready to emerge and escapes to help feed them.The young
birds instinctively replaster the hole shut with their own droppings; they
continue to be fed through the slit until they are ready to fledge.Then they
chip away at the plastered hole, usuallywith no help from the parents, and
squeeze out. In other species, the female and chicks emerge from the nest
hole together.The function ofthe plastered-shut hole is probablyprotection
from predators. Breeding adults may remain together for life.
Hornbills generally are thought to be declining throughout their range.
They are large and obvious, and in some regions are still hunted for food and
the pet trade. However, the chiefthreat is deforestation: they are increasingly
losing their forest homes, especially the large, old trees they use for nest
holes,which loggers prefer. Frve species are vulnerable and four, endangered
(two critically).
a
2r2
of
rg
)S,
7q
f'
d,
d,
1y
is
Jacamars;
Woodhoopoes;
Hoopoe
?y
er
)t
q
f,r
)e
cr
]g
:ir
re
)g
?y
ey
rd
:St
)n
ie.
1d
ly
St
:d
s are small to medium-size slender birds with very long, fine JACA MA R s
bills, which they use to catch insects in flight. Their plumage varies among Distrihution;
species from fairly drab to brightly colored and iridescent, but most are Neotropics
sufficiently brilliant-with glittering green and blue backs and headsr :-,;-.
^r^ ^t
';;r:{r:';''r
that the group is considered one of the Neotropics'flashiest.Their overall
appearance, including the shimmering plumage,long, delicate bills, and No. of Species
often seemingly excited demeanor, causes many first-time observers to Vulnerable,
wonder if they might be oversize hummingbirds. But the eighteen jacamar Endangered: t, t
species are not even close relatives of hummingbirds, being most closely No. oJ-species Extintt
related to puffbirds, and the family, Galbulidae, is usually included in the since 16oo o
woodpecker order, Piciformes.Jacamars,which occur in Central and South
America, range from 5.5 to 13 inches Q4 to 34 cm) long. Male and female
usually differ slightly in color pattern.
JAC A M A
while it attempts escape and also in holdingwasps and other stinging insects
at safe distances from vulnerable anatomy. Other common diet items are
beetles, bees, and dragonflies; one also eats spiders and smalllizards.
2I3
WHITE-EARED JACAMAR
RUFOUS-TAILED JACAMAR
Calhula rufrrau,la
7
G a/balqtrbyn t h
ro in (r9-25 cm)
le uco
tit
South America
HOOPOE
Upupa epops
Calbula pastazae
9
ut
io (zo cm)
ro
in (23 cLn)
rz 5 io (26-32 crn)
South Arnerica
Rhino2omastut minot
9
in (23 cm)
Africa
',',i,ii,,),'i)'""
Suh-Sthuntn
tll)'ito
No. of'Lit'in,g
52eri,:t:
No. o.l'Spttitr
to habitat loss and small ranges,two species are threatened; one is considered
Vultt, rahlt,
|)nrltngcrel: o,
2I5
IlooPoE
Distrihution.
l')u rn
tin,
/li
ictr
No. o./'Lit,ing
Speci,:r:
No. ol'Spuies
lltlntralth,
Lndangertl: o,
WHTTE-NECKED PUFFBIRD
o t h att h ut m ac rorhl,n t h o s
ro in (25 cm)
Cenrral America, South America
SWALLOW-WINCED PUFFBIRD
C b e I i d o? t.ra
te n e br os
in (r5 cm)
South America
6
WHITE-FRONTED NUNBIRD
Monasa morphoeut
3
5-rr
in (:r-29
cLn)
WHITE-CHESTED
Malaroptilafusca
7 5 in (r9 cm)
South America
BLACK.FRONTED NUNBIRD
Monasa nigrifrons
rr in (28 cm)
South America
PUFFBIRD
WHITE_EARED PUFFBIRD
Nystalus rbacuru
8 5 in (zz cm)
South Americz
Puffbirds
s, like their close relatives the jacamars, are smal1 to mediumsize arboreal birds of neotropical forests that make a living catching insects.
There the resemblance ends,because puffbirds differ markedlyfrom jacamars
in general form, brightness of coloration, main feeding method, and even
in daily demeanor.Jacamars are slender with long, fine, mostly straight
bills; pufibirds are stockywith thick, heary, hooked bills.Jacamars are often
radiantly colorful and glossy; puffbirds are covered in subdued browns, grays,
black, and white.Jacamars snatch insects from the air, puftbirds take a lot
of their prey offleaves, tree trunks and branches, and from the ground.
Jacamars have alert, bright, convivial personalities; puftbirds are dull, often
sitting quietly and still on tree branches for long periods, even sometimes
allowing people quite close before fleeing.The sedate dullness ofthese birds
led many early observers to consider them stupid-and, indeed, this is their
local reputation in many regions within their range.They are not dumb; their
sometimes slowways are related to their foraging methods (see below).The
thirty-three species in the puffbird family, Bucconidae, some ofwhich are
known as nunbirds, nunlets, and monklets, are distributed from southern
Mexico to northern Argentina,with most occurring in the Amazonregion.
The group is usually included in the woodpecker order, Piciformes (but some
recent classifications place the puffbirds andjacamars in their own, separate,
order, Galbuliformes). Most puftbirds are fairly small, but they range from 5
to rr.5 inches (r3 to z9 cm) in length.Theyhave distinctivelylarge heads and
loose plumage that, when fluffed out, produces a chubby, puft appearance.
u
FFB
PUFFBIRDS
217
Dirtribulion'
Ncotropics
No o.fLitting
SVecies: -1j
No. of-Specics
Vu/nerablc,
Endangcretl: o, o
No
of Specie r l')xtincl
Since
t6oo
zt8
ntly
), or
r its
Barbets
rch,
will
ged
lno
tod
]CtS
rds
reir
em
;of
iet.
ARBET
tPS,
because of their beauty, sometimes melodic songs, and because they can be
sat
fun to try to identiSr, as, in some regions, several species look much alike,
rvith only subtle differences in color patterns.There are about eighty-two
barbet species distributed broadly in tropical South and Central America,
Africa, and southern Asia; some range into subtropical regions.The family,
Capitonidae,is usuallyplaced in the order Piciformes,with the woodpeckers
and toucans; some authorities divide the NewWorld and OldWorldbarbets
into separate families.
Rather husky, small to medium-size birds (ranging in length from 4 to 14
inches [ro to 35 cm]),barbets are big-headed and short-necked, and possess
sturdy,large (but not long) bills, sometimes notched to help them grip food.
The barbet name derives from the bristles that surround the base of the bil1.
be
atPS,
a.te
me
1at
its,
rds
ale
U
5'
ies
tay
;is
nd
is
usually combinations
of
African
BARB ET
with
2r9
Dittrihution:
Soutb and
Ctntro/
tlmcrica, Afiira,
soutbern Asiu
No.
ofLit,ing
Sptcies Bz
No
Vu
of-Spccicr
lnerab/t,
Endangered: o, r
No. of'Speiies
Since
16oo'o
Ertinct
:\,,
CREAT BARBET
Megalaima virens
r3 5 in (34 cm)
Southern Asia
BLUE.EARED BARBET
Megalaima auilralis
6 5 in (r7 cm)
Southeast Asia
COPPERSMITH BARBET
M ega la im a h a e m a cep h al a
6.5 in (16 cm)
Southern Asia
FIRE-TUFTED BARBET
Atiica
Southern
TOUCAN BARBET
Semtornil ran?hastinur
8 io (zo cm)
South America
SCARLET.BANDED BARBET
Capito wallacei
8 in (zo cm)
Sourh America
Psiloqogon
qyrolopbut
Bf,ACK-SPOTTED BARBET
Calito niger
(r8 cm)
7 in
South America
Tricb o la em a
6
in
le u co m
I as
(r7 cm)
Aliica
dead branches) where they live because barbets excavate cavities in wood
in
which to roost and nest. Many species feed in the forest canopy, but others
tend to forage lower down in trees and bushes and some will even hop about
on the ground.They have a reputation as fruit-eaters, and they commonly eat
fruits, especially figs, but many are actually fairly omnivorous, also taking (to
varying degrees according to species) plant buds and seeds, insects, spiders,
scorpions, centipedes, snails, and worms. Barbets are agile feeders, clinging
to bark and hanging at odd angles to reach particularly fine fruits or berries;
often they use their tails to support themselves on tree trunks and branches.
Some regularly join mixed-species feeding flocks, typically high in the
canopy.Theyoften stayin mated pairs, and these pairs can be very aggressive,
defending their territories and chasing other barbets from fruiting trees.
Others are quite gregarious and live in family groups, usually of three to
five birds. Larger groups occasionally gather at fruit-laden trees. Many
African barbets are known for their loud, raucous duets. A pair perches close
together and, bobbing up and down, wagging their tails, and flicking their
wings, bursts into song-sometimes alternating notes, sometimes singing
simultaneously, but in such a coordinated manner that it sounds like one song
and it is impossible to tell which bird is producing which sounds.
Barbets are apparently all monogamous, although the breeding habits
of
several species are poorly known.They nest in tree cavities, usually ones they
excavate themselves using their powerful bills; sometimes they take over
termite mounds, or even into the ground. Both sexes incubate eggs and feed
young. Nestlings are fed insects or insects and fruit. Some species breed in
cooperative groups,with several helpers, probablyyoung from the previous
year, aiding the mated pair; the helpers assist in defending the territory and
BARBETS
17
r9
il
er.v t ht
cpygi
(43-.+8 cm)
Sorrrh Americr
roil r i s
rB-zoin(46-5rcm)
South,{Lrericr
E}]ERAI-D LOUCANF]J
ulatot h.ynth ut 2rusi nr r
r2 r+ ; in (jo- 3; cm)
,4
Sourh Arnerica
a rs i
5-r8in(4:-.16cnr)
lan
,4 n d i ge n
13
Ram?hortot tu.nnus
zr-zj in (51 -53 cnr)
CURL-CRESTED ARACAR]
16
OIICANI]1
ra r e i n a^ d r,1 t i i
(34 crn)
5 in
S e I m i dc
South Arnericr
South Aruerica
Pteroglos r s b ea ubarn
GOLDEN-COLLARED'f
fOCO TOUCAN
RanPhastar to.o
zr ,;-z.1in (55-6r crn)
SoLrth
Arnerica
SPOl'.BILLED TOUCANET
Se I tn i dt' ra n a I i ro s tr i s
13 r4 5 in (3-j 37 cor)
t
Sourh America
Toucans
\
TOUCANS
223
Distribution:
Neotropics
No.
afLiting
Speries'About 4o
No. of Species
Vulnerahle,
Endangered: o,
No. of Species
Since
t6oo:
Extinct
their long bill allowing them to perch on heavier, stable branches and
reach
a clistance for hanging fruits.They snip a fruit off, hold
it at the tip of the
bill, and then,with a forward flip ofthe head, toss the fruit into the air
and
swallow it.They increase their protein intake by consuming the
odd insect,
spider, or small reptile, or even bird eggs or nestlingr. So-.ii-.s
individual
fruit trees are defended by a mated toucan pair from other toucans or from
single nest.
as pests.
Peru's Yeilow-browed roucanet, which has a small population
and a tiny
range, is considered endangered; no other toucans are threatened.
224
Ch
he
nd
Honeyguidcs
Ct,
ral
rm
rer
at
:CS
rls
to
fly
:ir
,ly
it.
in
te
id
ut
its
CS
ln
m
er
a
)y
in
ly
:d
,s.
ry
Eycu
ornithologists for their unusual breeding behavior: they are brood parasites,
the females laying their eggs in the nests of other species, the "host" species
then raising honeyguide young.
The seventeen honeyguide species (family Indicatoridae) are placed
in order Piciformes with the woodpeckers and barbets. Fifteen occur in
sub-Saharan Africa, two in southern Asia. All are mostly dull gray, olive,
or greenish brown; the Yellow-rumped Honeyguide, an Asian species, has
some bright yellow patches. Ranging from 4to 8 inches (ro to 20 cm) long,
honeyguides have small heads and shortbills.Their skin is particularlythick,
presumably to help protect them from angry bees whose hives they raid.
HONEYGUTDES
225
l)i.;lt ihtrtton:
Str b- Sa htru n .t] li
sortthcrnrlsitt
No
c./
ca,
Lit,ing
Sptcicr. tT
tt"o of'5i7,:titr
L1/nLroblL,
lindrrngattd:
No.
o.f
SlLtiLr
Sinc,'t6oo. o
ct, o
I)xlintt
GREATER HONEYGUIDE
In dicator
;ndiatar
in (:o cm)
Africa
8
in (r8 cm)
Aliice
LESSER HONEYGU]DE
IndiMlor minor
6 5 in (16 crn)
WAHLBERG S HONEYBIRD
YELLOW-RUMPED HONEYCUIDE
Ifrdicator xanthanotut
6
in
(16 cm)
Himalayas, Myanmar
immune to honeybee venom and some die from multiple bee stings. So even
with their thick skins, they usually avoid well-defended hives, or they visit
them in the early morning, when lower temperatures render resident bees
inactive.They also eat larval and adult insects, spiders, and occasional fruit;
some species replace beeswax in their diet by eating scale insects,which have
wa-xy coverings. Honeyguides are considered tough and aggressive, and they
need to be.They must defend discovered beehives from other honeyguides
wanting to feed and also must be able to place eggs in host-species nests
when hosts try to prevent them from doing so.
The guiding behavior of a Greater Honeyguide works like this:When
it sees an opportuniry the bird attempts to catch the attention of a person
by giving a distinctive guiding call (a chattering sound) from a nearby tree.
If the person responds by approaching the bird, it flies to the next tree in
the direction of the beehive and continues calling there, and so on.If it isn't
followed, it returns to the person it has targeted and tries again. The hive
maybe half a mile (, kt") or more away,and the route followed is seldom
direct. When the bird finally remains calling in one tree, the hive is close
by. People who regularly work with honeyguides often whistle to a bird
as they follow it, and they always leave part of the honeycomb behind for
the bird.It is mainly honeyguides in rural areas that guide people, and as
development spreads in Africa, guiding behavior diminishes. Supposedly,
Greater Honeyguides will also lead to beehives mammals known as Honey
Badgers, which break into beehives to consume honey and bee larvae, but
such behavior is notwell documented.
Male and female honeyguides do not have long-term pair-bonds;
probably both males and females mate with several individuals in a breeding
season. Males sing from tree perches to attract females. After mating with
a male, a female goes offto lay her eggs in the nests of host species. Many
species serve as hosts,but some honeyguides specialize on parasitizing nests
of barbets and woodpeckers.The female honeyguide often punctures or
removes one of the host's eggs before laying her own.The honeyguide egg
usuallyhatches first, and the honeyguide chickthen damages the host's own
eggs or, ifthey hatch, injures the young, and so receives all food from the
adults tending the nest. None of the honeyguides are threatened, but three
species, including the two Asian ones, are considered near-threatened.
HONEYGUTDES
227
HISPANIOLAN WOODPECKER
ECUADOREAN PICULET
Melaner?et iriatus
8 5 in (zz cm)
Pitumnus y/ateri
Hispaniola
Cuba
in
SPOT-BREASTED WOODPECKER
Co/a?tei
8
?unrtigula
in (zo cm)
South America
CRIMSON-CRESTED WOODPECKER
C a mpep /t i / us me / an
le u c a
j5io(9cm)
(23 cm)
South America
CRIMSON-MANTLED
Piculu: ri.oolii
8 5-rr in (zz u 8 cm)
South America
ANDEAN FLICKER
WOODPECKSR
RED-NECKED WOODPECKER
Colaptes rupicola
Ca
I2 5 io (12 cm)
South America
r2
mf
ep h
i I u s r ubri
in (3r cm)
South America
I lit
Woodpeckers
wo oD
p E c KE
woodpecker.
wooDPECKERS
229
l)istrihulion:
11/l
continutts arccpt
lntnrctim ond
Au:;trnlia
No. of Liting
Slacirs. zt6
No. of SVcties
Vn ln
tra h/c,
LndangcrL,l: 7,
No o.f'Sptritt l:xtinc/
Sitttt ttioo't
WHITE WOODPECKER
CAMPO FLICKER
Melanrpes candidut
Cola?ter can?estris
rz in (jo cm)
South America
PALE-CRESTED WOODPECKER
Celeur lugubris
9 5 in (24 cm)
South America
Sourh America
BLACK-BACKED WOODPECKER
artticut
9 5 in (24 cm)
North America
Picoides
PILEATED WOODPECKER
Dryoco?us
?;leatur
RED-COCKADED WOODPECKER
Picoides borealis
8 5
in (z: cm)
North America
COMMON FLATIEBACK
Dinopium jaranente
rr 5 in (29 cm)
Southern Asia
HEART-SPOTTED WOODPECKER
Hemicircus canente
6
in
(16 cm)
Southern Asia
CREATER YELLOWNAPE
Pirut.flaoinutha
r3 in (j3 cm)
ORANGE-BACKED WOODPECKER
Rei n
ua t dt ip icu s talidut
CARDlNAL WOODPECKER
in (r5 cm)
At'iica
6
scetce
nt
RUFOUS-NECKED WRYNECK
Jlnx rufrolli:
rz io (jo cnr)
Sorrtheesr Asin
Sonthern Asie
in (r9 cm)
Atiica
75
CROUND WOODPECKER
Ceotolaptes olitaceus
8
Sourhern
crests.The sexes usually look alike, but males may be brighteq for instance,
with larger red patches.
stifftail
fillwith sap,which
live in grassland areas, foraging on the ground (but they require trees for
nesting). Woodpeckers hit trees with their bills for three reasons: drilling
bark or wood to get at insect food; excavating holes for roosting and nesting;
and drumming (rapid beats often on hollow surfaees to ampli4, the sounds)
to send signals to other woodpeckers. They q?ically weave up and down as
they fly, a behavior suited to make it more difficult for predators to track the
birds'movements.
Monogamous, some woodpeckers remain paired throughout the year;
others live in familygroups ofup to twenty. Before nesting, a mated male and
female carve a hole in a tree, sometimes lining it with wood chips. Both sexes
incubate eggs,males typicallytaking the night shift.Young are fed insects by
both parents. After fledging,juveniles remain with parents for several months,
longer in those species in which families associate throughout the year.
Birds of fore sts, woodpeckers are continually pressured as loggers and
developers cut and degrade forests. Nine species are currently considered
threatened (seven, including the United States' Red-cockaded Woodpecker,
are r,ulnerable; two are endangered).Two of the largest species are now
extinct or almost so: northern Mexico's Imperial Woodpecker and the
United States' and Cuba's Ivory-billed Woodpecker. A report in zoo5
of Ir.ory-bill sightings in Arkansas excited bird-watchers and scientists
alike. Woodpeckers damage trees and buildings and also eat
fruit from
gardens and orchards, so in some parts of the world they are considered
significant pests and treated as such.
232
ng
Pittas
)ets
rill
ng
)m
:ail
'in
ny
3at
ed
rill
ers
ior
ng
18;
t')
AS
he
ar;
nd
aes
by
ir,
rd
:d
9f,
r'w
)e
)5
tS
m
:d
Asia; only
a
and almost tailless, and have longish, stout legs.Theirbright colors are often
difficult to appreciate because they are mainly on the birds'underparts and
because of the dark shadows of the deep forest floor that these birds inhabit.
Easily overlooked because of their forest settings and shyness, pittas would
be almost invisible except for their haunting call notes and whistles; they
arc far more often heard than seen. Occasionally, however, they hop out
into the brilliant sunshine of an open forest path and make themselves very
noticeable. Males and females look alike in some pitta species; in others,
PTTTAS
233
l)istrihltiort
Oltl It'ot
No
o.l
S/t'r
i'i
ll
rro2i,
'
Lit,itt,1
.1-z
No o.l-Sl,:titt
l/u/rtLt ob/t,
l)
tt, /tr tt
g,'rt,1 :,9,
No ol'SpttiL; Lx/itti/
Slli,'rtioo
B L UE PITTA
Pitta qtanea
9 in (23 cm)
Southeast Asia
BANDED PITTA
Pitta guajana
8
in (zz cm)
Southeast Asia
GURNEY S PITTA
Pitta gurneli
8 5
in (zr cm)
Southeasr Asia
HOODED PITTA
Pitta nnlida
7
in (r8 cm)
NOISY PITTA
RAINBOW P]TTA
Pitta rersicolor
8 in (zo cm)
Pitta irit
Aus
65
in (r7 cm)
tralia
mangroves, and scrub areas.They hop about on the ground, tossing and
turning leaves with their bills, searching for insects, spiders, snails, worms,
and small frogs,lizards and crabs. Hard prey, such as snails and large insects,
are often bashed on rocks or logs, the broken shells discarded before the
insides are eaten. Pittas probably hunt by sight, sound, and especially by
smell (they appear to have one of the bird world's most developed olfactory
organs). Secretive most of the time, occasionally they can be quite noisy as
they scratch at the leaf litter and send vegetation flying with their bills and
powerful feet and legs. When they are alarmed, pittas bound away by foot
or fly up to a low branch or a fallen tree trunk to get a better look at whatever
has invaded their territory. At night they roost in trees, and they will often
perch high up in the forest canopy to vocalize. Most pittas are sedentary,
but some species are migratory; for example, the Indian Pitta breeds in the
Himalayan region but winters in southern India.
Relatively little is known about social organizatron and breeding
biology of pittas because they are so difficult to observe. All are thought
to be monogamous, and they nest solitarily, pairs remaining together at
least through the breeding season.The nest is a large, rough dome of sticks,
rootlets, and other vegetation with a side entrance.It is lined with fibers
and leaves and built on the ground next to a tree base or occasionallylow off
the ground (to a maximum height of about ro feet [: r"]) in a vine tangle or
on a fallen trunk. Both parents incubate eggs and feed nestlings.Young are
probably independent fairly quickly after they fledge.
Owing to their bright colors, pittas, wherever they occur, are often
kept as local pets. But they are most threatened by deforestation, which is
still occurring at high rates throughout the family's range. Eight species,
mainly in the Philippines, Indonesia, and New Guine a area,
^reconsidered
r.ulnerable. Gurney's Pitta, critically endangered, is now confined to a single
forest reserve in peninsular Thailand, and there may be fewer than fifty
individuals left. Once thoughtlikelyextinct,itwas rediscovered in r986.The
cause ofits decline is undoubtedly destruction of the lowland forest habitat
to which it is restricted, compounded by trapping for the cage-bird trade.
Similarly, Sumatra's Schneider's Pitta was once thought extinct, but multiple
recent sightings show it still survives in its high-elevation forest habitats.
PTTTAS
235
LAC
DUS KY BROADBTLL
Corydon sumatranus
ro in (26 cm)
Eurylainus ochromalus
5 5
Southeast Asia
Sourheast Asia
ILL
in (r4 cm)
BLACK-AND-RED BROADBILL
WHITEHEAD
C a /!?
ro in (26 cm)
Southeast Asia
Sorrtheasr Asia
Cy m
to
BROADB]LL
d(
SCHLECEL'S ASITY
RIFLEMAN
Philelilta
Atanthititta chlorit
schlegeli
in (r3 cm)
Madagascar
in (8 cm)
New Zealand
Broadbills; Asities;
New ZealandWrens
RoADBI LLS
are
no,\
r) u r r,r.s
forest birds.They are renowned and named for their large, flat, hooked bil1s
I)isrt ihtrriot;
and very wide gapes, which aid them in capturing and consuming animal .41) i,u. .\,ttr//:tt,tr
,,lsirr
Also noted for their coloring, which ranges from striking red and ,0. ol.I_i.i.itr,q
black to bright green, these beautiful birds are favorites of globetrotting 57,.i,,,. ,;
bird-watchers.The family,Eurylaimidae, has fifteen species: four in Africa, *uo of.sl,,titt
nine in Southeast Asia, and two in the Philippines. Ranging from 4.5 to rr [.ttitrtnt/,tt,
inches (rz to z8 cm) long, broadbills have largish heads, big eyes, rounded I')rtitngLrti..1, .
wings, and strong feet; tails vary from short to longish. Not all are brightly Ntt f sf,, iLr tit/intr
prey.
colored-somearesolidbrownorstreakedbrownandwhite.Broadbillsexes sitr,tthcto
as
snails, tree frogs, and lizards; some also eat small fruits and berries. Foraging
is either by perching quietly in foliage and then flying to snatch detected
prey (on vegetation or from the ground), or taking prey from leaves and
branches as the birds search through foliage.Three mostly green species of
Southeast Asia primarily eat fruit, and have, through evolution,lost their
broad bills, no longer required for catching small animals. Many broadbills
are gregarious, occurring in small flocks of up to ten or more individuals.
Monogamous breeders, broadbills build pear-shaped nests ofvegetation
(grasses, vines, twigs, bark, rootlets) that hang over open areas from tips of
tree branches.The female alone or both sexes build nests and incubate eggs;
WRENS
237
/\Sl'l'llrS
I)i;trihuliort
,L'Itr dagrt
tctr
No. of-Litittg
Speri,:t'I
No
of'52,'Lict
[1rlnernh/t,
l')nrlan,q,:red: o, r
ol-Spetit:
SinrL
Lx/irttt
t6oo o
Nt]W ZI]ALANT)
\\/RI]NS
Dir/ t ihtrtiott:
Nr,t'Zet/rrnd
No.
of-Li.,irtg
Speci,'s z
No
of'Sp,:ti,:s
Vtrlne
ruhlt,
Endtn{arr:l:
No
of'Specits
Ertitrct
Sintt r(too z
both sexes feed the young. Most broadbills still have healthy populations,
but one in Central Africa and the two Philippine species are considered
vulnerable; loss of forest habitat is the primary threat.
A S I T I E s are a tiny group of small, stout forest birds with very short tails,
recognized for their bright body colors, remarkable bill shapes, and higtrly
restricted distribution; they occur only on the island of Madagascar.The
famlly,Philepittidae, includes four species.Two, known as sunbird-asities,
have long, slim, down-curved bills, used to gather nectar from flowers.The
other two, the Velvet Asity and Schlegel's Asiry are fruit-eaters, and have
relatively short, slightly down-curved bills.The breeding male Velvet Asity
is a plump, mainly black bird with bright green and blue skin wattles over
each eye; other male asities, all with yellow underparts, also have blue or blue
and green eye wattles. Female asities are less brightly colored than males.
Asities are birds mainly of Madagascar's rainforests.The Velvet Asity
and Schlegel's Asity eat fruit (which they take from plants in the forest
canopy down to the forest floor),but also nectar and occasional insects.The
sunbird-asities, which sometimes join mixed-species foraging f.ocks, eat
nectar and some insects. Asities are seen alone, in pairs, or in small groups.
Breeding is probably polygamous, with males on territories displaying
and calling to attract females; after mating, females probably build nests,
incubate eggs, and perhaps feed young by themselves. Nests are usually
messywoven structures ofvegetation, ball- or pear-shaped, suspended from
a tree branch. Only the Yellow-bellied Sunbird-asity is threatened, classified
as
endangered.
238
S,
Woodcreepers
S,
v
e
S,
te
'e
v
tt
.e
v
it
e
rt
S.
o
6
S,
v
n
d
S
S
f,
),
t,
Y
t
S
i.
wo
oDc
REEpER
I)istt ihtrtion
Nt'otrofirr
No. o.l'Litinr
S7,'cics
Like woodpeckers, they seek insects by climbing quickly over tree trunks
and branches, clinging to vertical and angled surfaces with powerful feet
with sharp, curved claws, and with their stifftail feathers acting as props. But
unlike woodpeckers, woodcreepers are mainly small birds with drab plumage
and retiring personalities, and most inhabit dark interiors of forests-all
traits fostering inconspicuousness. Further,whereas woodpeckers are noisy,
pecking at and hammering trees,woodcreepers are relatively quiet, singing
simple, often fairly soft songs and lacking the tree-drilling and -drumming
behaviors ofwoodpeckers. Bird-watchers, probably the largest group who
regularly notice them, regard woodcreepers as problematic, because in the low
light levels oftheir typical forest habitats, and against the brown tree surfaces
that are their usual backdrops, they can be dilficult to identifr to species
(when discernible, bill size, shape and color, body size,and type of plumage
streaking are used as distinguishing traits). The family, Dendrocolaptidae,
consists of fifty-two species and occurs from central Mexico southward to
central Argentina. Most (about nineteen) occur in the Amazon region. Frve
species, with particularly long, down-curved bills, are known as sc1thebills.
Fairly uniform in size, shape, and coloring, most woodcreepers are
slender birds,8 to 14 inches (zo to 36 cm) long (but a few are as small as 5
No ofSlccitr
wooDcREEPERS
239
.;-z
Ilr/ttt nrh/r,
lirrdtrtt,qtret/. r,
No
of-Slccicr
Sirttt t(too: o
L,xtintt
WHITE-STRIPED WOODCREEPER
L
ep i do r o /al te s
in
IVORY-BILLED WOODCREEPER
Xip h or h1 nt h us f au igas ter
8 ro in (zo z6 cm)
Mexico, Cenrral America
/ e uc ogas ter
(23 cm)
Mexico
TAWNY-WTNGED WOODCREEPER
D e ndr o tin c /a ana b a ti n a
7 in (r8 cm)
LONG-BTLLED WOODCREEPER
Nasira longirostris
r4 in (j5 cm)
Central America
SPOT-CROWNED WOODCREEPEs
Lepidocolaptet afi.nit
8 5 in (zr cm)
South America
RED-BILLED SCYTHEBILL
C a m21 / o r b a mp
8
h us
5-rr in (zz-28
Sourh America
trofi i I ir o s t ri s
cm)
NARROW-BILLED WOODCREEPER
e? ; d o. o / a? te J angl! t;r a iri !
8 io (zo cm)
South America
inches [r3 cm]).The sexes look alike,with plumage mostly ofvarious shades
of brown, chestnut, or tan; wings and tails are predominantly reddish brown.
WOODCREEPERS
24r
BAR-WINGED CINCLODES
Cinclodesfurus
6 -7 5 in (r5-r9 cm)
South America
PALE-LECGED HORNERO
Furnarius leutobus
(r8 cm)
7 in
South America
PEARLED TREERUNNER
Margarornis squamiger
ANDEAN TIT-SPINETATL
Le2taibenura andicola
6
in
6.5
(r7 cm)
o,
in (r6 cm)
South America
South America
COASTAL MINER
Geotitta peruriana
5
in
(r3 cm)
South America
STREAKED XENOPS
Xenop: rutilans
4 5 in (rz cm)
Central America, South America
Ovenbirds
ov
EN B
rvhich they occur.They are mainly insect-eating brown birds that live and
forage on or near the ground. Leading to their inconspicuousness are their
drab, often cryptic plumage; their typical occupation of habitats in which
the camouflaging effect is maximized; their unobtrusive, usually stealthy
behavior; and their usually unmelodic, undistinguished vocalizations.
Although visually and vocally nondescript, ovenbirds are widely recognized
by ornithologists and naturalists for their ecological diversity (their varied
foraging behavior, for instance, and their occupation of essentially all
terrestrial habitats of South America) and, especially, for their nests.These
nests are variable in architecture, construction materials, and placement (see
below), but some are quite impressive, particularly the mud/clay and straw
Dutch oven-like nests thatprovide the group's common name. (Because of
its large oven nests that it often places on human-crafted structures such as
fence-posts, utility poles, and roofs, the plain-looking Rufous Hornero is
very familiar to local people over a broad swath of South Americal indeed,
it is Argentinat national bird.)
The ovenbird family, Furnariidae ,has z4o species, distributed from
southern Mexico to southern South America. Ovenbirds certainly vary
somewhat in physical form, but their fairly uniform coloring, with various
shades of brown, reddish brown, and gray, some with streaks or spots, and
typically skulking behavior, render the group a frustrating one for bird-
ovENBTRDS
243
watchers.These birds are hard to observe and sometimes difficult to tell apart.
in
mainly taking their prey from the undersides of leaves and branches. Sorne
(especially cinclodes) also regularly eat mollusks; some (treehunters) take
small lizards and frogs; and some (miners) eat many seeds. Most ovenbirds
apparently mate for life and stay year-round in pairs.
All ovenbirds are probably monogamous,with members of a pair sharing
nest construction, egg incubation, and provisioning young.
build closed nests with side entrances. Some, such asxenops,make nest tunnels
in vertical banks; others use tree cavities or construct elaborate structures of
twigs or mud. For instance, Pale-legged Horneros build domed nests of clay,
about 8 inches (zo cm) high, usually placed on tree branches. The sun bakes
the clay hard and few predators can break into these strong, durable nests,
which can last several years. Thornbirds build enormous, bulky, hanging nests
ofinterlaced dry twigs placed in large bushes or trees. Shaped like a boot, the
single entrance is in the "toe"1 these nests usually have at least two chambers
inside. One chamber serves as the incubating area for eggs and nestlings;
and the others as dormitories or perhaps baffies for intruding predators.
Most ovenbirds are common and secure. Habitat loss, including
deforestation and conversion ofwild areas to agricultural use, is the prime
threat they face. Several also have very small ranges, especially some in
Brazil's Atlantic coastal forests and in Peru. Fifteen species are'r,rrlnerable
and twelve are endangered (three critically).
2+4
rt.
)S,
Antbirds
in
rt,
rg
ly
to
et
St
re
VC
rP
tS,
1e
<e
is
r8
CS
:ls
of
LY,
CS
IS,
tS
]e
rS
;S;
's.
c
,6
IC
n
le
apparently arose because the naturalists who named them could not ascertain
local names and believed theywere similar in some ways to North American
and Eurasianwrens and thrushes.
ANTBTRDS
245
Distribtrtiort:
Neotrolitr
No
o.l
I.irirrg
S2cci,'s:
t7:
No. o.f'STLIitt
Vrr/ttc ru h/1,
Lintlan,qcrtr/. t6,
No.
of
Sinte
'STtcits
t(too
to
L)rtirt,t
BARRED ANTSHRIKE
SCALED ANTPITTA
Thamnophi/us doliatus
G ra
in
(16 cm)
65
WHITE-PLUMED
Pitbls albifront
4 5 in (rz cm)
South America
ANTBIRD
Grallaria nglicapil/a
7 5 io (r9 cm)
South America
II a ria
in
g ua
ti m
ale n s i s
(r7 cm)
Tardba major
in (zo cm)
BLACK-SPOTTED BARE-EY
P h / egop s i s n igro
6 5 in (r7 cm)
GREAT ANTSHRIKE
m at
ula ta
Sourh America
YELLOW-BROWED ANTBIRD
Ht?ocnemir hfioxantha
4 5 in (rz cm)
South America
around settlements). Consequently, they are often difficult to observe for any
length oftime; most,with their simple ifsometimes loud songs, are tlpically
heard but almost never seen.This, and the fact that many species look much
alike, renders the group an especially difficult one for bird-watchers; much
effort can be expended to catch even briefglimpses ofthese birds.
Antbirds range in length from 3 to r3.5 inches (7.5to 34cm). Generally,
smaller ones are called antwrens and antvireos; midsize ones are called
antbirds; and larger species are called antshrikes, antthrushes, and antpittas.
Many of these birds vary in appearance and some are boldly patterned.
Generally, however, males are dressed in understated browns and grays, and
black and white; females are usually duller, with olive brown or chestnut
eyes, or patches
ofbright bare skin around the eye. Antbird bills vary in length, but many are
fairlylong and robust, and some are hooked.Theirwings are short and their
legs are strong (and long in ground dwellers).
ANTBTRDS
247
BLACK-THROATED
Ptero?tochoJ
9
HUET-H UET
CRESTED GALLITO
tarnii
Minocry2ta lanteolata
8 5 in (zr cm)
in (:3 cm)
South America
South America
WHITE-BREASTED TAPACULO
Sc1/a/opus indigotius
OLIYE-CROWNED CRESCENT-CHEST
M e / an op ar
6 in (r5 cm)
4 5 io (rr cm)
South America
5.5
c as
in (r4 cm)
South America
ta ne
e?
i a m a xi
m i / ia n
South America
CHESTNUT-CROWNED GNATEATER
C o n o?o? b aga
BLACK-BELLIED CNATEATER
C o n op
op b
aga me / an oga s te r
in (r5 cm)
South America
6
Thpaculos;
Gnatcatcrs
Dirtt iltrrtion.
lives as far north as Costa Rica. Many in the family, Rhinocryptidae (with
fifty-five species, including birds called huet-huets, gallitos, bristlefronts,
and crescent-chests, among others), are obscure, having drab plumage, shy
NLotrolitt
habits, and unmelodic vocalizations.They are noted for this obscuriry their
diverse representation in southern South America, the small geographic
ranges of many of them, and the way they often hold their tails in an upright,
No
o.f-Li.ttittg
,l7ri:u
i,'r
No
o.l'SiVL,iL;
1-1
[4tlrtLr trh/,',
Ltriotr,qart,l: r,,1
or cocked, position. The name tapaculo mayhave arisen from a Spanish word
No.
that refers to their cocked tails (or it may sound like the call of one of the
Chilean tapaculos).
Ranging from 4 to 9 inches (ro to 23 cm) long, tapaculos have short,
relatively heary bills, short, round wings, and mostly short tails (but some
Sirrci thoo; o
TAPACULOS;
GNATEATERS
249
ol'.\ltti
t ; l')
t i tt,
(i\r\ t'l \ t I
l ) it
/ r i/, tr/
tt5
irtt
Sotr/htlli, t itri
)'c ol l.i:
tn,q
Si,, . i, r'
,\'o
o.l \,1,
litlt,
A'
' itt
t,ti,iL,
l)n,/att,qLt,,l ,'.,,
lo
o1 Sil,', iLr
l)ri itttr
S///rr //,()()
is
25O
r
S
t
t
t:
i.
n
e
e
Y
,f
f
i;
Cotingas
COT I N GAS
251
[)ittrihtrliotr
NLolt ofii.t
No. o.l'Lirin,q
Sfccit:s'abou/
7ct
No. ol'SpLcitr
Vu /n
rahla,
Entlangarad: rt,
nigr
it
/ /i s
in (zj cm)
Sourh America
RED-CRESTED COTINGA
CREEN-AND-B]-ACK
.4mpe/i on rubrotristotus
Piptola riel/irii
7 in (rB cm)
in (:r cm)
Sourh Arnerica
South Aroericrr
PO
Rulito/a ruViola
Xiqholena punicea
8 in (zo crn)
ro;
in (27 crn)
South Arnericr
FRUITEATER
NI
PADO
R COTIN
SorLth Amer'Lcir
C A
axyrunctrt cristattu
in (r7 cnr)
-5
Sourh America
6
relatively short, rather wide bills, the better to swallow fruits. Males of
many species are quite ornate, with patches of gaudy plumage in unusual
colors. For instance, some ofthe typical cotingas are lustrous blue and deep
purple, and some are all white; others are wholly black, or green and yellow,
or largely red or orange. Females are usually duller and plainer. Among
the most unusual-looking cotingas are the bellbirds, some ofwhich have
wormlike wattles hanging from their heads, and the umbrellabirds,which
have umbrella-shaped black crests.
Cotingas live primarily in tropical and subtropical forests, usually staying
high in the canopy.They are fruit specialists, taking small to medium-size
fruits from trees,oftenwhile hovering. Some,such as thepihas andfruitcrows,
supplement their fruit diet with insects taken from treetop foliage, and a
few catch flying insects. Others, particularly the fruiteaters and bellbirds,
feed exclusively on fruit. Pure fruit eating has benefits: fruit is conspicuous,
abundant, easy to eat, and in the tropics, usually always available. Fruit eating
can also be problematic: fruit is relatively low in protein so nestlings fed
only fruit growvery slowly. Cotingas feed heavily from palms and laurels
and from plants of the blackberry/raspberry family. Some cotingas may
live solitarilyl others apparently live in pairs or small groupsl fruitcrows, for
example,live in highly social flocks offive to ten individuals.
Some cotingas pair up, defend territories, and breed conventionally in
apparent monogamy. But others, such as umbrellabirds, bellbirds, cocksof-the-rock, and pihas, are lekking species, in which males individually
stake out display trees and repeatedly perform vocal and visual displays to
attract females. Females enter display areas, assess the jumping and calling
males, and choose ones with which to mate. Females leave after mating and
then nest and rear young alone. Nests, usually placed in trees or bushes, are
generally small, open, and inconspicuous. Some nest cups are made ofloosely
arranged twigs, some of mud, and some ofpieces ofplants.
Many cotingas have very small geographical ranges.This, in concertwith
the rapid forest loss that has occurred in many parts of their range during
the last half century, has severely depressed the populations of many species,
including some spectacular ones such as the Tirrquoise Cotinga,Threewattled Bellbird, and Bare-necked and Long-wattled Umbrellabirds. In
total, eleven cotingas are mlnerable and six endangered; one ofthe latter, the
smallest cotinga, Brazilt Kinglet Calyptura, is critically endangered, with a
wild population of fifty or fewer.
COTINGAS
253
THRIISH
P;1,ra
Sthtffbrnit turlinus
6 5 in (r6 ctr)
Ccntral Anrerica. St)uth '\merica
Pi?ra
in (ro cro)
HELMETED IIANAKI^_
T,IKE
}IAN
K]N
lntilo?bia gal.ata
5 5 in (r4 cm)
tsAND-TAILED NIANAKIN
PiTra.f itsriinu la
4 i in (rr crn)
South Americr
South r\merica
Manakins
Distrihution'
Ncotrolix
colored plumage and some ofthe most elaborate courtship displays practiced
No.
52rr,,r.'.;7
glossy black
their heads, throats, or both. Some have deep blue on their undersides and/or
backs.The exotic appearance of male manakins is sometimes enhanced by
long, streamerlike tails, up to twice the length of the body, produced by the
elongation oftwo ofthe central tail feathers. Females, in contrast, are duller and
less ornate, often olive green,yellowish, and/or gray.To accompany courtship
to
inches (9 to
16
MANAKTNS
255
o.l
Lirin,g
No. of SpLciLt
htlrttruh/,:,
Enlun.gLrt,l.:.:
No o1'Sptrit; Elt!nit
Sincr t(tt>o o
do not pair. Rather, males mate with more than one female, and females
probably mate with multiple males. After mating, females build nests and
rearyoung by themselves. During the breeding season, males, singly, in pairs,
or in small groups, stake out display sites on tree branches, in bushes, or on
cleared patches of the forest floor, and spend considerable amounts oftime
256
)S
d
,S,
NcwWorld f'lycatchers
n
re
It
ic
Ld
,h
ir
)S,
:k
IC
)n
:d
distributed over most habitats from Alaska and northern Canada to the
southern tip of South America.The family,Tyrannidae, is considered among
the most diverse of avian groups. With between 39o and 425 species (more
than any other bird family), depending on which classification scheme is
followed, flycatchers typically contribute ahefty percentage of the avian
biodiversity in every locale where they occur. For instance, flycatchers make
up fully a tenth of the land bird species in South America, and a quarter of
Argentinean species.The group is also called tyrantflycatchers orAmerican
flycatchers, which differentiates it from Old World flycatcher families.
NewWorld flycatchers include birds called elaenias, pewees, tyrannulets,
spadebills, attilas, monjitas, kingbirds, pygmy-tyrants, tit-tyrants, todyryrants, chat-tyrants, ground-tyrants, becards, and tityras, among others.
They employvarious feeding methods but are united in being predominantly
er
insect-eaters. Certainly, though, they are best known for making aerial sallies
at
IC
and flat, the better to snatch flying bugs from the air.Taillength is variable,but
r8;
some species have long, forked tails,which probably facilitate rapid insectcatching maneuvers. Flycatchers vary in length from 2.5 to rz inches (6 to 3o
(e
CS
SC
)r
1e
;o
gs
IS,
in
rd
.re
cm);
feq
ERS comprise
add another six or more inches (r5 cm).At their smallest,flycatchers are some
257
Distribution:
Neu World
No. ofLiving
Species: qz5
No. of Species
Vulnerahle,
Endangered. tq, rz
No. of Species
Since
t6oo:
Extintt
South Americl
BLAC K-BAC
KED WATER-TYRANT
Fluticola albiventer
5 5 in (r4 cm)
South America
P]NE FLYCATCHER
Empidonax afiinit
5 5 in (r4 crn)
I\lexico, Central America
REAT KISKADEE
Pitangus suQhuratut
9 io (23 cm)
LONG-TAlLED TYRANT
SSOR-TAILED FLYCATCHER
TyrannusJbrfitatus
SC]
5-r4 io (r9
35
Colonia colonut
7-ro in (r8
cm)
ROYAI, FI,YCA'fCHER
O
nychorhynch
us
toron
tu s
6 5 in (r7 cur)
Ceotral Arnerica, South Arnericr
z5
cn)
VERTIIL]ON ELYCATCHER
Plrocephalus ruhinus
6
in
(r5 cm)
DUSKY FLYCATCHER
Empidonar oberhokeri
6 in (r-5 crn)
North America
1'UF'fED FLYCATCHER
GREATER PEWED
CARIBBEAN ELAEN]A
Elocnia mat tinL a
Conto?ut ?crtinat
t in (zo crn)
io (r7 cm)
West Indies
S]ASKED'TITYRA
Tityra tnif ariata
8 5
in (zr cnr)
i t
r eph anes
phacoce ri us
5in(rjcm)
LOGCDR}IEAD KINGBIRD
Ty ra nn u s ca udfa sria t ut
ro in (25 cnt)
Wesr Indies
z6r
ROWN CREEPER
WHITE-TH ROAI'ED
Certbia americana
Cormobates /eutobhaeur
in (r3 cm)
North America. Central America
6 5 in (r7 cm)
Australia
T REECREEPER
STRIPE-SIDED RHABDORN
Rbabdornis mlsticalit
6 5 in (16 cm)
Philippines
rccpcrs; Australasian
Treecrccpcrs;
Rhabdorniscs
NofthAmerica,
Ettrasia, A,/^rica
REEpER
of
bottom of another, nearby, tree, and spirals up again. Creepers'long toes and
deeply curved claws allow them to cling tightly to vertical trunks.There are
seven species, five
ofwhich
widespread, and well known: the Brown Creeper, which occurs over most of
North America and is the NewWorld's only family member, and the Eurasian
Tieecreeper,which is broadly distributed from Britain eastward toJapan.
About 5 to 6 inches (r3 to 15 cm) in length, creepers are brown and black
striped above and light below,with very long, slender, down-curved bills and
long tails with pointed feathers. Males and females look alike.The Spotted
Creeper of India and Africa is slightly different, also dark above and light
beloq but spotted all over (it was formerly placed in its own family). With
their slender, curved bills, creepers probe into crevices in tree bark for insects
and spiders.Theyplace their cup nests of twigs and othervegetation behind
loose pieces ofbark or in crevices. Only the female incubates; both sexes feed
young. None of the creepers are threatened.
AU sr RALAS IAN T REEC REEp r ns, familyClimacteridae,are small
G to 7.5 inches. [r3 to 19 cm]), stocky, brownish forest birds with tan wing
bars, slender, ever-so-slightly down-curved bills, and long toes,which make
are
only
263
a;r:r:rrr:::,
No.
ofliling
Species: 7
No. of Species
Vulnerable,
Endangered: o, o
]\LISTRAI,ASIAN
1'RI,]I]C]IEIiPI]RS
Di;trilttrlion:
tll
trs 1
ro
/itt, Nitu
No. of
r i tt,ttr
Litirt,q
Spcrit';.7
No of Sptrit;
Vu /nara
b/t,
lindon,yrt:d: o,
No.
oJ
Sprrirs
bx/ittc/
Sitt,:t t(tot>'o
RHABDORNISES
Dittrihution:
I'}hi /i1>pincr
No oJ'l,ioing
Spccias:3
No. of Spccict
Vulnarub/c,
Enlungartd: o,
No. oJ'Slcciar
Dxtinct
Sinca
r6ot>' o
seven species, six ofwhich are endemic to Australia and one to New Guinea.
Male and female look slightly different.
teecreepers hop and run over tree trunks and branches, using their
slender bills to poke and probe for insects, especially ants. They forage in
predictable patterns, spiraling up tree trunks, then flying down to near the
bottom of the trunk of the next tree and repeating the process, or moving
along thick tree branches from the base outward. Their strong legs and
large feet and clar,vs permit them to grip bark so tightly that they can even
move along the undersides of horizontal branches. Some also forage on the
ground.Tieecreepers are sedentarybirds, holding permanent territories on
which they forage and breed.
Most treecreepers breed in small communal groups (although at least
one species breeds in solitarypairs).'Auxiliary"males,presumablyrelated to
the main breeding pair, help feed the young (and sometimes the incubating
female). Both sexes build the nest, a saucer-shaped mat of leaves, bark, fur,
and feathers placed in a tree hollow.Usuallyonlythe female incubates eggs.
None of the Australasian treecreepers are threatened, although three of the
six Australian species are considered r,rrlnerable in various Australian states
owing to their dependence on forest habitats that are increasingly cleared
or degraded.
dark bills that have slightly hooked tips. Males and females look alike
or almost so.
The appellation "creeper" for these birds is now frowned upon because
rhabdornises do not usually creep. Rather they feed by hopping and jumping
along tree branches, eating insects and some seeds and small fruit, and perhaps
the odd small frog. Sometimes they catch insects in the air, and groups have
been seen feeding on flying termites in this manner. Usually occurring in
small groups or sometimes combined with mixed-species foraging flocks,
rhabdornises are very active and usually remain high in the leafy parts of trees.
Before nightfall, some gather into large roosting groups, at times numbering
in the hundreds. Rhabdornis breeding is notwell known,but they are thought
to be monogamous and to nest in tree cavities. None ofthe three rhabdornises
are considered threatened, although
264
two of them
are
fairly uncommon.
relr
:in
the
Lyrcbirds;
Scrub-birds
irg
rnd
i/en
the
on
)ast
Ito
i.g
fut,
I8S.
the
rtes
red
'est
ree
hes
ow;
ike
use
i.g
aps
aYe
Iin
:ks,
3es.
irg
ght
ises
REB
are pheasant-size,ranging up to 35
feet. The males and females look alike, but females are a bit smaller
with
LYREBIRDS
Distrihution:
Aurtra/io
No. ofLiaing
Speties: z
No. of Speties
Vulnerab/e,
Endangered: r, o
No. of Specier
Since 16oo: o
uncommon and occurs only in one small portion of the eastern seaboard.
Foraging on the forest floor either alone or in small parties,lyrebirds use
their feet to dig into soil (to 5 inches [rz cm] deep) to find and eatworms,
spiders, insects and insect larvae, and millipedes, among other invertebrates.
They also tear apart rotting wood on the forest floor, looking for food. Brown
LYREBIRDS; SCRUB-BIRDS
265
Extintt
ALBERT,S LYREB]RD
Mexura a/berti
-35 5 in (76 - 9o cm)
Australia
3o
RUFOUS SCRUB-BIRD
,ltricharn*
7
in (r8 cm)
Australia
rufescens
i
'7,..
contains only the Rufous Scrub-bird and Noisy Scrub-bird, midsize brown
birds with black markings. They both occur over extremely small areas and
have small populations, thus rendering the Atrichornithidae one of the
globe's rarest bird families. Scrub-birds are 6.5 to 9 inches (16 to z3 cm)
long, with stout, pointed bills and sturdy legs; females are duller and smaller
than males.
Secretive, fast, and alert, scrub-birds run and creep through dense
undergrowth on the forest floor. They poke about in the leaf litter, turning
pieces over with their bill, taking mainly insects, but also occasional small
lizards and frogs. They are weak flyers, rarely moving more than a few yards
at a time in the air. Scrub-birds breed monogamously or polygynously (some
males matingwith more than one female). Females appear to undertake all
the nesting chores:building the domed nest ofvegetation hidden in low
undergrowth, incubatinS eBBS, and feeding young. Although both scrubbirds have small populations, only the Noisy Scrub-bird, of southwestern
Australia, is considered r,rrlnerable; conservation efforts during the past
decades have increased its chances ofsurvival.
LYREBIRDS; SCRUB-BIRDS
267
Distribution:
Austra/ia
No ofLioing
Specics: z
No. of Species
Vulnerable,
Endangered: t, o
16oo
TOOTH-BILLSD BOWERBIRD
3en a?oee tet den tira il rir
ro 5 in (27 cm)
REGENT BOWERBIRD
Seriru/ut cbrysocey'ha/us
Australia
SATIN BOWERBIRD
GREAT BOWERBIRD
rj 5-r5 in (34
WESTERN BOWERBIRD
Ch/amydera guttata
ro-rr io (25-28 cm)
Australia
Chlamltdera nuchalis
38
cm)
Ausllalia
FIRE-MANED BOWERB] RD
Sericulus bakeri
ro 5 in (27 cm)
New Guinea
Bowcrbirds
\
\
f)istribttiorr;
Atrttralia' Nt:u ottintt
marriage bower; the walls may be painted by the male with his saliva that
has been colored with compounds such as charcoal or leafjuices.The male
BowERBTRDS 269
where the remaining species occur. Bowerbirds are medium -size to fairly
large birds (S to 15 inches [zr to 38 cm]), chunlcy, with shortish tails and legs;
their bills are short, heavy, and, in some, slightly down-curved or hooked.
Females in certain species are plainly colored, mainly brown and streaked,
but in others, the sexes look alike.
Bowerbirds are mostly denizens ofwet forests but a few live in drier
habitats, including scrubland, grassland, and open woodlands.They forage
in trees and on the ground.Their diets tend mostly toward fruit and berries,
but other plant materials, such as leaves and shoots, are also eaten. They
also take insects, spiders, earthworms, and perhaps occasional small frogs.
Most bowerbird males maintain exclusive territories, in the center ofwhich
they build their bowers. Many species form small communal flocks after
breeding, sometimes raiding fruit orchards; others appear to be solitary
during nonbreeding periods.
Bowerbirds that build bowers are divided into two types. Maypole builders
construct single or twin towers ofsticl<q aaenue builders makewalled avenues
of sticks,with cleared areas,or"platforms,"atboth ends.There is a relationship
between bower complexity and male plumage: the brighter the plumage, the
simpler the bower. All bower-builders decorate their bowers with collected
objects placed on the ground.The types ofobjects collected, and their colors,
depend on species. Males appear to collect things that more or less match
their plumage colors.The striking blue black male Satin Bowerbird builds a
simple avenue bower of sticks, usually painted blackwith saliva mixed with
charcoal. He adorns the bower platforms with blue objects: berries, feathers,
flowers and, these days, bottle tops and pen caps. Research shows that the
more blue objects
offand nests
by herself; males continue to advertise at their bowers, attempting to attract
and mate with multiple females each breeding season.
are promiscuous breeders; after mating at a bower, a female goes
27O
rt
bn
QZ,
,ly
0s'
6",
ed.
Fairy-wrens and
Grasswrens
ed,
ier
rge
eSt
rcy
gs.
ch
ter
fy
'ers
res
riP
he
ed
fS,
:h
ia
th
fS,
)e
Cs
itS
Ct
;h
re
:d
ll
colorfulemu-wrensandcResswRENS;twenty-twooccurinAustralia
and the remainder in the New Guinea area.The group is considered
closely
'
that are usually held stiffiy upward.They often stand out because the males
have patches of bright, iridescent blue. Male Splendid Fairy-wrens, mostly
blue, and male Variegated Fairy-wrens, blue, black, and red, are considered
by many bird fanciers to be among the world's most beautiful small birds.
Females in the family look different from males; female fairy-wrens, for
instance, are usually brownish. Grasswrens are mainly black and brown above
277
tttt't'ttt{itiLl 2'o
No. 2l
S|tti,'t llttirrt/
sitt;r t('oo
't
SUPERB FAIRY-WREN
Malurus cyaneus
(r3 cm)
5 in
Anstralia
VARIEGATED FAIRY-WREN
Malurus lamber/i
4.5-5.5 in (rr-r4 cm)
Arrstralia
WHITE-WINGED FAIRY-WREN
SPIENDID FAIRY-WREN
Ma/urut Elendens
5 in (rj cm)
Ausrralia
Malurur ltutobterul
(rz cm)
5 in
Ausrralia
4
RED-WINCED FAIRY.WREN
Malurut elcgant
6 in (r5 cm)
Australia
STRIATED GRASSWREN
Amytornis striatLts
6-7 5 io (r5-19 cm)
Austrelia
desert grasslands and rocky hillsides,but they are most typical of grassland,
halfits historical scrub and grassland habitat cleared for agriculture and
White -throated Grasswren, which is restricted
to rocky escarpment habitats in northern Australia.The latter species has a
small and fragmented population and is thought to be especially susceptible
livestock
to brush fires.
273
WHTTE-THROATED GERYGONE
YELLOW-THROATED
Gerygone o/iaatea
in (rr cm)
Austra.lia, New Guinea
4 5
Australia
c6
WHITE-BROWED
Sericornfufron/ali
4 5 in (rz cm)
Australia
SHY HEATHWREN
H/acola cauta
5 in (r1cm)
Australia
SCRUBWRSN
YELLOW-RUMPED THORNB]LL
Amntbiza cbrlsorrhoa
4.5 in (rz cm)
Australia
SOUTHERN WHITEFACE
Aphe/ocepha/e /eucopsis
4.5 in (rz cm)
Australia
YELLOW THORNB]LL
Acantbiza nana
4 in (ro cm)
Australia
SCRUBWREN
Thornbills,
Scrubwrens,
and Pardalotes
275
l)ittrihtrtion
.4
tr s
/ t o /i
N,'t
rr,
N..tt
( ) t r i tt
trr
Z,:n/dntl
No ol-Lit'in,g
STritr:69
No
of'Spctia';
L,ntlangcrcd:.i,.;
No. of'Spcci
cs
Sirtct 16oo
Ett
rr,
black, brown, red, and yellow. Male and female in all these species generally
of
vegetation, often taking snails and crustaceans; they are seen alone, in pairs,
or in small groups. Gerygones (also called fairywarblers) feed singly or in
pairs on insects they find in the outer foliage ofwoodland
trees.tornbills,
always very active, feed, usually in small groups, on insects and occasional
seedsl some specialize on the tree canopy, some at lower levels of the forest,
and some are more terrestrial feeders,foraging on fallen tree limbs and even
on the ground. Pardalotes scurry about the high leaves of trees, especially
those along watercourses, searching for insectsl they often hang upside down
to search a leaf or grab a bug.Whitefaces have short, strong bills for seed
eating, but also take some insects. Other species in the family are called
scrubtit, pilotbird, rock-warbler, and mouse-warbler, among other names.
Many of these birds are sedentary, but some, such as the pardalotes, gather
into flocks after breeding and make migratory or nomadic movements.
276
rully
,VCS,
ate
ally
:s
Honeyeaters and
Australian Chats
of
airs,
rr
in
rills,
rnal
rest,
:ven
ally
)wn
eed
lled
nes.
;her
;of
Lnd,
vell
.ost
ich
em
.In
rnd
,up,
ties
Tourists in the Australian countryside who are at all aware ofwildlife will
certainly have their attention drawn to an abundant group ofvery noisy,
active, aggressive, usually plain-looking birds known as H o N E y E A T E R s .
Comprising Australia's largest bird family, they are everywhere on the
continent, occupying essentially all terrestrial habitats.These arboreal birds
are so abundant and successful that in many woodland areas there are ten
or more species present.The family, Meliphagidae (meli means "honey";
phag means "eater"), contains about r7o species that are distributed mostly
in the Australia/New Guinea region, but also in parts of Indonesia, in
New Zealand, and on many Pacific islands; about seventy, including five
within a subgroup known as AUST RALIAN cHAT s (sometimes placed
in their own family, Epthianuridae) occur in Australia, about sixty-five in
New Guinea.The reason for this group's great success in the Australian
region is related to its chief food source, plant nectar.These birds are
specialists on feeding on nectar (also taking some fruit and insects), and
nectar, which is mostly a sugar-water solution, is abundant in most habitats
]PS
the
est,
tly
sof
.nd
277
Distrihrtio
A u stro /a si
rt
n,
tt
do tt
tri
No. o.l'l,ii,itrs
Sltciu
No.
,4hotr/ r7o
oJ'S7rir:
Vulntroh/c,
lindungrr,:l:
No. of'STtc i t
6,
t
Sintc t6oo. 6
li xt i tr tt
S]
LVER-CROWNED FRIARBIRD
Pbilemon argenticeps
BLUE-FACED HONEYEATER
Entomyzon cyanotis
rz in (3r cm)
Ausrralia, New Guinea
YELLOW-THROATED
Manorinaf aoigula
ro in (26 cm)
Australia
BELL M]NER
Manorina me/anaphrls
(r9 cm)
7 5 in
Ausrralia
MINER
NOISY MINER
Manorixa me/anocepbala
Io in (26 cm)
Australia
WHITE-NAPED HONEYEATER
Melitbreptus /unatus
5.5 in (r4 cm)
Australia
tsUSCOUS HONEYEATER
VARIED HONEYEATER
Licbe noiom u oertico/or
8 in (:o cm)
Australia, 1r- eu' Guin ea
BRIDLED HONEYEATER
Li t hcn os tonus J renat us
8 -; in (u r cnr)
Lihenostom utJuscut
6 5 in (16 cm)
Ausrrelia
L
BROWN HONEYEATER
Li, hmera indistintta
5
io
Ramnyornisfastiatut
; 5 in
(r3 crn)
(r4 cm)
Australia
SCARLET HONEYEATER
RED-HEADED HONEYEATER
My z
/ a s anguin
4 5 in (rr cm)
Arrstralia
/e n t a
RUFOUS-BANDED HONEYEATER
C on op op b i la al b ogu / ari s
4 5 in (rz cm)
Ausrralia. New G uinea
SPINY-CHEEKED HONEYEATER
c an t h age x1 s rufogil aris
9.5 in (24 cm)
Australia
EASTERN SPINEBILL
,4 t a n t h or byn t hus te n u iro
in
WHITE.FRONTED
iri
P b1 li d orytri s a I bifron
6 5 in (r7 cm)
Australia
GIBBERB]RD
Ashblia /ounsit
(16 cm)
Australia
in
(r3 cm)
Ausrralia
q
WHITE-FRONTED CHAT
Epthianura albifront
4
in (r2 cm)
Australia
in (rz cm)
Australia
HONEYEATER
s
some, such as the wattlebirds, have hanging protuberances from the ear or
eye area.In most, male and female
are gregarious,
pugnacious birds that forage in flowering trees and shrubs usually in small
groups. They often squabble over feeding areas, sometimes chasing each
that can be thrust deep into long, tubular flowers to collect nectar and into
cracks between pieces of tree bark to gather other fluid foods.The tongue is
tipped with
granules from damaged eucalypt leaves), and lerp (sugary coatings of some
sap-sucking insects).
Most honeyeater species nest alone in monogamous pairs but some nest
in colonialgroups ofup to twentyor more pairs. Onlythe female builds the
nest, a rough cup made of twigs and bark that is placed in a fork in a tree or
shrub or hung from small branches. She also is the sole incubator; males help
teed the young.
Most honeyeaters are abundant; afew are rare in parts of their ranges.
Honeyeaters that eat fruit sometimes damage orchards and are occasionally
persecuted for these actions. Currently six species are r,ulnerable and four
endangered; several ofthese are restricted to islands,where they are subject to
harmful effects ofintroduced species as well as habitat loss and degradation.
About five honeyeaters in historic times occurred in Hawaii. They were
mainly striking black and yellow birds with long tails and long, down-curved
bills. As of the early r98os, two species, known as'o'os, still existed, one on
Kauai, one possibly on Maui; all are now extinct, victims of habitat loss and
introduced diseases.
zBr
JAC
KY-WINTER
in
H e te romy i as a I bi sp e cu/ ar i s
6.5 in (r7 cm)
Australia
Australia
GRAY-HEADED ROBIN
MicroecaJascinans
(r3 cm)
HOODED ROBIN
Me/anodryas rucullata
SOUTHERN SCRUB-ROBIN
Drymodes brunneopygia
in
Australia
8 5
65
(16 cm)
SCARLET ROB]N
Petroica mu/ticolor
5 in (r3 cm)
Ausrralia, Melanesia, Fiji
in (z: cm)
Australia
&
WHITE-BREASTED ROBIN
Eopn/tria georgiana
6 in (r5 crn)
Australia
Australasi an Robins
AU
seen
arboreal songbirds spread over Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand and
some Pacific islands.In Australia, these birds are known mainly as that
AUsTRALASTAN RoBTNS
283
Distrihrlion'
Austra
Neu,
/i a,
Neu
() u i n tr,
Ztolond, totnt
Pacifit it/ttnds
No o.f-l-iting
Specit;.
q.1
No ol-S2uit;
[/ulncrahle,
Ettdan,qerttl. o, r
No.
of
Sinr,:
'Spcti
r6oo
es
E tt
i tr
ct
Both sexes feed young. Nests are small, shallow, cup-shaped affairs, placed
among a tree's small branches or in a fork (or on the ground, in the case
of scrub-robins). Some nests are decorated with pieces ofbark and lichens,
perhaps to better camouflage them.The nests of the Microeca flycatchers
a;cvery small (the smallest among Australia's birds, for instance); microeca
means "small house."
Most Australasian robins are common. Some, such as Australia's Grayheaded Robin, have very small distributions (in this case, in the limited
rainforests ofthe country's far northeast), so maybe vulnerable in the future.
The only member of the family currently considered endangered is New
Zealand's Black Robin, a small insect-eater that feeds on the ground and on
low branches. Although it has a tiny population, the species is considered a
conservation success story. Historicallyrestricted to the Chatham Islands east
of New ZeaJand's main islands, the Black Robin population crashed when
cats and rats (introducedbyhuman travelers) reached these remote outposts
and killed adult birds and destroyed nests. By 198o fewer than ten individuals
existed.With intensive conservation efforts, including transferring the few
survivors to nearby, mammal-free islands, the population is now above a
hundred and increasing.
284
L:
3d
rd
Whistlers
tv,
rd
A
Ie
rt,
t),
rg
1e
St
)S;
f
St
:h
le
:S.
:d
ie
s,
rS
d
e.
W
n
a
St
n
IS
1s
w H I s r I- B n s and their relatives are a midsize group of stout, mainly treeliving songbirds ofAustralasia,known for their insect-eatingways and their
vocalizations. Many of them are considered among the region's outstanding
singers.The family Pachycephalidae contains about fifty-seven species of
whistlers, shrike-thrushes, shrike-tits, pitohuis, and bellbirds, among others,
and is distributed throughout Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, many
Pacific islands, and parts of Southeast Asia.Twenty-four species occur in
New Guinea, sixteen in Australia.
Known collectively as whistlers or thickheads, these birds are small to
medium-size (5.5 to ro inches lr4to z6 cm] long),with robustbodies,thick,
rounded heads, and thick, strong bills. Some have bills with down-curved
tips,like shrikes; hence the names shrike-thrushes and shrike-tits. Most
of these birds (some whistlers and the shrike-thrushes and bellbirds) are
outfitted in dull grays,browns, or reddish brown,whereas others (shriketits, some whistlers) are boldly marked with bright yellows and black and
white. The Golden Whistler, for example, which is broadly distributed in
Australia and on many Pacific islands, is quite striking and attractive. Some
whistlers have crests or bare colored skin (wattles) hanging from the face.
Male and female generally look slightly different, females being more dully
colored. New Zealand's representatives ofthe family are three species known
as mohouas (with the common namesWhitehead,Yellowhead, and Pipipi);
they are forest and scrub birds slightly smaller (5 to 6 inches [r3 to 15 cm])
than most others in the group.
wHrsrLERS
285
Dirtribution:
Aus
Soutbeast Asia,
Neu
No. of Lirting
Specier:57
No. of S2ecies
Vulnerable,
Endangered: t,
BORNEAN WHISTLER
COLDEN WHISTLER
Pat bltt ep
Pac byep
b a / a h12
oxan t h a
in (16 cm)
Borneo
65
h al a p
ec
CRESTED SHRTKE-TIT
tora I i t
Fa I c un
io (r8 cm)
RUFOUS WHISTLER
Pa c by c eph
65
in
cu
I us 1[r on ta t us
in (r8 cm)
Australia
7
RUFOUS SHRIKE-THRUSH
la r u16v e n t rit
C o // ur i cinc I a
(r7 cm)
egar byn
ch
in (r8 cm)
Australia. New Guinea
7
ri c i nc la u
du ard i
CRESTED BELLBIRD
Oreoica gutturalis
in (zz cm)
ro in (25 cm)
8 5
Australia
Australia
WH ITEHEAD
Mohoua a/biri/la
6 in (r5 cm)
New Zealand
with trees.Theyforage
mainly for insects and insect larvae on tree trunks and branches, in tree
foliage, and in some species, such as the Crested Bellbird, in leaf litter on
the ground.The Crested Shrike-tit and shrike-thrushes use their powerful
bills to strip pieces of bark away from trees, then look underneath for bugs.
Larger species, such as the shrike-thrushes, also eat small frogs,lizards,bird
eggs, and even tiny birds and mammals. One Australian whistler occupies
areas
mangrove areas and eats small crabs; at least one New Guinea species eats a
lot of fruit. Many of the whistlers are solitary during nonbreeding periods;
others apparently occupy year-round territories in pairs; and some, such as
the shrike-tits and bellbirds, often travel around in small familygroups.
Manywhistlers are noted for their bursts ofrich, strong,whistled songs.
Some of these songs, because they are so loud and common, are quite familiar
wHrsrLERS
287
WHITE-BROWED BABBLER
P o fl a t o t t o mu u?erci /io us
8 io (zo cm)
GRAY-CROWNED BABBLER
P o nat o t t o urc
te
m?ora
/it
rr 5 in (29 cm)
Australia, New Guinea
LOGRUNN ER
Orthonlx temmincAii
75 in (r9 cm)
Australia, New Guinea
KO KA KO
Ca/laeas cinerea
15
in
(38 cm)
New Zealand
Australia
WHITE-WINCED CHOUGH
C or o rax m e lan or h amb h o s
APOSTLEBIRD
Strutbidea cinerea
rz 5 io (32 cm)
Australia
SADDLEBACK
Creadion ruruncu/atus
ro in (25 cm)
New Zealand
Lngrunners;
Australasian B abblers;
Australian Mudnestcrs;
New Zealand
Wattlebirds
Profiled here are four small families restricted to the Australasian region.
There arejusttwo species ofro c nuN N e n s,familyOrthonychidae.Both
occur in Australia in that continent's eastern wet forests, and one ofthem, the
Logrunner, also occurs in New Guinea. Both are chunky, ground-dwelling,
midsize songbirds (7 tottinches lr7 to z8 cm] long), mostlybrown and white,
with short bills and large feet. Another name for the Logrunner is Spinetailed Logrunner, after the "spines," or short pieces of bare feather shafts,
that protrude from the end of the tail in both species.The other logrunner is
known as the Chowchilla,because some ofits calls sound like this word.
Logrunners are noisyrainforestbirds thatlive on territories inpermanent
communal groups of typically, five or six.They use their large feet to scratch
and scrape the ground for insects, snails, and other forest-floor invertebrates,
including leeches. They fly little, foraging and escaping danger mostly by
rapid running and hopping. They breed in pairs or communal groups.
The female builds the domed nest of sticks and moss on the ground or in
low vegetation, and she incubates the eggs. Males, with or without other
members of the communal group, help feed the young. Neither logrunner
is threatened.
AUST RALAS IAN BAB B LERs are highly social, active, noisybirds
that forage chiefly on the ground for insects.The family, Pomatostomidae,
has five species, four ofwhich occur in Australia (three endemic, one shared
with New Guinea) and two in New Guinea.They resemble the Eurasian/
African babblers somewhat in behavior and appearance, but the two groups
LOGRUNNERS;BABBLERS;MUDNESTERS;WATTLEBIRDS
289
I,OCRUNNI.]RS
Distribution
t rtrolia
Nc, ol'Liting
Sp,:tits: z
No. oJ'Specit
Vu/ nerabh,
Dndangercd: o, o
No. of Speticr
Sirtcc
16oo: o
Dxtinct
AUSTRALASIAN
BABI]LT]RS
Distrihution:
./lnslrolia and N,nu
()rri nut
No.
of'Lit,ing
52,:cits:.5
No. of Speties
Vu/ncrable,
Endangcrcd: o, o
No. of Specie r Dxtinct
Sinct 16oo o
AUSTRALIAN
MUDNT]STERS
Distribution'
Anstra/io
No ofLiving
Spccics: z
No. of'Spcries
Vulneroh/e,
Endangererl. o, o
No. of'Species
Extinct
Since
16oo' o
NUW ZEAL;\Nl)
IVATTLEB'IRDS
Distrihution:
Neu Zeuhnl
No. oJ'Ltuing
Spctics: z
No. af-Spuics
Vulnerahle,
Dndangered: o,
No.
o.f'Spe ries
Since
Extintt
16oo
are not closely related.They are medium-size birds (7 to rr.5 inches lr9 to z9
cm] long) with long, down-curved bills, brown with boldly patterned white
and brown faces andwhite-tipped tails.
Australasian babblers spend their days in small groups of up to a dozen
related individuals and sleep together in domed stick "dormitories" that
they build in trees.These groups are fairly sedentary and defend communal
territories. B abblers forage on the ground, picking up bugs but also pushing
their pointed bills into the soil to dig for insect larvae.They also search lower
parts of shrubs and tree trunks and branches for food. Although mostly
taking insects, they are considered omnivorous, also snacking on spiders,
tinyfrogs and reptiles, crustaceans, and even some seeds and fruit. Babblers
fly quickly, low to the ground, from place to place, or run from danger.
Theybreed communally, the dominant male and female doing the actual
reproducing, the other members of the group (mostlyyoung from previous
nests) helping to feed the incubating female and then the young. The
breeding pair builds the domed stick nest in a tree. None of these babblers
are threatened,but the Gray-crowned Babbler has experienced population
declines in several Australian regions.
The aUsTRALIAN MUDNEsTERS are the Apostlebird and
White-winged Chough, the only members of endemic Australian famrly
Corcoracidae.The two species, related to crows, are vaguely crowlike in
appearance.They are large (rz to 18 inches l3o to 46 cm] long), dull-plumaged
birds that live in communal groups (usually five to fifteen individuals) on
year-round territories; they roost and nest in trees but forage on the ground
for insects and other small invertebrates, some smallvertebrates, and seeds.
Nests are mud cups (hence the family's common name) placed on tree
branches, and all members of a group help with nesting and raising young.
Neither mudnester is threatened.
The two species of Ne w zEALAND wATTLEBIRDS, family
Callaeidae,restricted to New Zealand,are medium-size (ro to 15 inches [25
to 38 cm] long) with short wings, strong legs,long tails, and limited flight
capabilities. Both have feshywattles hanging from the base of the bill,
reddish in the Saddleback, blue or orange in the Kokako. Although they
spend much time moving about in trees, they also forage extensively on the
ground for insects, other small invertebrates, and fruit.Wattlebirds remain
year-round in territorial pairs and breed monogamously. The Kokako is
endangered, the Saddleback considered near-threatened. A third wattlebird,
the Huia, became extinct in the early 19oos.
29O
)29
lite
zen
hat
,nal
i.g
wer
Whipbirds,
Quatl-thrushcs,
and Jewel-babblers
;tly
ers,
lers
3er.
.ual
ous
lhe
lers
ion
.nd
rily
:in
ged
ron
rnd
:ds.
:ree
rng.
rily
lrS
ght
)ill,
h.y
the
ain
ois
ird,
\\' H I P B I RD S, qUAI
others comprise
L - T H RU
H E S,
JE
EasternWhipbird,
*'hich ends with a brie{, very loud burst of sound that powerfully resembles
the crack of a long whip and is one of the most striking, characteristic sounds
of eastern Australia's wet forests. ("Whip-cracV'vocahzations are lacking
in the other whipbirds, Australia's Western Whipbird and New Guinea's
Iittle-known PapuanWhipbird.) Although the various birds in this group,
tbr instance, the whipbirds versus the quail-thrushes, differ significantly in
tbrm, color patterns, and manybehaviors, they do have similarities. Many
species ofthe group inhabitwoodlands or forests, spend most oftheir time
on or near the ground, and include insects in their diet.
The family, Cinclosomatidae, includes fifteen species; in addition to the
kinds listed above there are wedgebills (in Australia), the Blue-capped Ifrita
r of New Guinea), and the Malaysian Rail-babbler; most, eight species, occur
in Australia.Australianwhipbirds (includingthewedgebills),7.5to rz inches
, r9 to 3r cm) long, are crested, brown or olive brown, and have long whitetipped tails and wedge-shaped bills.The PapuanWhipbird is crestless and
dark olive green. Qrail-thrushes, T to rr inches (r8 to z8 cm) long, are boldly
patterned in brown, gray, black, and white.Jewel-babblers (8 to 9 inches
lzo to z3 cm] long) are restricted to New Guinea and are the most colorful
members of the family, ranging from brown above and olive and blue below
to being overall mostly blue; all have bold black and white facial markings.
best known for the year-round territorial song ofthe male
29r
Dis/rihtrtiott'
A
u t I ra / i
Southtu
rr, Nc-,o
st
G u i n,:n,
,4sin
No of'Lirirtg
Speri,:r't5
No
oJ-STL:itr
Vu/ntrallc,
Endtrtgtrtl:
No.
o.f
'SpLc
Sintr't6oo
o, o
u Ex
o
t i rt
tt
WESTERN WHIPBIRD
P s op h o d e s n igrogu I ar
8-ro ln (zo-:6
Australia
SPOTTED QUAIL-THRUSH
Ciildoroma ?unctatLtffl
rr in (25-28 cm)
ro
CHESTNUT qUAIL-THRUSH
CHIMINC WEDCEBILL
Cinclosoma castanotus
kophodes oridentalis
8 5 in (zr cm)
8-ro in (zo
Australia
z6 cm)
cm)
it
fruit.
WHIPBIRDS,Q-UAIL-THRUSHES,ANDJEWEL-BABBLERS 293
LEADEN FLYCATCHER
Elminia longicauda
5.5 in (r4 cm)
Africa
WTLLI E-WAGTATL
NORTHERN FANTAIL
Mipidura
Rhilidura ru1oentris
8 5
BLACK-FACED MONARCH
Monarcba melanoptit
Myiagra rubecula
5 in GS cm)
/eucopbryt
(r8 cm)
BROAD-BILLED FLYCATCHER
Myiagra rufcollit
6 in (r5 cm)
Australia, New Guioea
7 in (r8 cm)
Australia, New Guinea
io (zr cm)
io
6
LICHT FORM
OAH U ELEPAIO
Chasiemlis
ibidi
in G4 cm)
Hawaii
5.5
ASIAN PARADISE.FLYCATCHE
Ter2si2hone
2aradii
Monarch Flycatchers
and Fantails
295
Distribution:
,4frica, southcrn
onl costern,4sia,
Austra/asia
No. of Liring
Species:
About rqo
No. of Speciar
I/u /nerable,
Endangered: to,
tt
296
re
)r
,);
Drongos
rd
IC
;h
IC
:d
IC
,d
It
IC
ly
IS
)n
):h
11
o
b'
)n
)r
most recognizedfor their tails.These are long and forked, often with the
outer few feathers curving outward (and sometimes upward, resulting in a
curling effect), and in some species quite ornate,withwirelike extensions and
racket-shaped tips. The elaborate tails, in combination with long, pointed
wings, aid the birds with aerial maneuverability when they chase flying
insects in acrobatic flight.The family, Dicruridae, has t'venty-three species
and occurs throughout sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascat most of southern
Asia, New Guinea, and parts ofAustralia.The term drongo apparently arose
in Madagascar,
te
h
,d
re
ii,
IC
rn
!r
:n
Ld
:d
as
DRoNGos
297
Distribution;
Sub-Saharan Africa,
southern Asia,
Australasia
No.
ofLioing
Specier:
,.1
No. of Species
Vulnerable,
Endangered: o, z
t6oo:
HAIR-CRESTED DRONGO
Dicrurus holtentottut
12 in (lr cm)
Southern Asia
rz 5-25
in
(32
65
cm)
Southern Asia
FORK-TAILED DRONGO
Dirrurus a*imilis
ro in (25 cm)
Africa
SPANGLED DRONGO
Dicrurus brateatut
rz in (3r cm)
Ausrralia, Philippines
DRoNGos
299
AZURE-HOODED JAY
Cyano/1ta cuculla/a
r5 5-r7
iD
(39-44 cm)
ro-ru in (26-3rcm)
REEN ]AY
Cyanocorax
YU CATAN JAY
Cya n ocorax _y t t a tat ictt s
lncas
ro io (:6 cm)
North America, Sourh Americr
rz 5 in (32 cm)
CeDtral Americe
YIOLACEOUS JAY
Clan ot orax o io latco Lr s
WHITE-TAILED
r4 5 in (37 crn)
Sorrth America
13
JAY
Cyanocorax mystaca/is
in (33 crn)
South America
r4 5 in (j7 cm)
Sourh Arnerica
Jays, Crows,
Corvids range in length from 8 to z8 inches (zo to 7r cm), many near the
higher end, which is large for songbirds (indeed, the all-black Common
Raven,which ranges over most of the Northern Hemisphere, is the largest
species in the huge order Passeriformes).They have stout, fairly long bills,
robust legs, and strong, large feet. Many, especially crows, ravens, rooks,
and jackdaws, are all or mostlyblack.Jays are mainly attired in bright blues,
purples,greens,yellows, andwhite. NewWorld jays tend to be blue, and many
jays, such as Steller's Jay,have conspicuous crests. Some in the family have
verylong tails, and a few of these, such as Mexico's Black-throated MagpieJay and Asia s Blue Magpie, are among the group's most comely birds.
30r
l)irtrihtrtiotr
tll/
con /
rt, tr /
t,'t t,'7/
,4rtlott/irtr
tYo ol Li,titt,g
Spttitr t t8
No. of Sltcit:s
[/ilncnt hlt,
l')ndnnytttl.
,No
.S
3, .;
of'SiTLt i t t l') x I i n,
ntt t 1oc; o
GRAY JAY
mnadentit
rr.5 in (29 cm)
North America
Perisoreus
STEf,f,ER S JAY
Cyanocitta $elleri
BLACK-BILLED MAGPIE
17-r9
Piapim
5 in (4j-5o cm)
Eurasia, Africa, North America
:,:
CLARK S NUTCRACKER
Nutfraga columbiana
rz in (3r cm)
North America
LACK.THROATED MAGPIE-JAY
FLORIDA SCRUB-JAY
c oe rul e s ce ns
rr in (u 8 cm)
Florida
.4p b e / o c o ma
TUFTED JAY
Calocitta colliei
Cstanocorax dickeyi
Ap b e I oc om a u I tramarin a
Mexico
Mexico
RAY-
B R EAS T
ED JAY
CREEN MACPIE
Ciya chinentis
BLUE MAGPIE
Ur oci s s a ery t h ror hy
z5
n ch
15
in (j8 cm)
Southeast Asia
Southern Asia
BLACK MACPIE
P la ty s m uru t leu c ol
15 5 in (4o cm)
Southeast Asia
?,'::;:'i:i;':::iK
Southern Asia
ter
us
F:
LARGE-BILLED CROW
Cortus macrorhynchos
r9-zj io (48-59 cm)
PIED CROW
Corous albut
Asia
Africa, Madagascar
WHITE-NECKED RAVEN
Corpus albiollis
r9 5-zr 5 io (5o-54 cm)
Africa
Usually quite social, many corvids live in family parties, which maintain
and defend year-round territories on which a family forages, roosts, and
breeds. Young and nonbreeding adults may form nomadic flocks. Corvids
are usually raucous and noisy, giving varieties of harsh, grating squawks and
croaks as their foraging flocks straggle from tree to tree; among jays, some
calls sound
like'jay."
Most corvids are common. Some adjust well to people's activities, indeed
often expandingtheir ranges when theycan feed on farm crops. Eight species,
including the Florida Scrub-jay, are vulnerable, five are endangered.The
two most threatened are Pacific island species, the Hawaiian and Mariana
Crows; the Hawaiian species is now probably extinct in the wild.
3O4
)g
rh
is
Birds-of-Parudisc
rg
5s,
[.,
in
/S,
Lts
rfS
:IC
1P
th
3d
BIRDS-oF-pARADISE aretropicalrainforestbirdsthatarecelebrated
for two aspects of their biology: the fantastic andbizarreplumage of
.1n
rd
ds
rd
ne
some
No rlf'l,it,irt,q
ofthem,withtremendouslylongtailfeathersand,sometimes,headplumes,
sTLti"t 11
and the breeding displays males use to attract females and convince them
to mate. In New Guinea,where they mainly occur, birds-of-paradise were, t"Yo. o.l '\1,ttitr
v,/rt:nrl/':'
and still are, an important part ofthe cultures of indigenous groups. Several
r'n'/'trr'qttt'1 1' o
species are venerated, their long plumes considered prrzes,indications
,
ln
rl.es
rts
ne
br
)st
rly
ed
OS,
he
na
Dis/rihtrriort;
Nnu ()uin''a"4ts/raliu
In addition to New Guinea (with about thirty-six species), birds-ofparadise occur on nearby islands and in parts of eastern Australia. Included
in the family are birds called paradise-crow, manucode, paradigalla, astrapia,
p arotia, rifl ebird, sicklebill, and melampitta.
Midsize birds,birds-of-paradise have a great range oflengths, owing to
their long tails; among the smallest is Wilson's Bird-of-paradise at abott 7
inches (r8 cm) long. Some have central tail feathers up to 3.3 feet (r m) long,
vielding total lengths of up to 4.4feet (r.fS -). Several in the family are all
black or clad in dull browns, but a good number are richly endowed with
glossybright reds, oranges, or yellows, sometimes with patches ofiridescent
green. Bills are generally stout and fairly long; the sicklebills and riflebirds
have very long down-curved bills. Within a species, males generally have
more colorful and ornate plumage than females, but in a few (such as
manucodes and paradigallas), the sexes look alike.
species.
BrRDS-OF-PARADTSE
305
PARADISE RIFLEBlRD
Ptilorit 2aradircus
rr 5 io (29 cm)
Australia
CRESTED BIRD-OF.PARAD]
C n e m op h
N_ew
Guinea
ma rgre gor
SE
9 5 in (24 cm)
New Guinea
WAHNES PAROTIA
Parotia uahneti
r4-17 in (36-4j cm)
New Guinea
WILSON S B] RD-OF-PARADISE
Cicinnurur respub/ica
6 5-8 5 io (16-zr cm)
i / us
8-r9 5 in (zo-5o
N-ew
(]uinea
cm)
birds are chiefly consumers of fruits, berries, and insects.They usually fly
from fruiting tree to fruiting tree, staying in the middle and higher canopy,
and often hanging at odd angles to reach tasty morsels. But theywill also fly
down to feed on tree trunks, stumps, and fallen logs. Some move through
foliage, seeking insects and spiders; some use their long, strong bills to turn
over bark and dig into dead wood in search ofbugs or to push deeply into
fruits. Frogs and lizards are occasionally taken, and at least a few species are
known to add some leaves, flowers, or nectar to their diets. Birds-of-paradise
often forage solitarily, but aggregations may occur at fruit-laden trees.
In many species, males seem to hold territories year-round, feeding,
and eventually, displaying for females within the territories. Most are
promiscuous breeders. During breeding seasons, males spend most of each
day zt display sites, usually hortzontal branches high in large trees. They
vocalize and display to attract the attention ofpassing females. Male displays
varyamong species,but theyusuallyinvolve moving the head up and down,
stretching the neck, rhythmically swaying the body, hopping from side to
side, and extending the wings.When a female approaches, a male's antics
increase in intensity and he may encircle the female with his out-stretched
wings and dance around her.When she is satisfied,presumablyofthe male's
good genes, the two mate.The female then leaves to nest on her own.The
male returns to his mate-attraction displays and will mate with as many
females as he can attract.The female builds abulkybowl nest ofdried leaves,
twigs, ferns, and vine pieces high in a tree fork or in a vegetation tangle,lays
and incubates eggs, and feeds her young. Species in which the sexes look
alike tend to be monogamous,with the sexes sharing nesting chores.
Only four of the birds-of-paradise, all New Guinea species, are currently
threatened (considered vulnerable), but eight others are near-threatened.
Loss of their rainforest habitats is the prime threat to these splendid birds.
Additionally, some riflebirds are killed routinely in agricultural areas where
theyraid fruit crops. Birds-of-paradise are still sometimes targeted in parts
of New Guinea for food and for trade in feathers, skins, or live birds.
BrRDS-OF-PARADTSE
3O7
i.<
^d
,!
WHITE
,4
r tant us
BREASTED WOODSWALLOW
le u to
rby
n chu s
in (r7 crn)
Ausrralia, New G uinea, Indonesia, PhiJ ippLnes
6
-5
Ausrralia
BORNEAN BRISl'I-E]IEAD
P i t.y r i d s
gy m
ro in (26 cm)
Borneo
n otc h a
ht
Woodswallows
bill; the top and sides of its head are covered with
wooDSwALLows
3O9
Di;tribution:
,4
rr
s/ ra lns
tlsiu
No
ol
Litting
STctit:s.
r:
No. of Sptcias
Vu/ttcrahh,
Drtrlungcrcd: o, o
No.
o.f'S1tc i as Ex t i n t
Sintc 16oo: o
(often four to six strong), especially in cold weather, and preening each other.
Larger aggresations of a hundred or more individuals will huddle together on
trees on particularly cold days. Roosting overnight, most woodswallows cluster
together in close contact, in "knots," often clinging to the side ofa vertical
tree trunk or in a tree hollow. Some species are fairly sedentary throughout
the year; others are migrato ry a few are nomadic. Two Australian species,
the Masked and White-browed Woodswallows, are highly nomadic, moving
frequently over long distances in large flocks and breeding when temperature
and rainfall conditions, and so insect availabiliry are favorable.They move
generally northward in fall and southward in spring to breed.The two species
often mix in flocks during movements and even in nesting colonies.
In several
species, other adults in a group, presumably relatives, help the breeding pair
feed theiryoung.
Most of the woodswallows are abundant, widespread birds, and
none are threatened. The Bornean Bristlehead, however, is considered
near-threatened. It occurs sparsely only in lowland old-growth
forests ofBorneo, and these forests are rapidly being cut, burned, and
holes. Both sexes build the nest, incubate eggs, and feed chicks.
otherwise degraded.
3IO
Butcherbirds and
Currawongs;
Mugpie-larks
j
f
0
5
S
r.
n
,'r
il
It
j,
o
b
'e
e
:S
I
I
urc
H E RBr RD s and
cuRRAwoNGs
are
UI'TCIII.]RIIIRI)S
AND CLIRRA\VONGS
successful forest and woodland birds ofAustralia and New Guinea that
frequently share bicolored plumage patterns and, to varytlg degrees,
l)i
tl
No of'l-iuittg
BUTCHERBIRDSANDCURRAWONGS;MAGPIE_LARKS
3II
s/
ri
h rr
rr I ra I i
s
Sll,ttics.
ti o rt
t, Nttt
O tr i rt r'u
rt
No af'SltiLt
I,1r/ttarthlt,
l)rr,lungtrLr/. o, o
No.
o.f- S
lrr
'SitttL t6oo.
t r Er t i n.
c't
AUSIRAI-ASIAN T]AGPlE
P]
Clnnorhina tihirn
Slrt1ra graculina
16 5 19 5 in (42 ;o cm)
r\ustr dia
RAY CURRAWOT'c
StreVera
tarti olor
}]ACPIE
LARK
()rallina q,anoleuco
ro r: in (26 3o cnt)
Ausrralil. Neu,Guine:
mammals, and bird s, especially young ones. They pounce on prey, kill it
with their powerfd bill, then take it and either wedge it into a tree fork or
cranny or impale it on a thorn or other sharp object.Thus immobilized, the
prey is easily torn, dismembered, and eaten, or alternatively, cached for later
consumption.In this "butchering"behavior these birds are similar to many
shrikes.
At
fruit
will
scavenge in garbage.
l)i
ttri
I ARKS
tio
htr
/l tr ttro
/i
tr,
rt
N,,u
()
r i
tt
Ltt
No. of'l.i'itint
Sl"ttits
No aj'S1ui,,r
on thewing.
MAGPIIi
313
I/u
lntro h/t,
[)ttdanganl. o,
tYo.
of'Spt
Sini:c
t6oo
t s E x I i rr ; 1
ct
COMMON IORA
/egithina tiphia
5 in (r3 cm)
Southern Asia
GOLDEN-FRONTED LEAFBIRD
Cbloropsis autifrons
(r8 cm)
7 in
Southern Asia
ASIAN FAIRY-BLUEBIRD
Irenapue/la
ro in (26 cm)
Southern Asia
in (r8 cm)
Southern Asia
75in(9cm)
Southern Asia
Le afbirds, Ioras,
and Fairy-bluebirds
region oftheworld.
Leafbirds (6.25 to 8.75 inches 116 to zz.5 cm] long), ioras (4.75 to 6.5
inches lrz to 17 cm] long), and fairy-bluebirds (g.5 to rr inches [24 to z8 cm]
long) have slender, slightly down-curved bills, some being fairlylong; fairybluebird bills are a bit heavier than in the ioras and leafbirds. Most in the
familyhave short,often thicklegs and small toes.Bodyplumage is thickand
flufr, and some in the group are known for easily shedding feathers when
handled. Males of many of the species are more colorful than the females,
3r5
I)irtrihtr/iorr
Sorr/htt
,\o
n;l'itr
ol Li.,itt;4
'\Tttits r1
l''o ol
Spt, i,
'
[1r/nLt n/t/,',
l', tt
t/t ng,:t,',/. t, o
Nr'
o_f'S|t, i L'
Sin,t
t6oo
l:s
ttt/
falling
through the air to impress females. Nests of leafbirds and ioras are cupshaped, constructed of grass, rootlets, other plant materials, and lichens,
bound with spider webbing and placed at the crux of two small branches
high in a tree's foliage. Fairy-bluebirds build a larger, shallow platform nest
of sticks, rootlets, and moss in a tree fork. Eggs are incubated by female
leafbirds and fairy-bluebirds alone and by both parents in the ioras; both
have elaborate courtship displays, males leaping, flying about, and
offspring.
Most species in family Irenidae are abundant and many are widespread.
Because they are forest birds, deforestation and forest degradation are the
most severe threats they face.The Philippine Leafbird, endemic to some
of the Philippine islands, is rare and now considered vulnerable; with
its forest habitats being destroyed by logging and what remains being
highly fragmented, its population has been declining.The stunning Asian
Fairy-bluebird is sought after as a cage bird in some parts of its range and
has disappeared from some areas, but with its broad range (India to the
Philippines), it is not considered threatened.
sexes feed
316
)f
OldWorldOrioles
:h
.s.
Je
le
ls
.S,
-11
ln
.n
r(S
$
a
:o
TS
IG
'b
)s,
]S
St
le
t.
re
,e
h
o
b
n
d
e
oLD woRLD
oRroLES
3I7
itt' r
BLACK-NAPED OR]OLE
ruentut
Orio/us
ro in (26 cm)
Southeasr Asia
Southeasr Asia
BLACK-WINCED ORIOLE
Oriolus nigri2ennis
8
Orio/us chinensis
in (zo cm)
in
(24 cm)
Africa
OLIVE-BACKED ORIOLE
Orio/ut ugittatus
ro
in
(27 cm)
Spberotheres
viidit
rr in (28 cm)
Australia, New Guinea
Three other species, all of Southeast Asia, are near-threatened. Some orioles,
migrating in flocks, become pests when they raid fruit orchards, and they are
persecuted in parts oftheir ranges for these transgressions.
319
SCARLET MINlVET
Peri cro
t o
t u s1ll a m m e us
7 8 -5 in (r8-:z
cm)
Sourhern Asia
BAR-BELL]ED CUCKOO-SHR]
Coratina ttr;ata
rr 5 in (29 cm)
LARGE CUCKOO-SHRIKE
Coratina macei
rr 5 in (29 crn)
Southern Asia
Southeasr Asia
WHITE.WINGED TRILLER
Campcphaga quicalina
Lalage
8 in (zo cm)
in
trinlor
(r7 cm)
WHITE-BELLIED CUCKOO-SHRIKE
GROUND CUCKOO-SHR] KE
Coratina ?d?ueni;t
ro 5 in (27 cm)
Coratina maxima
KE
Cuckoo-shrikes,
Thillcrs, and Minivcts
cuc Koo-
H RI
attractive birds that often conspicuously patrol the canopies offorests and
white, most minivets, on a small scale, are among the most resplendent
of avian creatures, with males outfitted in bright red or orange, females in
brilliant yellows. The family, Campephagidae (about eighty-two species
spread over sub-Saharan Africa, southern Asia, and the Australian region),
mainlyincludes multitudinous cuckoo-shrikes,but also twelve trillers (after
their metallic chattering, trilling yocahzattofls), thirteen of the stunning
little minivets (confined to Asia), two flycatcher-shrikes, and the Cicadabird
(also named for its calls). People responsible for bird names obviously had
a difficult time with this group: its common name, cuckoo-shrikes, is
misleading, because the birds are neither cuckoos nor shrikes. The name
may have arisen because the birds are gray and some are barred, as are many
cuckoos, and the bill is somewhat shrikelike. Some in the family are often
locallycalled caterpillar-shrikes orwood-shrikes; the name caterpillar birds,
in fact, is sometimes applied to the entire family, a reference to the group's
favorite dish.
Tlillers and cuckoo-shrikes are fairly sleek, 6.5 to 14 inches $7 to 36 cm)
long, with long tapered wings and tails, small feet, and short, broad, slightly
down-curved bills. They tend to be gray with black or white markings;
32r
Distribution:
Suh-Saharan Africa,
s
/ia
No. of Living
Spetie;: Bz
No. of Speties
Vulnerah/c,
Endangered:3,
No
of Specics
Since
t6oo:
Extinct
Ground Cuckoo-shrike, regularly does so. Aside from insects, cuckooshrikes will take other small invertebrates and, usually, some berries and
soft fruit. Caterpillars are preferred foods ofsome species. Foraging is often
accomplished by perching on a branch,looking around, then pouncing on
prey. Cuckoo-shrikes will also interrupt their graceful, undulating flights
from tree to tree to chase and snatch flying insects from the air. Minivets
often occur in large mixed-species feeding focks high in the trees; some
will also sometimes come to the ground in open areas to feed.They have an
upright stance when perched, are usually lively and active, and eat mainly
insects, but also some fruit. Many cuckoo-shrikes, especially the larger
species, have an unusual, unexplained habit: after landing on a tree branch,
they open and then quickly fold their wings, often several times. Males
during courtship displays also repeatedly open and fold their wings.
Cuckoo-shrikes are monogamous, but many appear to be cooperative
breeders. Helpers,presumablyrelated to the breedingpair,assistwith feeding
young in the nest and after they fledge. Cuckoo-shrikes build small, shallow,
cuplike nests ofvegetation, bound with spider webbing, on branches or in
forks high in a tall treel sometimes they take over abandoned nests of other
species.In most,the sexes share nesting duties,but in some, only the female
incubates. Minivets build cup nests made of twigs, roots, and grass stems,
usually placed on a horizontal tree branchl the builders cover the outside of
the nest with lichens and spider webbing, perhaps for camouflage.
Most members of the cuckoo-shrike family are common birds with
healthy populations. Four species are threatened: three are vulnerable and
one, the R6union Cuckoo-shrike, endemic to an island offMadagascar, is
endangered. Deforestation is the primary threat to this group.
322
v
k
'e
Vireos
d
n
n
:S
:S
.e
v
)r
t,
:S
'e
o
b
v,
n
)r
18
.e
and stout legs. Bills are hooked somewhat like that of shrikes (appropriate,
S,
because shrikes are perhaps the vireos'nearest relatives). The family can be
)f
h
d
is
divided by its bills: typical vireos have medium-size bills slightly hooked at
the tip; greenlets, which are the smallest in the famrly,have pointed bills;
shrike-vireos have stout bills with hooked tips; and peppershrikes have
heavy bills flattened sideways with a large hook at the tip. Most vireos are
plainly colored in green, olive, or gray brown above, and yellow, grayish
white, or buffbelow. Many have head stripes or eye rings; some have white
or red eyes. Greenlets, small,warblerlike, and difficult sometimes to identiSr
to species even for experts, are mainly olive above,yellowish or grayish below.
vrREos
323
Dis/ rihtrtion
Nau World
No o.l'Li.t,int
52r'ri,'s
5-:
No. of'Sp,:tics
I/u /n tnr
lt,
LndungttLd: r, z
No. of SV,:citr
Sinrt r6oo. o
Extirtrt
THICK-BlLLED VIREO
Vireo crastiroilrit
RED-EYED VI REO
SLATY-CAPPED SHRlKE-YIREO
Vireo olioateus
Vireolanius /eucot;r
5 5 in (r4 crn)
in (r3 cm)
West Indies
5
in (r5 cm)
North America, South America,
\AIest Indies
6
Sorrrh America
BLUE-HEADED VIREO
[/ireo so/itarius
(r3 cm)
.5 in
North America, Central America,
Wesr Indies
IAIIAlCAN vrREO
WHITE-EYED
YELLOW-THROATED V] REO
VIREO
Vireo griseus
5
in
(r3 cm)
in (r3 cm)
West Indies
5
VireofariJrons
in (r4 cm)
North America, South America,West Indies
55
>
325
NO.RTHERN SHRIKE
Lanius etcubitor
ro in (25 cm)
Eurasia, North America
LON"G-TAILED SHRIKE
Lanius scbacb
I - 9.5 in (zo - z4 cm)
Sourhern Asia
MACPID SHRIKE
Coroinella melan oleuca
r5 5-r9.5 in (4o 5o cm)
Africa
Laniut obanisi
ro-rz io (26-jo cm)
Atiica
RED-BACKED SHRTKE
Lanius ollurio
6
in
(r7 cm)
Eurasia,
WHITE.CRESTED
Tepbrodornit gularis
7-8 5 in (r8-zz cm)
Prionops 2luma/us
7 9 in (r8 z3 cm)
A fri cr
Sorrthern Asia
Africr
LARGE WOODSHRIKE
E uroc
ep b a I u t
rueq2e I I i
in (zo cm)
Africa
HELiT ETSHRIKE
RED-BILLED
ts
Priono?t ratiic?t
7 io (r8 cm)
Africa
ELIIETSHRIKE
Shrikcs;
Helmctshrikcs
SHRIKES; HELMETSHRIKES
327
',,i,",u),,,.
North America, Afrim,
Eurasia, Neu Guinea
No.
ofLit,ing
Species:
jo
No. of Species
Vulnerab/e,
Endangered: o, r
t6oo:
""*'l,t,,",,irir))
/|ft'im,
Soutbern Asia
No. aJ'Living
Species;
rr
No. of Species
Vulnerab/e,
Endangcred: t,
328 -
tn
Id
Bushshrikcs
tr
,lf
ls.
)y
d,
ty
=y
ill
)g
Ly
nt
rl,
)d
lifestyles, and their vocal duets. Furthermore, some species of the group have
;h
is,
CS
)y
1S
of
IS
n
)d
le
3S
n
5t
,y,
)S.
n
5,
)r
ry
BUSHSHRTKES
329
l)ittrihuliott
,tll)
ic,r
1u"o of
Lit,irt.y
'STrtics: q.1
No
o.l S1atiL:
Ii r/r tt nrb/t,
DrttltnguL,/.
t,;
No
Lttirtr/
of'STcriLt
Sitt,L 16oo
c>
puffout during
males and females look alike, but in
with ongoing habitat loss are the main factors jeopardiz\ngthese species.
33O
1g
in
te
CS
1e
nt
)1,
ly
SOUl'HBRN BOUBOU
[,anariusferrugineus
8 5 in (zr cm)
BRUBRU
Southern Africa
Ni/aus aJir
5
in (rj cm)
n.
rs
ls'
-c
-ut
rd
St
in
ES
le
)d
ly
3-
)n
3S
ry
BLACK-BACKED PUFFBACK
BLACK-CROWNED TCHAGRA
Dryotcopur tubla
6 5 in (r7 crn)
Tcbagra senega/a
8 5 in (zr cm)
Atiica
rn
st
r0
'b
]S
te
]S
e,
re
)d
CR]N]SON
CRI!ISON-BREASTED
La ni aritt s atrototcineus
9
in (23 cm)
Southenr Africa
STTRIKE
BOKMAKIERIE
Telophonts ze/onut
9
in (23 cm)
Sourhern Afiica
RED-TAILED VANGA
C a I ic a / iu
5 5
t ru a d agas c ari e n t i t
C1 an
in (r4 cm)
65
Madagascar
Madagascar
NUTHATCH VANGA
o t i t ta c ora / / i ros tri t
5 5 in (r4 cm)
X en op iro s tr*
Madagascar
Madagascar
Hyp
I ani us ma d agas mr in u s
in (16 cm)
LAFRSSNAYE,S VANGA
9
in
(24 cm)
SICKLE.BILLED YANCA
|hlrulea 2a/liata
rz 5 in (32 cm)
Duryteror pretostir
rr 5 in (29 cm)
Madagascar
Madagascar
xe n op
ir o $r
it
Vangas
vA
VANGAS
333
l)ittribution'
Mo,/ogawrr, Comoro
Is/unds
No of-Liring
STacics:
r4
No ofSperiat
Vt lnerahlc,
Dndangerad:.1,
No.
oJ'Spat i ct
Sincc 16oo: o
Extitr ct
scrub areas. They are arboreal, mainly canopy birds that, outside breeding
seasons, are
associate
with strong bills, such as Lafresnaye's Vanga, rip bark on dead wood,looking
for hiding insects; those with slighter bills seek insects on tree branches or
in foliage, or they catch insects in flight; and the Sickle-billed Vanga uses its
long bill to probe for food in cracks and crevices in tree bark. Some vangas are
known for their melodic songs and, in some species,vocal duets.
Vangas are apparently monogamous. Males have been observed courting
females by following them and then displaying to them by fanning their tails
and spreading and drooping their wings. Both male and female contribute
to nest-building, egg incubation, and feeding young. Nests, bowl-shaped,
are made of leaves, moss,lichens, rootlets, bark, and twigs, sometimes bound
together with spider webbing, and placed high or low in a tree, depending
on the species.
from
subsistence agricultural development, commercial logging, and increasing
human population. Consequently, the populations of all fourteen species
may be declining. Currently three vangas are considered mlnerable and
one, Van Dam's Vanga,with a very small range in Madagascar's northwest, is
endangered. Also, the Nuthatch Vanga (also called Coral-billed Nuthatch)
maybe endangered,butverylittle is known of this species.
because many ofMadagascar's forest regions are under intense pressure
334
c
'b
-v
Wattle-eycs, Battses,
and Shrike-fly.atchers
rt
o
b
ty
TS
ir
v
ie
are
Di;tt ihution'
midsize group of small to medium- size, mostly black and white, flycatcherlike birds that occur only in Africa. In the past theywere most often thought
AJi ictr
tS
Spt,it;.
c
t)
No ol'Spuies
lt
)r
IS
'e
0
b
ls
e
1,
d
0
t)
WATTLE_EYES,BATISES,ANDSHRIKE-FLYCATCHERS 335
No ol-Lit'itt,q
Vu lnc
-7t
rablL,
Endangertd: o,
No. of'Sfaicr
Sirttt
r6oo
Extinct
CAPE BATl
Batis ca?ensis
in (r3 cm)
Africa
5
JAMESON,S WATTLE-EYE
D y ap
b o
ro2 byia
j5in(9cm)
Africa
j a m et
BLACK-AND-WHITE
Bias murius
5
in (rj cm)
Aliica
SHRIKE-ELYCATCHER
the nest, offspring from previous years that assist the parents with feeding
young. Both sexes construct the nest, but only the female incubates in most
species; both sexes, howeveq feed young. A single member of this family is
threatened: the B anded Wattle-eye, with a tiny range in western C ameroon,
is endangered.
WATTLE-EYES,BATISES,ANDSHRIKE-FLYCATCHERS 337
BOHEMIAN WAXWING
Bombyti/la garru/us
8 5 in (zr cm)
Bombycilla edrorum
(r8 cm)
7 in
in
(24 cm)
Central America
PHAINOPSPLA
Phainopep/a nitent
8 in (zo cm)
North America
CEDAR WAXWING
GRAY SILKY-FLYCATCHER
Ptilogonls cinereus
8 in (zo cm)
Mexico, Central America
PALMCHAT
Dulus dominicus
8
io (zo cm)
Hispaniola
Waxwings;
Silky-flycatchcrs;
Palmchat
Waxrvings are mainly common birds, and with fruit orchards to raid,
339
*n^,,iiu',i)'
North ond Ct:nlral
Amcrica, Eurasia
No. oJ'Lii-,ing
Spacias:
No. qf Speties
Vrr lnerablc,
Dndangtrel.
No. ol'Speti a;
ll xt i nct
Sinrr' 16oo: o
the Cedar Waxwing is probably more abundant and widespread now than
SILKY!'LYCr\-fCHERS
Distr ib u tio rt
Norlh atti Central
-1lmtrica
No. of-Lirirtg
Sp,:cies: q
No. o.l'Spetir
Vtr
/n,:rnb/e,
ril.
Enhrrge
o, o
No of'S7rit Ettirtit
SitrrL
t6oo'o
PA t, tr] C II
A'f
Dir/r ihrttiort:
I'tr|'tt Ittdias
No of'[-it,ing
52,,iirs. r
No
o.l'Spati,:t
llltr,:rub/L:,
Entltrtt,qtrt,l: o, o
No. o.l'571, iL' ]i r titt
Sittrt tbc>o o
infight.
Silly-flycatchers inhabitwoodlands and forests, although the Phainopepla
ranges into desert areas. They feed chiefly by catching insects on the wing,
sitting high on exposed perches, such as bare tree branches, and then darting
out repeatedly to capture flying insects.They also eat berries, the Phainopepla
taking especially mistletoe berries. Most of the silkies form loose flocks
during nonbreeding periods, but Central America's Black-and-yellow SilLyflycatcher stays in mated pairs that often join mixed-species feeding flocks.
Silkies are monogamous,building shallow, open-cup nests oftwigs and grass
in trees or shrubs.In the Phainopepla, only the male builds the nest; both
sexes incubate eggs and feed young. None of the silkies are threatened.
and the only member of its family, Dulidae. Greenish brown above and
streaked below, T to 8 inches (r8 to zo cm) long, Palmchats have slightly
down-curved, robust bills, short, rounded wings, and longish tailsl the sexes
look alike. Palmchats are arboreal birds of open areas with scattered trees,
including parks and gardens.They qpically occur in noisy flocks, and feed
on small fruits, berries, flowers, seeds, and, occasionally, insects.They breed
communally, as many as thirty pairs collaborating on constructing a huge
nest of sticks and twigs; each mated pair has a separate nesting chamber
within the larger nest,with its own entrance.The Palmchat, common and
widespread on Hispaniola, is the national bird of the Dominican Republic.
34O
LN
o
trt
tfs
.n
Thrushes;
Dippers
:d
)y
3S
,e,
:S.
:h
ty
rn
)n
,ta
8,
are
rg
la
<S
Y-
SS
ground-thrushes, nightingale-thrushes, bluebirds, shortwings, alethes, rockjumpers, and solitaires, as well as robins and typical thrushes.
:h
IS
a,
Generally they are not brightly colored, dressed in browns, brown reds, grays,
Ld
olive, and perhaps some black and white.The sexes often look similar;juveniles
ly
:S.
3S
)S,
:d
)d
Ie
=r
Ld
Many thrushes eat fruits; some primarily consume insects; and most are
at least moderately omnivorous. Although arboreal, many thrushes frequently
forage on the ground for insects, other arthropods, and a particular favorite,
earthworms. Many species forage like the familiar thrushes of North America
and Europe; they hop and walk along the ground, stopping at intervals and
cocking their heads to peer downward.These birds occupy many habitats: forest
edges and clearings and other open sites such as shrub areas,grasslands,gardens,
parks, suburban lawns, and agricultural lands. Many are quite social, spending
THRUSHES; DIPPERS
34I
l)itlrihrliotr
,4
//
,4ttlrrt
tlittt
No ol'Li.-"itre
Slttitt.
r7,1
No. o.l'STtcit:
Ih /tt troh/t,
l.rt,lurtg,'tLt/ rr,8
No
o.l'S7L,
Sinrt
i,'' litt
t(too t or 6
i tt, t
RUFOUS-THROATED SOLITAIRE
CUBAN SOf,tTAIRE
Mladestes genibarbis
7.5 in (r9 cm)
Myadestet e/i:abe/h
(r9 cm)
7 5 io
Wesr Indies
C uba
Tunlus nudigenit
in
(23 cm)
VARIED THRUSH
MOUNTAIN BLUEB]RD
Ixoreus naetius
Sia/ia currucoides
in (24 cm)
North America
95
in (r8 cm)
Norrb,Aunerica
RUFOUS-BELLIED THRUSH
TOWNSEND,S SOLITA]RE
Turdus rufoentris
Myadestes tounsendi
8 5 in (zz cm)
9.5
in
(u
4 cm)
South America
North America
AZTEC TH RU S H
Zoothera pinicola
9 in (23 cm)
Mexico
Catharus occidentalis
(r8 cm)
7 in
IUexico
\
OMAO
Myadettes obsturut
(r8 cm)
7 in
Ilawaii
ORIENTAL MAGPIE-ROBIN
Copsychus
8
vulari
in (zo cm)
Southern Asia
SUNDA WH]STLING-T}I
Mliophoneut glautinut
ro in (25 cm)
Southeast Asia
RUSH
Eurasia, Africa
ORANCE.BREASTDD ROCKJUMPER
GROUNDSCRAPER THRUSH
P r o? h N i. b Ia / i tr i? r iru? d
9
Cbaeto?J aurantiLts
in (zj cm)
Africa
in (24 cm)
Southern Afiica
OLIVE.TAILED TITRUSH
WHITE-CAPPED DIPPER
Zoctbera /unulata
Cinclut /eucotephalus
rrin(u8cnr)
South America
in
(r5 cm)
AMERICAN DIPPER
Cinilus mexianus
7 5 in (r9 cm)
North America, Central America
year.
during the breeding season; pairs may associate year-round. Nests, usually
built by the female in tree branches, shrubs, or crevices, are cup-shaped, made
of grass, moss, and like materials, and often lined with mud. Only the female
incubates eggs; young are fed byboth parents.
A few European thrushes were intentionally spread to other continents
by European settlers during the r8oos, for instance, the SongThrush and
Rufous-throated Dipper,
is vulnerable.
THRUSHES; DTPPERS
345
l)istribtr/ iott
N,:t
Ltrro t
thtrrr
not
/,1,
Il
11f)
iro
u nr
si
tr,
No o.f-l-it'itt,{
S2,','lrs -;
Nct. ol'STL:irs
14r
/tr
r,r
blt,
l:trdattgrLi. t,
No
,\itttt t(t<to o
WHITE-CROWNED
Enicurus /escbenaulti
rr in (28 cm)
Eumliat tba/arina
6 5 io (16 cm)
Southern Asia
Sourhern Asia
VERDITER FLYCATCHER
in (r3 cm)
Southern Asia
5
;t.
HILL BLUE-FLYCATCHER
Cyorni: banyumas
6 in (r5 cm)
Southern Asia
5 in (r3 cnr)
Eurasia
PIED FANTAIL
KOREAN ELYCATCHER
Rhipidurajatania
Ficedula zanthop.ygia
(r9 cm)
7 5 in
Sourheast Asia
io (rj cm)
E R
OldWorld Flycatchers
catching flying insects. Many are drab and fairly inconspicuous, but others
are brighter and more easily noticed, and some, such as the European Robin,
Pied Flycatcher, and Indian Robin, are common denizens of parks and
gardens. Some have reputations as fine singers. Birds such as nightingales
and shamas,with loud, melodic songs, claim top honors, and some are good
mimics of other birds'songs.The family, Muscicapidae, has a checkered
classification history. Now, with supportive o N e evidence, it is often
considered to encompass about z7o species, including not only a multitude
of flycatchers (and the Asian niltavas), but a subgroup that in the past was
often considered part of the thrush famlly,including akalats, nightingales,
rubythroats, shamas, redstarts, forktails, cochoas, chats, robin-chats,
scrub-robins, stonechats, and wheatears. OldWorld fycatchers are widely
distributed in Africa, Europe, and Asia; only z, the Bluethroat and Northern
Wheatear, occur in the NewWorld (in Alaska and northern Canada).
Being such a large assemblage, Old World flycatchers, not surprisingly,
vary considerably in shape, color, and size. Most are small,4 to 6 inches
(ro to 15 cm) long,but some in the group with long tails (shamas, forktails)
range up to ro inches (25 cm), and the chunky Asian cochoas range uP to
rz inches Qo cm). Many come in dull browns or grays, but some are black
and white, or black and yellow; or blue and white, or have reddish chestsl
forktails are striking black and white birds, and cochoas are blue, green,
347
Dirtribrr/ion
Oll
World, northern
Norlh A mLrica
No
o.f
Lit,irtg
SPiliLt!.270
No. of'SlL:titr
[/ulntruhlt,
lindangcrcl: z:,
MALAYS]AN BLUE-FLYCATCHE
Clornit lurcosut
5 5 in (r4 cm)
in
(r3 cm)
rt in (28 cm)
Southern Asia
Southeast Asia
NIOUNTAIN CHAT
Oenanthe man/icola
(r9 cm)
7 5 il
6 5 in (r7 crn)
Africa
Southern Africa
COMMON STONECHAT
Saxicola torquatq
5
in
(r3 cm)
Eurasia, Africa
CAPPED WHEATEAR
Oenantbe
65
?i/eata
io (r7 cm)
Southern
Afric:
CLIFF CIIA]'
SiCXI-La-u'INCED CII
OLt,orttL/t rinuaht
(r io (r; cnr)
Soutlrcrn,\frica
\iL
ic;r
CHORISl'ER ROBIN-CHAT
Cotr_y2ha
8
tlihroa
Ce r, ot r i thn s q u ruh
in (r7 cru)
-5
Africa
in (zo cnr)
Aliica
/
KALAHARI SCRT]8 ROBIN
(it;oh
6
ithas
1tunt
in (r5 crn)
Sorrrhern Atiic,r
F]SCAL FLYCATCHER
Sigtlus
tihnr
in (19 cro)
Sorrrhcrn Africa
Cotr.y2hd natalensir
Aiiicr
r\
fly
by.They then launch themselves into the air and, with some chasing and
maneuvering, snatch the insects out of the air with their bills, then return to
the same perch to dine. Other species swoop to the ground to catch moving
insects there,whereas still others hop about in the canopies oftrees or forest
undergrowth or in shrubs, taking insects from leaves and branches. Several
species also eat
foraging flocks.In the tropics, many flycatchers remain in the same areas
year-round; species that breed at high northern latitudes migrate south
for winter, as far as southern Africa and Southeast Asia. Most species are
territorial during breeding periods.
OldWorld flycatchers are monogamous or polygamous.The male Pied
Flycatcher is famous for attracting one female to his first territory and
then, soon after, establishing another territory and attempting to attract
a second mate. Some flycatchers nest in tree holes, others in rock crevices,
and some build cup nests in trees. Others in the famtly (some wheatears
and chats) build nests in old rodent burrows or dig nest tunnels in earthen
banks or termite mounds. Both parents usually help in nest construction;
both or only the female incubates eggs; and both feed young.In at least a
few species,young staywith parents to help feed young at subsequent nests.
Many flycatchers are common birds,but at least thirty species in the family
are threatened, principally by deforestation; twenfy-two are r,,ulnerable, and
eight are endangered.
35O
t,
n
IS
Starlings, Mynas,
and O*pcckers
j
c
e
S.
n
:S
v
v
d
o
o
b
it
il
o
b
)S
tS
h
'e
d
d
lt
S,
:S
n
U
a
S.
.v
35r
,\10
o.l
Lit:iu3
,\7,,tiL'.
ttq
No of'STatiLt
l,1r/rt i ra hlt,
lirrt/ttnycrt,/..;,
N'o,'7'Sptti
Ls
,\in,t t6oo
I
l'.tt i tt. t
SUPERB STARLING
WATTLED S'fARLINC
Ldm?rctarnis tu?erbut
(r9 crr)
7 5 in
Credta?hora iineren
Sprcc hicolor
in (:o crn)
Africa. Arabia
rr io (zE cm)
Africa
Southern Atiica
bURCHELL S GLOSSY-STARLINC
CAPE GLOSSY-STAR],ING
La m2
Ldtil?ro/orni nikn\
ro in (25 crn)
ro to
rn is au r tra I i s
in (33 crn)
Southern Africa
13
frica
Sourhern
Aliica
in (:j crn)
Aliica
COI,DI]N-CRESTED MYNA
t'lnTrlitls toronatut
9 ir (21 cm)
Sorrrhern Asir
nythogn alhu t
5 in
r\lrica
16
(42
cn)
v htadot ii
V]OLET-BACKED STARLINC
C innlt ri int I u t I a u c oga s ter
(>5in(r7crn)
Aliicr, Arebit
EUROPEAN STARL]NC
Sturnus t,u|,{ar.is
in (z: cm)
-5
Eurlsi;r
t5in(urcm)
Sourhetst -{sir
U'HITE.SHOULDERED STARLINC
Sturnut in.ntis
8
Slurnut tonlra
in (24 crn)
Sourhero Asia
in (:o cm)
SoutherLr
Asia
e4&*
BL CK-COLLARED STAR],]NC
Sturnut nigrio/lit
rr 5 in (29 crn)
Southern Asia
355
LONG-TAILED }IOCKINGtsIRD
Minus longiaudatur
rr 5 in (:9 cm)
Sorrth Arnerice
GRAY CATB] RD
Dumtcllo
5 in (:r crn)
North America, Cer) rrill Arnerica, West Indies
rr
in
fi
t ca
(29 cLn)
Wesr Jndies
t us
RISSAL TH RASH
Totostomt critsale
rr 5 io (29 crn)
North Americr
C
tdrolinensis
NORTHERN TlOCKINGBIRD
Minus 2olyglottos
ro in (2,5 crn)
1\orth America. Wesr Ioclies
OR
West Inclics
West Inclics
BROWN TREMBLER
LONC-'fAILED XlOCKINGBI
RD
NOR-THERN MOCKINCBIRD
Minus /ongiaudatus
Minus polyg/ottos
5 in (29 cnr)
South Amer ica
ro in
rr
(z-5
cn)
7
C
RAY CATBIRD
CR]SSAI- THRAS]IER
Dunrlcl/a taro/innir
t 5 in (zr cm)
North Aorerica, Cenrrrl Arnerica, West Indies
PEARLY-EYED ]'IIRASHER
Margaro2s-futn/ t s
rr 5 in (:9 cm)
,\,Iar ga
Wcsr Jnclies
West Indies
Toxottonu trittalc
rr 5 in (29 cm)
North r\nterica
rcptJimts
(23 cm)
tsRO!VN TRENIBLER
Cintlote t tbia rufiautla
ro in (25 cro)
West Inclies
Mockingbirds
and Thrashers
songbirds best known for the striking ability some ofthem possess to imitate
Dittrih ulion'
Ncu Worlrl
the calls and songs of other birds, and even sounds ofother types of animals.
The United States'broadly distributed Northern Mockingbird is one of
No. o/'Lirtitrg
the most impressive of the group's mimics, often producing loud songs
that include mixtures of mockingbird-specific and imitated vocalizations,
sometimes incorporating the mimicked songs of ten or more different bird
species.The reason for the vocal mimicry (in many mockingbirds as well as
in some thrashers and catbirds) is not known for sure, but it probably relates
to mate attraction: males with longer, more complex, and more varied songs
No. of Spuicr
maybe more attractive to females. Some in the group are continuous singers,
357
Spe,:ies:.15
Vu /nerah
lt,
Etttlang,:rctl: t,
No
a.f' S t
Since
S,
ci
c.; l') x t i tt t
t6oo: o
358
as
he
ey
SO
)rs
ng
Nuthatchcs;
Sittcllas
SO
ils
rfe
ts.
OS
k,
AS
rd
tS,
ry
rg
rd
ls
1e
p
3S
h.
IE
tS
rt
]S
re
ly
ic
l.
S,
,e
Tichodromadidae), excel at tree climbing, being the only birds that regularly
climb not just up tree trunks, but down, headfirst, also. Another of the
group's claims to fame is that the Brown-headed Nuthatch is one of the
very few tool-using birds. Some individuals break offsmall pieces of bark
and use them to pryup other pieces to find and dislodge insects thatwould
otherwise be inaccessible. Four to 8 inches (ro to zo cm) long, nuthatches
have compact bodies, long, tapered bills, short necks, and short tails. They
are blue gray or blue green above and paler below,with dark caps, dark eye
lines, or both. Females are often duller than males.
Nuthatches use their long, slender bills to probe into cracks in tree
bark and pry up loose pieces of bark. They also probe moss clumps and leaf
masses on branches.They seek mainly insects and spiders,but also take some
seeds, especially in winter, and, as their name suggests, nuts. Two Eurasian
species, known as rock nuthatches, occupy roclcy slopes, cliffs, and gorges,
and forage for insects, spiders, snails, and seeds, mostly on rocks and the
ground. Nuthatches cache seeds in the fall, and then visit their caches during
winteq when food is scarce, seeming to remember many of their thousands
of hiding spots. Usually seen singly or in pairs, they are strongly territorial;
some species, however, form flocks during nonbreeding periods.
The Wallcreeper is considered by bird fanciers to be one of Eurasia's
NUTHATCHES; SITTELLAS
359
Distribution;
North,4m,:rica,
l) tt ro;ia, Nor/ h A.fi'i tu
No oJ'I-iting
Spt:cias: t-y
No. ol'Spacics
Vu/n crablc,
Enrltttgtrt,tl.'2,:
No.
o.f Spacics
Sinct t6o<t. o
lixtitttt
1'ELVET-FROI..T ED
5
in
(r3
cn)
Southeast Asia
N T]T
HA TC H
CHESTNUT-BELI-1ED
5
in
UTHATCII
(r3 cm)
Sourhern Asia
VARIED SITTEI-LA
L)aphoenosi
tt
t brys
oTtt ra
4 5 in (r: crn)
Australia, Nerv CuiLrel
most spectacular small birds. Dull blackish and gray but with large red
wing patches and a long, slender, down-curved bill, it occurs, somewhat
uncommonly, over mountainous areas from Spain to China. As it forage s
for insects and spiders on cliffs and rock faces, it constantly flicks its wings
open, revealing more of its red coloring.
are endangered).
T T E L LA
and white. Males and females show slight differences in color pattern.The
Dist riltution
us / ru I i t, N,:.u (] u i n c t
No. o./'Liring
Specics: z
No. o.f'S1cL:iar
Vulncrahlc,
Endan,qcrnl. o, o
No
of-Spttiu
Sinr t6oo:
SITTELL/\S
as treerunners, sittellas
NUTHATCHES; SITTELLAS
36t
ct
Extintt
BLACK-CAPPED DONACOBIUS
Donacobius atricapi//ut
8 5 io (zz cm)
t h orus e i s en man
6 5 in (16 cm)
South America
South America
WINTER WREN
Trcgh$ttes troglo$ttes
4
io (ro cm)
CAROLINA WREN
Thry o t h or us / udoo i rianus
5 5 in (r4 cm)
INCA WREN
7h 11
SOUTHERN NIGHTINGALE-WREN
n
M i ir ot erc u / us
4 5 in (rr cm)
argi
n a
tu s
SPOTTED WREN
C ampy I orby
6
in
n c hus
gu
Iari
(r7 cm)
Mexico
HOUSE WREN
Troglodytes aedon
4 5 in (rz cm)
Wrcns
!'l1/RENS
s6s
Distrihtrtion'
Neu Worli, Eurnsia,
North,tll)'ira
No.
of'Liting
Spt:cict: 8o
No. ol-Sferict
hrlnLrabl,:,
Dtdongcrcd: .1,.i
No.
o.f' Spt: c i tt s I) x t i n t t
Sinte
r6oo
ct
Most wrens skulk about in thick ground vegetation, but a few are
arboreal, staying in trees in more open areas. Wrens'cryptic coloration is
advantageous
as
they flip, flutteq hop, and poke around low levels offorests
and through thickets, grasslands, and marshes, foraging for insects and other
S6+
Gnatcatchers;
Kinglets
GN
I
';::;:,:,:',""'
Netu Worltl
No
to that group. Gnatcatchers and gnatwrens are known among bird fanciers
Vulnaroh/e,
as active, agile
cNATcATcHERS; KTNGLETS
S6S
No. af Liuing
Species:
t.S
oJ-S1ecies
EndangerLtd: o, o
No.
o.f-
S2tcies
Sintc r6oo: o
lixti rttt
MASKED GNATCATCHER
Polioptila dumicola
(r3 cm)
5 in
South America
BLUE-GRAY GNATCATCHER
Polioptila caerulea
4.5 in (rr cm)
North America,Wesr Indies
',.,
-f
LONG-B] LLED GNATWREN
Ra mpbotaenu t mela n u ru t
4 5 in (rz cm)
Mexico, Central America, South Arnerica
Poliootila melanura
+ in (ro cm)
CUBAN GNATCATCHER
Polioptila lembeyei
4 in (ro cm)
Norrh America
Cuba
<t\+-\
GOLDEN_CROWNED KINGLET
Regului salra?a
4 in (ro cm)
4.5
RUBY_CROWNED
KINCLET
Regu/us ca/endula
in (rr cm)
GNATCATCHERS; KINGLETS
367
KlNCI,I]'I'S
I)irtt ihttliort
North tni CLrtl rul
AtttLritn; I-trm;iu
Nc, af'Lit,itr,q
SVLTiL;; (t
No of'SpttiLt
l"tt/rt, ruh/t,
l)tt,ltrngLtL,/. o. o
No ol'S2ttit' l'):,titt, /
Sirt,t t6oo o
GRAY-IIEADED PARROTtsILL
Paradoxornis gularis
7
in
BDARDED REEDLING
Panrrrr biarmitut
(rE cm)
65in(r7cru)
SoLLthcrn;\sia
Eurasia
GREAl pARRot'BrLL
Conos/oma oemodiunt
rr in (zS cnt)
Southern Asir
FRICAN PENDIII-TNE,TIf
lnl/totro?ilt tdt tli
3 ; in (9 cnr)
Aliica
Parrotbills;
PcndulincTits
as
foraging in small to largish groups. Parrotbill breeding is not well known, but
manymaybe monogamous; both sexes incubate eggs and feedyoung.Their
nests, situated in reeds or lowvegetation, are usually cups ofgrass with strips
of bamboo leaves, bound with spider webbing.Three parrotbills, one Indian
and two Chinese, are considered r,'ulnerable, owing to habitat loss and small
little
is
16g
PARROTBII,LS
I)i;tribution
L)r.rusia
No o.f-Liting
Spetit:s: zo
No. of Spetits
Vu
lncrab/t:.
Endangerad:3, o
No
of'S2cciat
Sincc 16oo: o
I:xtintt
P Ii N
D I] L I N
E 'I I T
l)istt ihtrtiott:
E u nr
si
o, ,tll
ritt , Nor th
,4mrrittt
No
Lfuirrg
of
Slttit;:
No. ,;l
,\Ve
t.;
ti,:t
Vtr/t trah/,,,
En,lnttgLt ti. o, o
No
a.f STLtic:
Extirtt/
SincL
r6oo: o
37O
.,
S
Long-tailed Tits
t
l
1
3
S
L o N G - TA I L E
diminutive, flu$,-
LONG_TAILED TITS
37r
l)ittribtr/iott
Lrtr,rsio trtrtl North
1l
nt,'r i cu
No
ol
Lit'itt.q
57,'ii,'.r 3
No
of Spttit'
[1t/tr,'ruh/,',
Lttiuttg,'t
'\|'
o.l-
SittLr:
tl.
o,
S?t, i t t l:
t(too.
r';
x t i tt
tt
LONG-1'A]LED TIT
,4egitholos caudatut
5 5 in (r4 cm)
Eurasia
BI-ACK.THROATED
,4cgi/balas rontinnus
4 5 in (rr crn)
SotLthcrn Asir
.4 egithalos io u
TI]'
of
one or another ofthe mated individualsl some helpers maybegin helping only
after their own nesting attempts end in failure. Nests are complex hanging
domed structures with side entrances that are suspended high in bushes
or trees. The nests, constructed by both sexes, are made of combinations of
moss, grass, twigs, and rootlets that are bound together with spider webbing.
Sometimes the nests are covered on the outside with bits oflichen, perhaps for
camouflage; they are often lined with feathers and hair. Depending on species,
the female only or both sexes incubate eggs, and both sexes feed the young.
Many ofthe long-tailed tits are common or fairly common over most of
their ranges, and the broadly distributed Long-tailedTit and Bushtit are very
successful.The latter species has been expanding its North American range,
moving in historic times into the northwestern corner ofthe United States
and southwestern corner of Canada.This species first bred on Vancouver
Island rnrg3T,bttis now common there. Certain of the OldWorld species
with limited ranges are considered by some authorities to be near-threatened,
particularly southern Asia's White-throatedTit and central China's Sooty
Tit; and the PygmyTit, endemic to higher-elevation forests ofJava,will
almost certainly be threatened in the future by deforestation.
LoNG-TATLED
TrTS
373
BLACK-CAPPED CH ICKADEE
Poecile
CHESTNUT-BACKED CHICKADEE
atriapillus
TUFTED TlTMOUSE
biro/or
6.5 in (r7 cm)
North America
Poecile rufescent
in (r3 cm)
North America
Baeo/ophus
4 5 in (ru cm)
North America
BRIDLSD TITMOU
Baeo/ophus
SE
uol/ueberi
in (r3 cm)
North America
SULTAN TIT
WHITE.WING ED BLACK-TIT
Me/anoch/ora w/tanea
M e la n ipa
8in(uocm)
M e lan ip ar ut I e uc o m e I a s
4 5
Soulhern Asia
rus llringi / I in
in (rr cm)
Africa
us
in (r4 cm)
Africa
55
Tits and
Chickadees
mainly across the colder, northern portions ofthe world.They are known for
their often plump silhouettes and the lively,busywaytheymove through the
canopies oftrees and bushes, hopping through branches, poking into corners,
and hanging upside down, all in search of insects.The tit family, Paridae, has
about fifty-five species distributed through much of North America, Europe,
Asia, and the forested regions ofAfrica. Birds in the family are often called
"true"tits to distinguish them from members of two other, smaller families
of somewhat similar birds, the penduline tits (family Remizidae) and longtailed tits (familyAegithalidae).The name tit is shortened from the original
name for some of these birds, titmousel both mean, generally, "small bird."
Seven ofthe eleven tits that occur in NorthAmericaareknown as chickadees,
after the "chick-a-dee-dee-dee"calls of some of them;the others are called
titmice. Old World species are all called tits.
Most of these birds range from 4 to 5.5 inches (ro to r4 cm) long (but
Tit
strong feet for hanging from twigs. Some tits, including North America's
titmice, have jaunty crests. Most are brown, gray, or bluish gray above and
whitish, gray, or yellow below, but some are mainly black and white, and
many have black and white heads. White wing bars and white outer tail
feathers are common. Chickadees are gray, brown, or reddish brown with
dark caps and throats and light cheek patches. Sexes in the family usually
look alike, although females are often duller than males.
375
l)istt ihrrtion.
li tr rt ti t, A/i i ro,
tln
Nr,r t h
t:t'ita
No. ol-Liring
52r, irs. .;.J
No.
r,.l'Slttitr
l,1r/rt L nr h/t:,
lirrdnrr,qLrt,/. t, o
No
of- S1,Lsi 1q !.
Sinu t6oo o
11
71,7
Chickadees and tits mainly inhabit forests and woodlands, but also
some more open habitats, especially those modified by people, such as
parks, gardens, and roadsides. All eat insects and other small invertebrates
but also seeds and some buds, berries, and other fruit. Whe n foraging they
move almost constantly through the foliage of trees and shrubs, taking
insects from small twigs and leaves, sometimes hanging acrobatically or
hovering briefly to reach a fleeing bug. Fruits and seeds may be held against
a perch with both feet or wedged into a crevice, then hammered open with
their bills; larger insects are dismembered piece by piece in a similar manner.
Many in the group, including chickadees, store seeds (as well as insects and
spiders) in fall, using their bills to tuck them into knotholes, bark nooks and
crannies, amid dead leaves, or in soil, for later use in winter, when food is
less available.
Tits
are
gregarious-they
are
one another continually as they move around their territory and roosting
together at night. In nonbreeding seasons, many tits form flocks that roam
forests and some commonly join mixed-species foraging focks. During
breeding seasons, pairs of tits rigorously defend their territories against
other members of their species. Most in the family are not migratory but
some that breed in far northern regions do make seasonal movements, and
those that breed at high elevation in summer move to lower elevations in fall
andwinter.
Tits nest in cavities, usually in trees (in natural holes or old woodpecker
holes),but sometimes among tree roots, in stonewalls, or even in holes in the
ground. A fe\,v'excavate their own cavities or enlarge natural ones in rotted,
soft wood. Some will breed in human-provided nest boxes, and Eurasia's
Great Tit, the most widespread and well-known member of the family,
actually prefers this situation. Usually the cavity is lined with soft material,
such as moss,grass,fur, and feathers.Most species are probably monogamous.
Both
sexes may
being fed on the nest by her mate), and both sexes feed young.
Many tits are abundant birds with broad ranges. Only one is threatened:
376
so
as
Swallows
s
ey
1g
or
ISt
rh
er.
rd
rd
is
ro
r8
m
rg
st
Jt
rd
rll
er
IC
d,
t
1S
f,
il,
.s.
:s
t:
ly
is
wA L L o w s are small, streamlined birds that catch insects on the wing D' tribution:
during long periods ofsustained flight.Their pointed wings and often forked All continents except
Antarctira
teil5,6,[i6[ enable them to sail through the air with high maneuverability,
No. ofLiring
and their conspicuousness in a variety of habitats as they fly back and forth
Species:89
during their foraging fights, make swallows familiar to many; and owing
to this familiariry they have a long history of association with people.The No. of Species
Vulnerable,
ancient Greeks revered swallows as sacred birds, probably because they Endangered:4, o
nested in and few around the great temples.In the NewWorld, owing to
No. of Species Extinct
their insect-eatingways, swallows have been popularwith people going back Since t6oo: r
to the ancient Mayans.Today, arrivil.of the first migratory Barn Swallows
in Europe is considered a sign ofapproaching spring, as is the arrival of Cliff
Swallows at Capistrano, an old Spanish mission in California.
The approximately ninety species of swallows (family Hirundinidae),
including birds called martins and sawwings, have a worldwide distribution.
Ranginginlengthfrom 4.5 to 8 inches (rr.5 to zo cm),theyhave shortnecks,
bills, and legs. Some are shades ofblue, green, or violet, but many are grzy or
brown; in most,the sexes lookalike.
Swallows occurpredominandyin open or semiopen habitats,often near
freshwater,over and around lakes,rivers, marshes,cliffs,grassland, savanna,
and forest edges and clearings.They sometimes seem to fly all day, circling
low over land orwater or in patterns high overhead, snatching insects from
the air. But they do land, usually resting during the hottest part of the day.
Direcdy after dawn, however, and at dusk, swallows are always airborne.
s
SwALLOWS
377
BARN SWALLOW
Hirundo rustiia
6 5 in (r7 cLr)
Worldrvide
W}IITE_BANDED SWALLOW
-ltticarafattiata
5 5 in (r4 cm)
South Arnerica
West Indies
in (r5 cm)
Sourhern Africa
BAHANIA SWALLOW
PURPLE MARTIN
Ta t by t in e ta
Progne subit
in
(r5 cm)
ry an
eo
v i r i dis
in (:o cm)
Some species have relatively short, unforked tails and tend to forage high
in
swAr-r,ows
379
RED-WHISKERED BULBUL
Pycnonotus jotosus
8
in (zo cm)
Southern Asia
Hlpri4etes leucotepha/us
ro in (25 cm)
Southern Asia
YELLOW-VENTED BULBUL
Pycnonotut goiavier
8 in (zo cm)
Southeast Asia
Bulbuls;
Hypocolius
,4f t i to,
No of'l-iritrg
Spctic;'r,1o
and their abilities to conform to new realms when people have transported
them from their native regions to alien lands. For anyone who bird-watches
l)i
stri htr
to tr
on:
t/tt rn,4
No. ol SV,:cits
Vu/ntrallr,
Endnn,qttrl. to,,1
Sinct:
BULBULS; HYPOCOLIUS
38r
t6oo
ST
RIPE-TH ROATED
ULB UL
PycnonotuslAnhysoni
8io(uocm)
Sourheast Asia
Southeast Asia
Hemixotfatala
8 5 in (zr cm)
Southern Asia
STRIATED BULBUL
PycnonatuJ striatus
9
in
(23 cm)
Southern Asia
COMMON BULBUL
Pycnonotu barbatus
in (r8 cm)
Africa
7
YELLOW-BELLIED
C h I oroc
i h la f
ao
it
GREENBUL
n tr
85in(uzcm)
Africa
BLACK-FRONTED BULBUL
Pltnonotus nigricans
in (zo cm)
Southero Africa
SOMBRE GREENBUL
CAPE BULBUL
Androladus im2ortunus
(r8 cm)
7 in
PJcnonotus il?enit
8 in (zo cm)
Africa
Southern Africa
HYPOCOLIUS
Hlpocolius ampelinu:
9
in
(23 cm)
Iraq, Arabia
TIYPOCOLIUS
Dit/t ihtrliotr
So
rr /
htt,Ls / t t tt zll
|'o
o.l'l
.it,i
; i
tr.q
SS,tcitt.
No o/'Spctit;
IlrltttruhlL,
f)rt,/attgtrt,l. o, o
No
of'S2tci
tt
I'.^-ti ttt/
Sirrtt t6oo. o
Bulbuls are chiefly forest birds, but some favor forest edges, woodlands,
thickets, or even more open sites, including parks and gardens.The widelv
introduced species Red-whiskered and Red-vented Bulbuls often stick
to open, scrubby sites, cultivated regions, parks, and settled areas in their
new homes. Bulbuls principally eat fruits, including berries, but some also
regularly take insects or probe flowers for nectarl some, such as the African
brownbuls, eat mainly insects. A few will pursue flying insects in the air, but
most search tree and shrub leaves for food. Many forest bulbuls are shy and
skulking,but in habitats near people,bulbuls often become quite bold. Most
are gregarious, traveling in noisy family groups (although some are typicalh'
seen solitarily), and sometimes joining mixed-species feeding flocks.Manv,
particularly following breeding seasons, form fairly large flocks that can cause
harm to fruit crops.Mostbulbuls are not migratory.Manyhave loud,striking,
whistling or chattering songs, and some ofthem quite melodious.
Mating systems among bulbuls are quite variable. Some, perhaps most,
are monogamous, with both parents usually sharing in nest building,
incubation and feeding young. Others are probably cooperative breeders,
with family members helping a mated pair feed young. Nests, fairly bulky,
consist of loosely woven twigs,leaves, and stems formed into a cup, lined
with grass, and placed usually in the fork of a tree or bush (but some nest low
in undergrowth).
Many bulbuls are common to abundant, with broad distributions.
However, being predominantly forest dwellers at a time when forests in
Africa and Asia are increasingly cleared or degraded, some are threatened.
Additionally, some species are trapped in large numbers for the pet
industry, both local and international. Currently ten species are considered
yulnerable and three endangered. Most ofthese are from Indonesia,Africa,
or Madagascar; about half are restricted to islands.
The s y p o c o L I u s (single-species family Hypocoliidae) is a midsize
grayish songbird restricted to the Middle East, chiefly Iraq,Jordan, and
Arabia.About 9 inches (23 cm) long,Hypocoliuses have short,wide,slightly
hooked bills, short,roundedwings,long tails, short legs, and strong feet. Males
are pale gray with black markings; females are duller, browner. The species
inhabits open areas such as scrublands, shrub areas, and gardens. Usually in
small groups, they forage for small fruits and berries and occasional insects.
Mating is monogamous, male and female building a bulky cup nest oftwigs,
lined with vegetation, in a shrub or small tree.The species is not thre atened.
l8+
lr,
,ly
ck
Whitc-cycs
)ir
SO
ln
ut
1d
rst
ly
rYt
SC
It) t
it,
o
6'
]S,
rY'
)d
)S
n
S.
S,
l.
WH ITE-EYE
385
Distribution:
Suh-Saharan
Africa, southern
Asia, Australasia,
southzuestern Pacil6c
No.
ofLhing
Species. 9q
No. of Species
I/ulnerable,
Endangered: ro,
No. of Species
Since 16oo:
rr
Extinct
JAPANESE WHITE-EYE
Zattero?rja?oniur
in (rr cm)
Asia
4.5
ORIENTAL WHITE-EYE
Zosterops palpebrotut
4.5 in (rr cm)
BLACK-CAPPDD WHITE-EYE
Zoierops atricapi//a
4 5 in (rr cm)
Asia
Southeast Asia
SILVE-EYE
Zosterops /ateralis
5 in (rr cm)
Australia,Tropical Pacifi c islands
MOUNTAI N BLACK-EYE
Cblorocharis emi/iae
5 5 in (r4 cm)
Zosterops senegaleuis
Zasterops
in (rr cm)
Africa
4.5
Borneo
CAPE WHITE-EYE
pallidut
in (rz cm)
Southern Africz
silverywhite feathers. Almost all species have white ringsl one, Borneo's
Mountain Black-eye, has black rings.White-eyes are mainly greenish above
and yellowish below, but often with patches of gray, white, or brown. Four
species, known as speirops, endemic to islands offthe coast ofWest Africa,
are darker birds, sporting black, brown, and gray.Male and female whiteeyes look alike, although females are sometimes a bit smaller and/or duller.
Birds of forests, forest edges, woodlands, orchards, and gardens, whiteeyes eat insects and spiders, fruit such as berries, and sometimes, nectar from
flowers.Theyhave brush-tipped tongues that theyuse to mop up nectar, as
well as pulp and juice from fruits. They are lively and fast-moving, landing
in a tree or shrub, searching leaves and bark for bugs, probing into crevices
for spiders, then quickly moving on to another tree or shrub.Theywill also
occasionally take fying insects in the air. White-eyes tend to forage through
the mid and upper levels of tree canopies, but sometimes come lower, and
some are common shrub birds. During nonbreeding periods,white-eyes
are often in small focks, and sometimes join mixed-species foraging flocks.
Many are territorial for all or part ofthe year. Some species at higher latitudes
migrate to warmer regions to spend nonbreeding periods; for instance,
white-eyes that breed in the northern parts of their Asian range migrate to
southern Asia, and some of the white-eyes that breed in Tasmania migrate
northward to the Australian mainland.
Monogamous breeders, white-eyes build loosely woven, cup-shaped
nests ofgrasses, othervegetation, and spiderwebbing, suspended by the rim
in the fork of a small branch in a tree or shrub. Both sexes build the nest,
incubate eggs, and feed young. Some white-eyes remain in long-term mated
pairs, perhaps for life.
Many white-eyes are widespread, common birds-too common at
times. Flocks of Silver-eyes are so abundant and destructive
offruit in parts
ofAustralia that they are considered orchard and vineyard pests. Many other
white-eyes, however, are in trouble. Currently ten species are considered
vulnerable and eleven endangered. Fully eighteen of these twenty-one
species are restricted to small islands; main threats they face are extremely
small populations, typhoons, deforestation, and island development. One,
the RobustWhite-eye, endemic to Australia's Lord Howe Island, became
extinct in the r9zos, probably because the rats that were introduced to the
island preyed on the birds and their nests.
wHrrE-EYEs
387
C,z
u
YELLOW-BELLlED PRINIA
Prinia fla.tirentris
5 in (rj cm)
GOLDEN-HEADED CISTICOLA
BLACK-CAPPED APALIS
Cisticola eillis
Southern Asia
Apalit nigrircps
4 5 in (rr cm)
Africa
4 5
in (rr cm)
YELLOW-BREASTED APALI
,4pali{lauida
(r3 cm)
5 in
Atiica
GREEN-BACKED CANIAROPTERA
Caneroptera brathyura
.1 in (ro crn)
Africa
BLACK.CHESTED PRINIA
SPOTTED PRINIA
Priniafadcant
Prinia marulosa
5 in (rj cm)
CRAY-BACKED CISTICOLA
C i s tit o la s ub r uf mp i I I a
5 in (r3 cm)
55
Southern Africa
Southern
in (r4 cm)
Aliica
Southern
Afiica
Cisticolas, Prinias,
and Apahscs
inches (9 to
as
15
cm) long,usuallyslim-
bodied, with slender, pointed bills, some ofwhich are slightly or moderately
down-curved. Many have short, rounded wings, and most are rather short-
389
I)i'tt
tl
1)
ihtrtiott
)-o
o1
Lit'tr,y
.,7
\),,
,\
l,
I:tt,l,ttt1.t,,l t,,I
.\,. oi\'1'.,;'1';
'\'itttt
t()t)t.\
t.)
brighter during breeding andlor a bit larger. Prinias, often brownish like
cisticolas, are more compact-looking and have longer tails that they often
be
keep raised and moving over their backs. Apalises are distinctive because they
rootlets,leaves, or lichens, or
ten species, almost all endemic to Africa, are considered threatened: six are
lulnerable and four are endangered (one of the latter, Kenya'sTaita APalis,
critically so). Restricted ranges,tinyPopulations, and continued habitat loss
are the main threats to these smallbirds.
39O
l,
)
S
i,
r
',1
t
I
t
l.
r)
r
)
',
39r
Dirtribution:
Africa, Eurnsia,
Austrolis, Neu
Zcalortd, Alaskt
No. o/'I-iving
Species:279
No. of'Species
Vnlnarah/e
Dndongercd: 23,
No. ol-Species
Sinca 16oo: z
Extintt
ARCTIC WARBLER
JAPANESE BUSH-WARBLER
Pblllostopus horealis
Cettia di?hone
in (r4 cm)
-5
in (r3 cm)
Eurasia, North America
DARK-NECKED TAILORBTRD
Or/hotom us atrogularis
4.5 in (rz cm)
Sourhern Asia
Asia
INORNATE WARBLER
P hy llost o4u s in orn
tus
in (rr cm)
Asia
CHESTNUT-CROWNED WARBLER
Seicertus mstaniceps
4
in (ro cm)
Southern Asia
MOUNTAIN WARBLER
YELLOW-BREASTED WARBLER
P h y I I o s t op u s t r it irga t u s
4 5 in (r2 cm)
Southeasr Asia
Southeast Asia
Seitercut montis
in (ro cm)
4 5 io (rr cm)
WILLOW WARBLER
P hy //o siop ut trot h i I ut
4 5 in (rz crn)
5 5
Africa
Eurasia, Africa
Aliica
YELLOW-BELLIED
HYLIOTA
Hlliotafadguter
BANDDD PARISOMA
Parisoma boehmi
io (r3 crn)
Atiica
5
RUEOUS-VENTED WARBLER
Pd risom a
55
su
biaer ule
in (r4 cm)
Sorrthern
Aliicr
nt
Chloropeta natalensit
in (r4 crn)
REEN-BACKED EREIIOMELA
Eremonila tanestens
4 5 ir (rr cnr)
G
Africa
LESSER SWANIP-WARBLER
,4 trocephal u: gra ci /iros tr is
6 in (r5 cm)
Africa
WH]TE-WINCED SCRUB-WARBLER
Bradfiterut carla/is
65
in
Africa
(r7 crn)
VICTORIN S SCRUB-WARBLER
Bradypterus
RED-FACED CROM
B EC
Sytietta uhltii
15 in (9 cm)
oitorini
6SinG6cm)
Southern Africa
Melocichla mentalis
(r9 cm)
7 5 in
Aliica
CLAMOROUS REED-WARBLER
,4
crocq h a lus
te n tore uJ
in (r8 cm)
Asia, Africa
7
RUFOUS SONGf,ARK
Cinc/oramlhus mathewsi
6.s
in
G6 cm)
Australia
BROWN SONGLARK
C in c loranp h ut cr ural i s
7
in
G8 cm)
Australia
Many species staywithin tree canopies, but others forage at various levels of
a forest, some even partly on the ground.They prefer feeding within dense
foliage, and some are skulking.They tend to feed alone or in pairs. Most are
territorial, a male and female defending a piece of real estate from other
members of their species. During nonbreeding periods some join into small
f,ocks, and some forest dwellers join mixed-species foraging flocks.The
ority of these warblers are migratory. Many of the European ones breed
in spring/summel and then migrate to Africa for the nonbreeding winter
maj
months. S ome of these journeys are remarkable : the tiny, widespread Willow
Warbler, for example, flies up to 5,5oo miles (9,ooo km) twice a year between
breeding and wintering sites. The ones that breed in Siberia may fy even
oLD woRLD
wARBLERS
395
PUFF-THROATED BABBLER
WHITE-BROWED
Pellorueum rufceps
Pterutbiusfaticapis
io (r7 cm)
Southern Asia
65
SHRIKE BABBLER
in (r7 cm)
Southern Asia
CU'TTA
STRIPED TIT-BABBLER
Pnoepygapusilla
15 in (9 cm)
Cutia nipalensit
7 in (r8 cm)
Macronous gu/arit
5 5 in (r4 cm)
Southern Asia
Southern Asia
Southeast Asia
Babblers;
Rockfowl
BA BB
BR
tJ,\uut.t.tRs
L)ittt ihrrtiotr
.tll)'i,t, SorrtLirtt tf
Not /h -tlrntritt
No ol'Lirirtg
STLtitr:0-y
Most consume insects and other small invertebrates, foraging by using their
BABBLERS; ROCKFOwL
397
i,r,
No of'Spt, itt
lir
l,
/tt t nrh/i:,
tt,/rt tt
yLrLi. t 8,
tt
No of'STtcirs Lrlittrt
S i rt
tt
t 6c>c>
c>
in (27 cm)
Southern Asia
MELODIOUS LAUGHINCTHRUSH
Garrulax canorus
ro in (25 cm)
Sourhern Asia
RED.B]LLED LETOTHRIX
WIIITE-BELLIED YUTIINA
Leiolhrix lutea
(r4 crn)
5 5 in
Southern Asia
Yuhind zantholeuca
Garru/ax monileger
ro in (26 cm)
Sourhern Asia
in (r3 cm)
Sourhern Asia
5
WHITE.CRESTED LAUGHINGTHRUSH
Garrulax lcucolopbus
ro in (26 cm)
Southern Asia
CHESTNUT-CRESTED YUHINA
Yuhina eoeretti
in (r4 cm)
5.5
Borneo
WHITE-EROWED SCIMITAR-BABBLER
Pom a lorbin
us
in (zz cm)
Southern Asia
8s
sthit ti tebs
GOLDEN BABBLER
Stachyri chrysaea
4.5 in (rz cm)
SILVER-EARED MESlA
Leiothrix argentaurit
Southern Asir
Southero Asia
in
(r7 cm)
Southern Asia
Southeast Asia
Garrulat mitratut
9
in (23 cm)
IMM
-Fo
RUFOUS CHATTERER
Turdoides rubiginosut
;; io (r9 cm)
Africa
SOUTHERN PIED-BABBLER
Turdoidu bitolor
9 in (23 crn)
Southern Africa
GRAY-NECKED ROCKFOWL
Picothartet oreas
13 in (33 cm)
A frica
bills to turn over leaves on the ground and to probe into nooks and crannies;
arboreal species pick insects offleaves and other vegetation. Many also eat
fruits; some also take seeds, nectar, or are omnivorous. Babblers, usually quite
social, are often found together in family groups of three to thirty that huddle
together when resting or roostinBi when not breedingr some join mixedspecies foraging flocks. Many species defend group territories, in which,
seasonally, the group breeds. Generally babblers are not migratory.
Babblers employ a variety ofmating systems, and cooperative breeding is
common. In cooperative breeding, only one or perhaps two pairs in a family
group breed, other members of the group participating
as
helpers, assisting
with feeding young and sometimes with incubation. Helpers may be young of
previous years that stay around, gaining nesting experience, before breeding
on their own. Many species build domed nests ofdead leaves and moss, often
hidden in dense shrubbery on or near the ground. Others build cuplike nests
of coarse plant materials high in bushes or trees. Both sexes incubate eggs
Distrihtr/ ion.
Il/tt/ l.f rir rt
No. ol l,it'ittg
.12,'ri,'r
-u
No. of'S1,Lti,''
Vu /rtL t rr b/t,
liurlartgtrLt/ z, o
ol'S\tcit: l',rr
SintL
rtc/
t(tr;o
separate
family. Rockfowl are also called bald crows, after their bare-skin heads, and
picathartes,aftertheirgenus name.Theyrungefrom 13 to 16 inches (yto 4r
cm) long, and are mainly gray or blackish above, and light below.The Whitenecked Rockfowl's head is yellow and black, the Gray-necked Rockfowl's is
red, blue, and black. Both have large eyes, robust bills, and long legs and tails.
The sexes look alike. Rockfowl are confined to forests,where they stay in
lowvegetation or on the ground, hunting insects,worms, snails, centipedes,
millipedes, fr ogs, andlizards. Apparently monogamous, rockfowl build cup
nests, of mud mixed with vegetation, in a cave or on a cliffwall or boulder;
both sexes incubate the eggs and feed the young. Both species are considered
vulnerable because they have relatively small populations and fragmented
distributions in regions undergoing extensive deforestation.
4OO
5,
rt
'e
Larks
,e
I,
IS
v
o
b
,f
o
b
n
:S
.S
x
e
e
il
Yt
n
r,
';
t
I
LARKS
4Ot
Distribution:
Ewasia, Africa,
Australia, North
Amerira
No. oJ'I-iving
Spetie.r:
9t
No. of Species
Vulnerab/e,
Endangered:4,
No.
xtinc
oJ'
Since
51>e
cies E
t6oo: o
EURASIAN SKYLARX
,4lauda artensis
(r8 cm)
7 in
Eurasia,
Aiiica
CHESTNUT-HEADED
Erema?terix signa/a
4 5 in (rr cm)
CLAPPER LAR(
SABOTA LARK
Mirafra apiata
6 in (r-5 cm)
Sourhern Africa
Mirafra sabota
SPARROW- I,ARX
in (r5 cm)
Southern Africa
LARGE-BILLED LARK
Ga/erida magniroiris
/ in (r8 cm)
Southern Africa
--?
-I
V'
CRAY-BACKED SPARROW-LA RX
Erenopterix urticalis
5 in (rj cm)
Southern
Aliica
HORNED LARK
Eremopbila alpertri:
75inG9cm)
Eurasia, Atiica, N-orth America
AUSTRALASIAN tsUSHLARK
M ira,fra j avan it a
in (r4 cm)
Australia, Southeast Asia
5 5
of time on the ground (foraging, nesting), these birds are colored mostly in
various shades ofbrown, usually darker above and lighter brown, buft, or
whitish below, effectively camouflaging them from aerial predators. Many
larks match,with their back coloring, the predominant soil color in the area
in which they live; many also are streaked above and/or below, furthering
the cryptic effect. Some have black and white head markings, and some are
crested. Male and female larks usually look alike.
Open habitats in which larks occur include grasslands, savanna,
woodland edges, tundra, deserts, farmland, and roadsides.They tend to stay
on the ground as they forage, walking (or running), rather than hopping,
along, but some also search low-lying vegetation for food.They seek mainly
insects (but also some other small invertebrates, including mollusks) and
seeds (but also some flowers, buds, and occasional leaves). Many larks form
flocks during nonbreeding seasons, sometimes coming together in large
numbers to feed in, among other places, agricultural stubble. Larks that live
in colder, northern regions generally are migratory; some that live in desert
areas are fairly nomadic, moving frequently in search of food.
Most larks breed monogamously, pairs defending territories together
during the breeding season. Song flights, in which male larks fly up, circle,
sing (sometimes for minutes at a time), and then fly away or spiral or dive back
to the ground,likely function in mate attraction or territory maintenance, or
both.In some species, such as Africa's Flappet and Clapper Larks, males fly
very high and clap their wings together loudly as they climb. AIl larks nest
on the ground, building in
depression
The nest may be lined with fine grass, rootlets, hair, or some combination
of
so
On the other hand, natural grasslands are among Earth's most threatened
environments because of their obvious suitability for cultivation of grain
crops. Eight lark species are currently threatened, four vulnerable and
four endangered (two critically so); all are African. But many larks are still
widespread, abundant, highly successful birds, and some, including the
Horned Lark,are thought to be among the world's most numerous birds.
LARKS
4O3
CHESTN UT SPARROW
GRAY-HEADED SPARROW
Parer eminibel
4 5 in (rr cm)
Patser
Africa
Atiica
Petroniabtrgita
in (r5 cm)
io
in (r5 cm)
Africa
CAPE SPARROW
Patser ne/anurus
6
YELLOW-SPOTTED PETRONIA
grieus
HOUSE SPARROW
Patser domesticus
(r5 cm)
55
Southern Africa
in (r4 cm)
Eurasia, Africa
PLAIN-BACKED SPARROW
Passer montanus
Paster.iEateolus
5 5 in (r4 cm)
55
in (r4 cm)
Eurasia
Southeast Asia
OldWorld Sparrows
are small,stubby-billed,
mostlybrown and
their ecologies and now "make their livings" in association with people.
That is, they live in parks, villages, towns, and cities, nest in these places,
sometimes in buildings, and eat a variety of foods, including what many refer
to euphemistically as table scraps (and more directly as garbage).The House
Sparrow, having been introduced from its native Eurasia and North Africa
to many other regions, now flourishes over vast stretches of the terrestrial
Earth, essentially wherever there are people, excepting rainforests, deserts,
and arctic tundra areas. Living in and near cities and towns at elevations
from sealeveltor4,Too feet (4,5oo m),it is one ofthe globe's most common,
widespread, and well-known birds.The F{ouse Sparrow probably began
associating with people when towns and cities were first developed, and
transport animals such as horses filled streets with their seed-rich droppings.
Europeans brought House Sparrows with them when they colonized great
sections ofthe planet during the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries,
and these birds adapted to new realms swiftly. The species'first successful
405
Dis/ribution:
Africo, Eurosia
No. of Litting
No. of Specics
Vulnerablc,
l)ndangerel: o, o
No.
of-STecies
Sinrc 16oo: o
Extintl
Hawaii. The Eurasian Tiee Sparrow; likewise, often nests in buildings and
is now anatrlrralized citrzen of such far-flung outposts as Australia and the
midwestern United States, and several additional members of the family
nest at least occasionally in buildings.
The Old World sparrow family, Passeridae, consists of thirty-five
species distributed in Europe, Asia, and, especially, Africa. In the past the
group was often considered part of the finch family (Fringillidae), but now
is thought more closely related to weavers (family Ploceidae).The family
consists of birds known as "true" sparrows as well as some called petronias
and snowfinches. Generally chunky and from 4 to 8 inches (ro to zo cm)
long, almost all are drably clad in brown, buff, and gray (males in two species
known as golden sparrows are yellow). Many have streaked plumage, and
black markings are common.They have short, stout, conical bills, strong
skulls, and large jaw muscles, all associated with crushing and eating seeds.
Tails are short, legs are fairly thick, and feet are relativelylarge,used to
scratch the ground in search of food. Petronias, or rock sparrows, birds of
semidesert scrub and rocky outcrops, are generally dull gray or brown and
have a yellow spot on their throat. Snowfinches, sparrows of the Eurasian
mountains, are relatively light in color and have white patches on wings and
tail. Male and female sparrows sometimes look alike, sometimes not.
Sparrows occupy open environments such as scrub and rocky areas,
lightlywooded and bush habitats, as well as agricultural and urban sites.They
eat mostly seeds, but some, especially Eurasian Tree and House Sparrows,
will eat greatyartety of things, including insects, plant buds and leaves,
^
and nectar.Many arevery social,living andbreeding in small colonies.After
breeding, sparrows tend to form into large foraging flocks, sometimes with
other seed-eating birds. Sparrows are not great singers, their vocalizations
centering on various chatters, chirps, andbrzzes.
Sparrows tend to be monogamous, mated pairs breeding inloose colonies,
sometimes hundreds of nests together in one group oftrees or bushes. Both
sexes share nest building, both or the female only incubates eggs, and both
feed young, which are reared on insects. Nests are messy-looking, ball- or
pad-shaped affairs of drygrass, often lined with feathers. Some species nest
in crevices, including tree, rock, or rodent holes. None of these sparrows are
currently threatened. In their large winter flocks they sometimes become
significant crop pests on cereals and grains.
406
Weavers
{
j
)
S
t
f
)
i.
l
1
t
,
Y
;,
;,
r
1
S
t,
f
1
r
t
as
of
\^/EAVERS
407
l)i:/ t i/,trlion
ill) i,rr. totrlhl tt,,l'i,r
No o.l-l-it,ittg
No. o./-Sp,:iit;
11t/trLroh/i,
l
)rtiottgt:rnl.
No
ol'57a,
5'itttL
tboo
it'
o
7, 7
Er/ ittt/
WHITE-BROWED
PARASITIC WEAVER
Anomalotpiza imberbis
4.5 in (rr crn)
P/otebaster nahali
6 5 in (r7 cm)
Africa
Africa
Africa
ROW WEAVER
P/oceus cucu//atus
8 5 in (zz cm)
Africa
Aliica
Pseudonigrita cabanii
5
SPAR
V]LLACE WEAVER
65
in
(r7 cLr)
C,\PE WEAVER
CHESTN UT WEAVER
Ploceus capensis
P/oteut rubiginosus
in
(r7 cm)
Southern Africa
in (r5 cm)
furica
GROSBEAK WEAYER
RED-HEADED WEAVER
tpiza a Ibifrons
6.5 in (r7 cm)
Ana?lectet rilbrie?s
5 5 in (r4 cm)
Africa
Africa
,4 mb lyo
\
5
Southero Africa
Africa
RED-HEADED OUELEA
Quelea erythrols
5
RED.BILLED QUELEA
SOCIAL WEAVER
Philetairus socius
5.5 in (r4 cm)
in
Fri
Que/ea quelea
in (r3 cm)
ORANGE BISHOP
(r3 cm)
Euplectesfranciscanu
4.5 in (rr cm)
ca
Africa
FIRE-FRONTED BISHOP
diadematut
4 in (ro cm)
Euplectes
Africa
YELLOW.CROWNED BI SHOP
Euplertes afer
.1in (ro cm)
Africa
Fodies, of the Madagascar region, are red, brown, and black. Malimbes are
red and black forest weavers. Male queleas, mostly brown and streaked,
during breeding have varying amounts of red on the head, chest, and bill.
Male bishops during breeding adopt black and red or black and yellow
plumage, and male widowbirds grow long, elaborate tail feathers and bright
shoulder patches.
WEAVERS
4il
DOUBLE-BARRED FINCH
Ta e ni o?lgi a b i r b e n a v i i
4 5 in (rr cm)
Australia
4 5
th u
ra
u s la n e o tb orax
in (rz cm)
PAINTED FTNCH
ZEBRA FINCH
Taeniofugia gu/tata
4 in (ro cm)
Emblemapitum
4 5 in (rr cm)
Australia
I
RED-HEADED
FORNI
RED-EARED FIRETAIL
Stagonopleura ocu/ata
in (rz cm)
4 5
Australia
CRItrTSON FINCH
Neochmia phaeton
5 in (r3 cm)
Waxbills
wAx B I L L s , also called estrildid finches and grassfinches, are small, usually
abundant Old World birds that mainly occupy grassy, brushy, open-country
lands.Their famtly,Estrildidae, contains about r4o species of seed-eaters
of southern Asia, sub-S aharanAfrica, and Australasia. Included are birds
called antpeckers, pytilias, crimson-wings, seedcrackers, bluebills, twinspots,
WAXBILLS
413
I)irtt ibutiort
S
t r
h - S a h a rd
n,tl f i' i t
tr,
sol/htrtt tlsit,
/trt/ru/tsia
Na. o.l'Lir irtg
STttits tqo
No. ol-Sqtcics
Iir
lin,/rrngtrit/.8,
t\ o
of'S t,,'t
iL
Sirttt t6oc>
-t
t ]'. r / i n,
t>
CREEN-WINCED PYTILTA
COMMON WAXBILL
Estrilda astrild
Pytilia melba
5 5 in (r4 cm)
Africa
in (ro cm)
Africa
4
SHELLEY'S CRIMSON.WING
35in(9crc)
Africa
Africa
VIOLET-EARED WAXBILL
Uraegintbus granatina
Cryptospiza fiel/e1i
in (r3 cm)
CUT.THROAT FINCH
Amadirafatciata
4 in (ro cm)
Africa
in
(r5 cm)
Southern Africa
RED-HEADED FINCH
Amadina nythroce2bala
5
in (rj cm)
Southern Africa
RED-BROWED FINCH
ORANGE-CHEEKED WAXBILL
Neocbmia temloralit
Et*ildamel2oda
in (rr cm)
Australia
in (ro cm)
Africa
45
JAVA SPARROW
Padda oryzivara
RED AVADA\'AT
,4mandata amandaoa
4 5 in (rr cm)
6 5 in (16 cm)
Indonesia
Southern Asia
RED-CHEEKED CORDONBLEU
NUTMEG MANNIKIN
Lontbura bunctulata
4 in (ro cm)
Southern Asia
Africa
Uraeginthus bengalus
in (r3 cm)
Indian Ocean islands, Australia, Southeast Asia, the Philippines, and even
Los Angeles (the NutmegMannikin).
Wa.xbills are 3.5 to 6 inches (6 to 16 cm) long (most 4 to 5.5 inches fro to
14 cm]) and have short, chunky, pointed bills, and short, rounded wings.The
bills of some species appear disproportionately large for such small birds,
but they are required to handle and crush se eds. Patches of red are common
in the group, particularly on head, rumpr or upper tail; many species have
white dots on their sides. Members of one subgroup, usually slightly heavier
looking than others and mainly dully colored, are called munias (typically
the Asian species) or mannikins (African and Australian species; not to be
confused with the South American manakins).Waxbill sexes look alike in
some species, different in others.
Principally occupying tropical regions, waxbills are predominantly birds
of open and semiopen habitats, including grasslands, brush and scrublands,
forest edges and clearings, reedbeds, and agricultural areas. But some dwell in
woodlands and even dense forests.Most are seed-eaters (but some also take
insects; naro African species specialize on ants), with grass seed, collected
from the ground or pulled from grass stalks, being the primary diet item;
many species switch to an at least partial insect diet during breeding. A
high degree of sociality is usual in these birds: various species flock all year
(often in groups of five to fifty or more individuals), nest in colonies during
breeding seasons, or flock together after pairs nest solitarily. Large numbers
ofindividuals spend the entire day together, feeding, drinking, bathing, and
roosting in flocks; during rests, they often preen each other.
Waxbills are usually monogamous, a male and a female maintaining
a stable pair-bond for one or more breeding seasons; some may mate for
life. Most build untidy domed nests of grass and other vegetation placed in
shrubs, trees, or sometimes on the ground in tall, dense grass. Some nest in
holes. Both sexes construct the nest (the male usually doing more finding
and delivering materials, the female doing more actual building); the sexes
take turns incubating eggs; both feed the young.
Waxbills are some of the world's most popular cage birds and some
areas in which they are heavily hunted and trapped for the pet trade have
experienced significant declines in these birds.TheJava Sparrow, for instance,
416
Indigobirds
andWhydahs
Y
3
The species that are parasitrzed in this case are all waxbills, members of the
family Estrildidae,which are closely related to the indigobirds and whydahs
(in fact, the indigobirds and whydahs are sometimes placed within family
Estrildidae).The parasitism is highly specialized and species-specific: in
most cases, each species of indigobird or whydah places its eggs solely
in the nests of a single waxbill species. Further, presumably to avoid the
host recognizing the parasitic nestling for what it is and not feeding it or
ejecting it from the nest, indigobird and whydah chicks have evolved mouth
markings and colors that match those ofthe host's own young. For example,
the Village Indigobird, the most widespread of the ten indigobirds, only
parasitizes the Red-billed Firefinch; and Village Indigobird nestlings,when
they open their mouths to beg to be fed by firefinch adults, have the same
internal mouth color and spot patterns as the firefinches'own offspring.As
an added layer of deceit, the young indigobirds also imitate the host species'
begging calls, which stimulate parents to feed their young. Whydahs are
also noted for the males'elaborate, elongated tails when in their breeding
+r7
Distrihution:
AJrica
No. oJ-l,iting
Species r9
No. of Sparies
Vulnerab/r,
Ilnlnngertl.
o,
No. oJ-Spuits
Extintt
Sinca
t6oo:
Africa
*-
VILLAGE INDIGOBIRD
Vidua challbeata
4
in (ro cm)
Africa
z5
purple, or greenish gloss); females and nonbre eding males are brown, streaked,
feed on the ground. Small grass seeds are their main diet items, but some insects
Most species eat seeds that they either pick up from the ground
or pull directly from grass stems. Although fairly solitary during breeding
seasons, manywhydahs and indigobirds form flocks afterward, sometimes
with other species.These flocks will move considerable distances searching
are also taken.
off
TNDTGOBTRDS AND
WHYDAHS
4I9
AMER]CAN PIPIT
WH]TE WAG'TAIL
Motahil/a a/ba
7 5 in (r9 cm)
Eurasia, Africa
,4nthus rubescens
6 5 in (r7 cm)
PADDYFIELD PIPIT
Anthus rufu/us
6 5 in (16 cm)
Southern Asia
GOLDEN PIP]T
Tme to thllac us tene I lus
6 5 io (16 cm)
Africa
FOREST WACTAIL
Dendronanthut indiiut
7
YELLOW WAGTAIL
Molaci/lafata
in (r8 cm)
Asia
in (r8 cm)
Eurasia, Africa
io (zo cm)
Sourhern Afiica
Wugtails
and Pipits
wAGTAI
rs
and pI
songbirds that are probably most recognized for their incessant tail-wagging:
as
theywalk or run along they constantly move their tails up and down; most
continue bobbing their tails even when perched-they never seem to stop.The
\.VAGTAILS AND
PIPITS
42I
Distrihu tion.
No oJ'Lit,ing
Sptci
cs: 6z
No. oJ-SVerict
Vu/nerahla,
Endangtrtl:.1,
16oo
many have yellow underparts.They are 6 to 8.25 inches (r5 to zr cm) long and
have dark legs; the sexes sometimes differ slightly in appearance. Pipits (a.5
inches lrz to zo cm]), among the most widely distributed songbirds, are
brownish and streaked, with narrow tails somewhat shorter than in wagtails;
the sexes look alike. Longclaws (6.5 to 8.5 inches ltzto zz cml) are streaked
to
brown above and yellow, orange, or reddish below,with a black chest band.
Pipits and wagtails spend most of their time on the ground feeding,
pursuing insects and other small arthropod preywith short sprints;theywill
sometimes
will perch
Pipits eat insects but also some seeds and other plant materials. Crypticallv
colored, they are often invisible to people until flushed, at which point they
ascend, circle, and either fy away or drop back to the ground. Wagtails, when
flushed, typically fly in large arcs, calling loudly. Both wagtails and pipits fly
with a strongly undulating flight. Atl these birds tend to form flocks in the
nonbreeding season, and many are migratory.
Most ofthe birds in this group breed monogamously,withpairs defending
territories together in the breeding season. Male pipits give advertising
displays in which, while singing, they ascend quickly into the air and then
either drop fast or flutter down slowly.Wagtail courtship displays stay more
on the ground and involve tail- and wing-spreading. A11 nest on the ground
or in rock crevices.The well-concealed nest, sometimes sheltered by a rock
or overhanging grass, and built in a depression, is cuplike and constructed
of grasses, plant fibers, moss, and hair.Typically the female alone incubates;
both parents usually feed young.
Pipits and longclaws,primarily grassland species, arejeopardizedwhere
their habitats are widely converted to crop agriculture. Currently five species
are threatened (three vulnerable, two endangered); three are African, one
is South American. The fifth, Sprague's Pipit, which breeds in the northcentral part of North America, is lrrlnerable because its prairie breeding
habitat continues to shrink, the land taken for farming and degraded by
livestock grazing.
+22
1d
r.5
Accentors
.re
ls;
:d
d.
8,
ill
:h
lSt
Is,
.ts
ut
IS.
-lv
3\'
I)irt ributiorr
litrrosia, ttort/ttrn
A.fiittr
ln
No ol'Litting
1v
STerics'r,1
te
No
ig
rg
:n
re
,d
:k
d
S;
'e
'q
AccENToRS
423
ol-S1tciLs
Vu/tttruhlr,
En,/tngtril'o,
t6oo
HIMALAYAN ACCENTOR
ROB]N ACCENTOR
Prunel/a hima/a1ana
in
(r5 cm)
Asia
6 5 in (16 cm)
Asia
SIBERIAN ACCENTOR
Prunella montanella
6 in (r5 cm)
Asia
MAROON-BACKED ACCENTOR
Prunella immaculata
RUFOUS-BREASTED ACCENTOR
Prune/la trolhiata
6 in (r5 cm)
Asia
DUNNOCK
Prune/la uodularis
6 in (r5 cm)
-5
in
(16 crn)
Eurasia.
Aliica
which usually breeds above treeline and up to snowline, has actually been
seen near the top of Mount Everest, around 26,ooo feet (8,ooo m).The
Siberian Accentor inhabits the most northerly forests on Earth. Members
of this family feed mainly on the ground, but also in undergrowth and
shrubs, and they can cling to rock faces. On the ground they quietly creep,
or shufle, along, sometimes hopping, generally keeping their body close to
the ground, often flicking their wings and tail. When in more open areas,
they tend to stay close to shrubs and boulders.Theyuse their bill to turn over
leayes and other vegetation as they forage, seeking insects and other small
invertebrates (worms, snails, spiders), as well as seeds.Typically these birds
switch to a seed and berry diet during winter. Accentors are not strong fliers,
and usually fly only short distances when flushed. Some are migratory but
others remain allyear in the same region.The Dunnock is migratory only
in the colder, northern parts ofits range; these individuals move in autumn
to such locations as Gibraltar,Mediterranean islands, and Iraq. Species that
breed at high elevations regularly move to lower elevations for the winter,
where food is more available. Accentors are usually in pairs during breeding
seasons; most species form flocks in winter.
Little is known about accentor breeding except in Dunnocks. During a
long-term study in England, biologists found that although many Dunnocks
bred in monogamous pairs, others bred in various other combinations of
the sexes, the second-most common, after one female/one male, being one
female/naro males.In these cases, the second, subordinate, male stays with the
primarypair and, ifhe is able to mate with the female, contributes to feeding
young and defending the territory. Nests placed on the ground, in a rock
crevice, or in a shrub or low tree branch, are neatlywoven open cups of plant
pieces and moss,linedwith feathers and hair.The female builds the nest; the
female only or both sexes incubate eggs; both sexes feed the young.
Some accentors, such as the Dunnock and Alpine Accentor, are abundant
and widespread, the latter species ranging from the mountains of Europe to
the mountains of China andTaiwan. Others have more limited distributions
in various Asian mountain ranges. None are currently threatened, but the
Yemen Accentoq restricted to high-elevation western mountains ofYemen,
is near-threatened. It has limited breeding habitat and occurs at fairly low
densities.Ifits grassy/shrubbyhabitats are degraded (for instance,byincreased
livestock grazing) or reduced, the species could quicklybecome threatened.
ACCENToRS
425
FI RD-BREASTED FLOWERPECKER
Dicaeum ignipertus
r s in (q cLr)
Southern Asia
F>\
SCARLET.BACKED
LOWERPECKER
Dicaeum cruentatuu
ORANCE-BELLTED FLOWERPECKER
Ditaeum trigonostigmo
35in(9cm)
j5in(9cm)
Dicaeum chrltsorrheum
4 in (ro cm)
Southern Asia
Sourhern Asia
Southern Asia
I
I
CRESTED EERRYPECKER
Paramltlbia montium
in (zr cm)
Nerv Guinea
8 5
Sugarbirds;
Flowerpcckers;
Berrypcckcrs
u cA
RB
RD
9 to rr.5 inches
(4to
z9 cm).
is timed to coincide
move around according to nectar availability and are often gregarious then.
427
l)ittr ihtrtion'
Sot/htrn,tlfiiru
No.
o.l
Lit'irrg
Sl,'ti,s.z
No
o./-STLritr
14r/rrtnhlt,
Enlttgrnl.
No
o, o
o.l'S7r:t iLr
Sirttr'
t6oo'
l')xtintt
}.LOWL,RPECKERS
Distrib
ut
ion:
Sort/herrt tlsiu,
Arstru/asin
No.
of'Liring
Specits: 4q
No. oJ'STries
lrt crnh/e,
Vrr
EndangerLd. z,
No
oJ-S1ttics
Sinte
Extinc/
r(too
FL
birds of southern Asia and Australasia. There are forqt-four species in the
family, Dicaeidae.They are known for the rapid way they move through
tree foliage when foraging, and for their sometimes brilliant plumage.
Flowerpeckers are
to
inches (8 to
13
down-curved bills, pointed wings, and stumpy tails. Coloring ranges from
some with rather plain, dull olive plumage, similar in both sexes, to others
in which males are clad in bright reds, oranges, yellows, blues, or greens, but
females are drably colored, olive to dull yellow.
Flowerpe ckers utilize an
ar r ay
forests to bamboo groves, agricultural areas, and gardens,but most are forest,
forest edge, or woodland birds. They feed on berries, soft fruits, and insects,
IJT]RRYPECKERS
AND I,ONGBILLS
No ol-Liring
Sp,:ti,';. ro
No
ofSptcies
Yulttcro/t/e,
lindangercl. o,
No
o.f Spir.iar
I')xtinct
Sittce
t6oo: o
PAINTED
BI]RRYPECKERS
I)istribution:
N,:.u (]tinea
No
o/
Liring
52,'ci.'s
No
-z
o-/ Sp,'cit:s
l/tr /n t r,t
le,
I)ndangtrcrl. o, o
No
of STttit:s
Sirttt
Distrihution:
Ncu ()rrirteo
lixtirrct
r6oo o
them, and one, the Obscure Berrypecker, has been seen only
428
few times.
il
,e
Sunbirds and
Spidcrhuntcrs
n
:S
rt
n
t,
5,
5!
s u N B I R D s are tiny to midsize, often very pretry arboreal birds with long
down-curved bil1s designed to probe and penetrate into flower parts to get
nectar. Distributed mainly through sub-Saharan Africa, southern Asia,
and northeastern Australia, they are noted for the rapid, acrobatic way
they flit in and out of flowering trees and shrubs as they search for flowers
and insects. Because oftheir iridescent colors, bill shape, nectar-feeding
behavior, and aggressiveness in defending feeding territories, sunbirds are
considered by many to be the Old World ecological equivalent of the New
World hummingbirds.The two groups are not closely related; rather, the
similarities are superficial, brought about by parallel evolutionary responses
to similar habitats and ecological needs-in otherwords, the great similarity
in form and behavior between sunbirds and hummingbirds is a good case of
convergent evolution.The sunbird family, Nectariniidae, contains about 13o
species,including ro inAsia called s p I DE R H uNT E n s.Most areAfrican
or Asian; a single species, the Olive-backed Sunbird, occurs in Australia.
SUNBIRDS AND
SPIDERHUNTERS
429
Di;tribution:
Sub Saharan Al)'ica,
sou/htrn Asia,
,4us/
rt/itr
No. ol Litting
Speciu. t7o
No. of'Species
Vulne rable,
Ett,lnngered: 1,
No. of
Sinr,:
Species
r(too'o
l')xtittct
RUBY-CIIEEKED SUNB]RD
Antbreptes malacensis
5 5 in (r4 cm)
lnthreples inga/ensis
4 5 in (rr crn)
Sourheast Asia
Sourhern Asia
,.r
>
I
LITTLg SPIDERHUNTER
ra c b n
in
t h era / ongir
(16 cm)
Southern Asia
os
tra
Antbreptes orientalis
4.5 in (rz cm)
COLLARED SUNBIRD
Hedydipna collaris
4 in (ro cm)
Africa
Africa
in (r4 cm)
Southeast Asia
AMETHYST SUNBTRD
C b a L o mi tra ame t hy s ti n a
MARIQUA SUNBIRD
in (r4 cm)
Africa
45
Cinnyis mariquensis
5 5
WHITE BELLIED
Cinnlrt
talata/a
in (rr cm)
Africa
45
in (rz cm)
Africa
SUNBIRD
BLACK.BELL]ED SUNBIRD
Cinny ri s n e c tar i ni o ide s
5
in (r3 cm)
Africa
ORANGE-BREASTED SUNBIRD
,4nthobapbes oiolacea
4
in (rz-15 cm)
Southern Africa
SUPERB SUNBIRD
4 5 in (rz cm)
5 in (r7 cm)
Africa
Cinnyris superba
6
Southern Africa
DUSKY SUNBIRD
Cinnyitfuca
4 io (ro cm)
Southern Africa
MOUSE-COLORED SUNBIRD
Cyanomitra teroxii
5 in (rj cm)
Africa
SCARLET-CHESTED SUNBIRD
C b a I c omi tra
in (r5 cm)
Africa
6
se n
ega / en s i s
Sunbirds occupy
flit
about foliage, stopping and perching each time they feed.They fit their long,
slender bills into tubular flowers to get at nectar at the bottom; their long
with a f ruy ed, featherlike tip, fl icked b ack and forth rapidly, is u s ed to
pull nectar into the mouth by a combination of suction and capillary action.
With large flowers, they tear petals away $ use their bill to rip through
the bottoms of petals, to get at nectar. They also use the fine, pointed bill
to probe into tight corners for spiders and insects (to add protein to their
nectar diet), and they pluck spiders from their webs-which must be done
carefully because these small birds can accidentally become entangled in
webs (indeed, a group of large spider species in southeastern Asia, called
bird-eating spiders, make their livings capturing birds). Many species switch
to catching insects when they are rearing young, Sunbird bills have fine,
saw-tooth edges at their tips that help hold struggling insects and spiders.
Sunbirds are often seen foraging alone, and seem to lead fairly solitary lives;
when they meet at popular feeding places, they are usually aggressive toward
each other. Sometimes theywill defend a group offlowers.They can be seen
hovering conspicuously over the plants, perhaps giving their buzzy little
songs, and chasing away arry sunbird, butterfly, or even bee that tries to get
near the nectar. Many defend territories throughout the year, often centered
around favored flowering trees or shrubs.
A sunbird pair breeds monogamously on an exclusive territory that the
male defends.The female builds the domed oval or purselike nest of plant
fibers, grass, and spider webbing; the nest hangs from a tree branch or leaf.
The female also incubates eggs, but both sexes feed the young. Nesting is
timed to coincide with rains and the consequent blossoming of nectarbearing flowers and abundance ofinsects.
Many sunbirds are very common and some have broad ranges. However,
six species are currently threatened (four are lulnerable, two are endangered),
five of them African. A11 are mainly forest dwellers and all six have tiny
ranges and very small populations; the prime threat they face is continued
to ngue,
forest loss.
433
HOODED STSKIN
Carduelit uage/lanica
4.5 in (r: cm)
South America
RED CROSSBTLL
Loxia curairostra
6 5 in (16 cm)
Eurasia, Africa, North America
WHITE-WINCED CROSSBILL
COMMON REDPOLL
Carduelitfammea
5 in (r3 cm)
Eurasia, North America
Loxia leucoftera
6 5 in (r7 cm)
Eurasia. North America
P]NE SISKIN
Cardue/fu pinus
in (r3 cm)
North America, Central America
5
F'inches, Siskirs,
Crossbills,
and Canarrcs
o s s B I L L s , and c A
I E s , as well as serins,
large group
and Antarctica. The family, Fringillidae, contains about r34 species, most
of which occur in the Old World (more in the north temperate zone than
CANARTES
435
Dislribu tiott
World'uide a^'tt7t
Arrtrolin oni
A
tr
tn rct ico
No of'Lit'ing
Sp,:ci,:t.
No
tjq
o.f-Spetiil-
lh/rrt:rah/a,
Lnltrtgcrtd..l,6
No
o.f'Spti i tt
SinrL
r6oo
li
tt
n,t
HOODED GROSBEAK
C ott o tbra us tes albei llei
7
PURPLE FINCH
Cdr?odacu ?ur?ureus
in (r5 cm)
in (r8 cm)
North America
C
-\
HOUSE FINCH
AMERICAN GOLDFINCH
Carpodacus meicanus
Cdrdue/ir /ristis
in (r5 cm)
Norrh America
in (r3 cn)
North America
BLACK-HEADED SISKIN
Carduelit notata
4 5 in (rr cm)
5 5
Eurasia
COMMON ROSEFINCH
Carpodacus
erlthrinus
in (r4 cm)
YELLOW-FRONTED CANARY
Serinus mozambirus
Africa
Serinus atrogularit
4 5
SEEDEATER
io (r5 cm)
Africa
in (rr cm)
4 5
THICK-BILLED
Serinus burtoni
in (rr cm)
CAPE CANARY
YELLOW CANARY
Serinus tanicol/is
4 5 in (rz cm)
Africa
Africa
Serinusfaaitentris
in (r3 cm)
Southero Africa
WHITE-THROATED
Serinus a/bogu/aris
6
in (r5 cm)
Southern Africa
CANARY
CAPE S]SKIN
Eerinui totta
4 5
in (ru cm)
Southern Africa
l'
ISLAND CANARY
Serinu canaria
6
in
(r5 cm)
1.,*
also take some insects. House Finches consume mostlygrass andweed seeds,
but also some tree buds and fruit. A few fringillids, such as the Chaffinch,
defend large territories during breeding seasons, in which they nest and
locate all their food,but most nest in loose colonies, defend only small areas
around their nests, and feed in groups away from the nesting area.
Fringillids breed in monogamous pairs,the female alone usuallybuilding
the nest and incubating eggs, her mate sometimes feeding her as she
incubates. Open, cup-shaped nests are constructed typically of twigs, grass,
fine roots, moss, and lichens, and placed in trees or shrubs; some species, such
as
male and female tend nestlings, feeding them insects, insects and seeds, or,
in crossbills, siskins, redpolls, and linnets, seeds alone. Many fringillids are
common,widespread birds; nine are threatened (three are vulnerable, six are
endangered).The prime threat theyface is destruction and alteration oftheir
$8
Hawarran
Honeycrcepers
,,
i,
t
s
l
l
r
inches (r8 cm). Most are greenish or green and yellow, but some are
bright red or orangish, or brownish, and one, the Akohekohe, is black. Within
to about
HAWATTAN
HoNEYCREEPERS
439
Distrihution'
HatLtoiiorr Islands
No.
ol-Liting
Specias:
t8
No. af S1aciet
Vulncrablt,
Endangcrarl.
7, 7
Himatione unguinea
5
in
Hemignathus airens
(r3 cm)
Hawaii
ANIANIAU
Hemignatbu ?araus
4 in (ro cm)
Hawaii
-5
in (rr cm)
Hawaii
AKIAPOLAAU
Hemignathus munrot
5 5
MAUI PARROTB]LL
P s e u d o n etor xa n t b op brys
5 5 in (r4 cm)
in (r4 cm)
Hawaii
PALI LA
IIWI
Loxioides bailleut
7 in (r8 cm)
Wstiaria rcccinea
6
Hawaii
Hawaii
in
(r5 cm)
Hawaii
AKoHEKoHE (ctrsreo
Pa/mria dolei
in G8 cm)
Hawaii
7
HoNEycREEpER)
Iiwi
has
nectar from long, tubular fl.owers. And some have highly specialized bills in
which the top and bottom parts differ significantly. For instance, the bottom
part of the Akiapolaau's bill is short, thick, and straight and is used to dig
small holes into soft tree wood and bark,like woodpeckers do; the top part,
fine, down-curved, and nearly twice as long as the bottom, is used to probe
HAWAIIAN HONEYCREEPERS
44I
; in (rj cnt)
\\/est lndics
ARRO\Y.HEADED WARBLER
l)cntlroiL
-;
Ceathl\,?i rottrdld
in (r; crn)
lhtrctru
in (rj crn)
\\tsr lrdics
BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER
DendroiuJitsca
5 in (r3 cm)
Norrh Arnerica, Sourh America
I
I
i
i
-t!il
CRAY-AND-GOLD WARBLER
Basileuterusfraseri
5 5 in (r4 cm)
South America
SPECTACLED REDSTART
My i o b o ru s me / an oc ep h a I us
5 in (r3 cm)
South America
BANANAQUIT
Coerebafauo/a
.+ 5 in (r2 crn)
West Indies, Central America,
South America
Wood Warblers
few are brown. Many have conspicuous whitish wing and tail
Di rtrihu/ion:
Nero trl/crli
No. o.l'Li.-ing
Spctit:s'tt7
No
of-Sp,:cits
Dnlurtgtrcd:
No
6, 7
Sinct
r6oo t
ANI
RICAN. REDSTA RT
Setophaga
5
in
utirilla
(r3 crn)
g
f
PAIN'fED REDSTART
Myioborus pic/ut
in (r5 cm)
North America, Central Arnerica
6
RED-FACED WARBLER
Cardellina rubrifront
5 5 in (r4 crn)
North America, Central America
MACNOLIA WARBLER
l)endroica magnolio
in (r3 cn:)
-5
North America, Central America,
Wesr Iodies
BLACK.AND.WHITE WARBLER
Mnioti//a uaria
5in(r3cnr)
North America, Central America,West Indies
PROTHONOTARY WARBLER
Protonotaria citrca
5 5 in (r4 cm)
North Arnerica, Central America, West Indies
CRESCENT-CHESTED WARBLER
Parula tuperciliorc
4.5 in (rr cm)
OVENBIRD
Seiurus aurocalillus
6 in (r5 cm)
North America, South America,
West Indies
RED-BREASTED CHAT
COMMON YELLOWTHROAT
Granalellus oenustus
6 in (r5 cm)
Geothly1is tricbas
5 in (r3 cm)
Mexico
RED WARBf,ER
Ergatius ruber
5
in (r3 cm)
Mqico
COLIMA WARBLER
Wrmioora crisselis
(r3 cm)
5 in
North America
West Indies
MACGILLTYRAY S WARBLER
Oparorni tolmiei
5 in (r3 cm)
North America, Central America
OLIVE WARBLER
Peucedramus
taeniatu
in (r3 cm)
North America, Central America
5
markings. Male and female in nonmigratory species tend to look alike, but
in migratory species, males acquire brighter plumage for breeding.Warblers
have narrow, pointed bills and slender legs. They range from 4 to 2.5 inches
(ro to 19 cm) long, mostbeing about5 inches (r3 cm); the Bananaquit,yellow
and olive/grayish, is quite small at 4to 4.25 inches (ro to rr cm).
Although forests and woodlands are their main habitats, warblers also
occupy rainforests, shrublands, brushy sites, and marshes. In North America,
warblers are mainlyarboreal,but in South America many skulkaboutin dense
and female defend a piece of real estate from other members of the species.
with
melodic, but they range in
446
,ut
)rs
res
)w
Flowcrpicrccrs;
Conebills
SO
ia,
rse
1S,
of
en
CS
Ch
ks
Low E RpI
RCE RS and
coN
EB
ofprettylittle
fe
songbirds, mainly South American, that are now often considered members
;,;;:;;:.".'
rts
NL'otrofiitr
rg
te
tS
te
ry
it
rd
1S
:n
n,
TC
bit longer than the bottom part and has a sharply hooked tip, is used to hold
part ofthe flower steady;the lowerpart ofthe bill,which is slightlyupturned
and ends in a sharp point, then makes a hole through which the long tongue
is inserted to suck up nectar. In parts of the Andes, most large flowers at
mid- to high altitudes eventually have tiny holes in their bottoms, indicating
the ubiquity of these small birds. Conebills, named for their mostly short,
pointed bills, also forage at flowers, but they are normally there not for
nectar but to search for insects.The eighteen flowerpiercer species occur
from Central Mexico southward to northern Argentina, and the eleven
conebills range from Panama to northern Argentina.
Varyingfrom 4.5to6.5inches (rr.5 to 16.5 cm) inlength,flowerpiercers are
chiefly black or shiny blue, and some have white or reddish brown markings.
IC
FLOwERPTERCERS;
CONEBILLS
447
No.
of
'l,ittin,q
Sp,:tiL: t8
No of'S2tti,tr
ltn/nLrah/,',
Enr.ltrng,'rcl. r:,
No
o.l STLtits
Sinrt r6r>c:'o
Extirt, t
TlASKED FLOWERPIERCER
Diglosopis ryanea
6
in
(r5 cm)
Sourh America
GLOSSY FLOWERPIERCER
Digloxa /aJresnayii
5 5 io (r4 cm)
South America
MOUSTACHED FLOWERPIERCER
G]ANT CONEBILL
Diglosa mystialit
5 5 in (r4 cm)
6.5
South America
Sourh America
Oreomanesjfraseri
in (r6 cm)
CAPPED CONEBILL
C o n ir
5
os
tr um a I lt tfr
in (r3 cm)
Sourh America
CHESTNUT-VENTED
Conirostrum speciostm
4 5 in (rr cm)
South America
CONEBILL
The sexes are similar in most but females are sometimes drabber than males,
usually some shade of olive or brown. Conebills, mainly 4 to 5.5 inches (9.5
to 14 cm) long (but the Giant Conebill is 6.5 inches [16.5 cm]), show awide
range of plumage patterns, but many are blue or bluish gray above, paler
below, often with reddish brown patches. Conebill sexes tlpically look alike,
but females are duller in some.The Giant Conebill, unlike others in its group,
has a
fairlylongbill.
FLO\/vERPTERCERS;
CONEBTLLS
449
";:r:r:::r::
South America
No. of Ltuing
Sqccier:
rr
No. oJ-Specier
Vulncrablc,
Endangered. r, o
No
of Species
Sinte t6oo: o
Extintt
HOODED MOUNTAIN-TANAGER
MAGPIE TANAGER
Cissopis leoeriana
ro 5 in (27 cm)
South America
Bulhrau?i nonlana
in (zz cm)
Sorrrh America
8 5
GU]RA TANAGER
Hemitbraupis guira
5 in (r3 cm)
South America
HOODED TANAGER
BURNISHED-BUFF TANACER
Nenosia 2ileata
Tangara cayana
5 5 in (r4 cm)
in (r3 crr)
South America
South America
RUFOUS-BELLIED EUPHONIA
Dupbonia rul6oentris
4.5 in (rz cm)
Sourh America
me ln n
South Anerica
le ut
8R
FULVOUS SHRTKE
Laniofuhrus
6
io
(r7 cm)
South America
Thnagers
NAGER
recognized
245 species
as
this book, are sometimes also considered tanagers.) Most tanagers are South
TANAGERS
45t
)iitt ihtttion
,\',
No
ll1r,t /,1
a.l
Li;
in,1
No
r,.l'Si7t,i,
'
Lrt,/trrr,,4itt,/. t
.\'o
,,1 .\ip,',
,\in,i rhoct
i,'t
rt
1, 7
Lttil;/
BERYL-SPANCLED TANAGER
BLUE DACNIS
Tangara nigrotiridis
Dacnfu cayana
5 in
(r3 cm)
South America
ORANGE-EARED TANACER
GREEN-AND-GOLD TANACER
C b I oroc bry n
Tangara silranlii
5 5 in (r4 cm)
Sourh America
ca
/ I ip ara e a
5 in (r3 cm)
South America
SWALLOW TANAGER
Tersina oiridis
6
in (rj cm)
in (r5 cm)
South America
io (r5 cm)
South America
6
PARADISE TANAGER
Tdngara chilerui
in (r4 cm)
Sourb America
5 5
GOLDEN-CROWNED TANACER
d o s ornit r ulla et t e x
6 5 in (r7 cm)
Soulh America
Iri
CRASS-GREEN
TANAGER
Cb/orornit riefririi
8
Clanerpet ryaneut
(rz cm)
5 in
in (zo cm)
South America
--r:./{i
GREEN HONEYCREEPER
JAN1AICAN EUPHONIA
Cbloropbanes sPiza
Euphoniajanaica
in (r4 cm)
Mexico, Central America,
South America
Jamaica
45
5 5
in
(r5 cm)
Wesr Indies
io (rz cm)
GOLDEN TANAGER
Tangara arthus
5
in (rj cor)
South America
Z5
in (r9 cm)
Puerlo Rico
BLUE-AND-BLACK
Tangara oassorii
5
in (r3 cm)
South America
TANAGER
Tanagers inhabit essentially all forested and shrub areas ofthe American
tropics and are particularly numerous in wet forests and forest edges. They
prefer the lighter, upper levels of the forest canopy and more open areas, but
some favor low; brushy habitats. Most associate in mixed-species tanager
454
lan
)ut
NcwWorld
ler
ler
Sparuows and
)re
OldWorld Buntings
rey
in
lre
rir,
3W
8o
he
its
he
fS,
CS
ry
he
er
ar
tls
rS
AS
)f
:d
St
le
n
fl,
Ie
:e
rf
that includes some of North America's most common and visible songbirds,
such as Song Sparrows,White-crowned Sparrows, and Dark-eyedJuncos.
The group, family Emberizidae, while not closely related to the Old World
sparrows (family Passeridae) or "true"fi.nches (Fringillidae), contains many
species called sparrows or finches, as well as seedeaters, grassquits,longsPurs,
and towhees.There are three main subgroups: Eurasian and African buntings;
Distrihution:
Wor/lzuidc Lxctpt
11us/rulia and
ln l arcticu
No. of-Lioing
Sle cics'.1o.y
No. o.f-Spctict
Vtlncroblc,
Ettdongarcd.'rg, t7
North American sparrows and others; and South American seedeaters, No of'Sptcit: Lxtirttt
grassquits, and finches. Central America has elements of both the North Si n te t 6c:<> o
and South American subgroups.In North America, the sparrow/bunting
(emberizid) family is infamous among bird-watchers for its sparrows, many of
which are small, brown, and streaked, differing only subtly from one another in
plumage pattern, and therefore being extremely difficult to identify to species.
Indeed, these birds are undoubte dly the origin of the term LBJ (little brown
jobs),which American birders now applyliberallythe world over to hard-toidenti$, small, darkbirds. Other celebrated American emberizids are the Song
Sparrow, the study of which provided the basis for much of what we know
about avian territoriality; the White-crowned Sparrow, the species of choice
for many investigations of bird physiology and the relationships befween
ecology and physiology, especiallywith regard to the timing of breeding and
migration; the Snow Bunting, which breeds farther north than any other
land bird; and Galdpagos fi.nches, thirteen species of drab black, brown, and
455
CUBAN BULLFTNCH
Melopyrrba nigra
5.5 in (r4 cm)
West Indies
CUBAN GRASSQUIT
GRASSHOPPER SPARROW
Tiais unora
Ammodramus
in (rz cm)
Cuba
,.'*.--
/--<\
GREEN-BACKED SPARROW
CHESTN UT-BELLIED
A rre m
Orlzoborus angolentit
on o2 s c h
I oron o t us
(r5
cm)
6 in
Mexico. Central America
COLLARED TOWHEE
Pipilo ocai
8 in (zo crn)
Mexico
wannarunt
in (r3 cm)
Norrh America, South America
4 5
SSED-FINCH
in (rj cm)
South America
PERUVTAN S]ERRA-FINCH
Pbrygilts punentit
6
in
(r5 cm)
South America
VARlABLE SEEDEATER
Sporopbila corrina
in (ru cnr)
45
IMM
WHITE-WINGED
Diuca tpeculifera
7 5 in (r9 cm)
South America
RED.CRESTED CARDINAL
Paroaria coronata
7 5
in (r9 cm)
South America
DIUCA-FINCH
RUSTY.COLLARED SEED
WHITE-BELLIED SEEDEATER
Sporophila ullarit
4.5 in (rz cm)
4 5
Sourh America
South America
Sporophi/a /eutoptera
in (r2 cm)
r!*
B
t
LARGE GROUND-FINCH
DARK-EYED JUNCO
GOLDEN-CROWNED SPARROW
Geotliza magnirostris
6 5 in (r7 cm)
Junco byemalit
6 5 in (16 cm)
Galipagos Islands
North America
ric h ia
a I
ric api I I a
in (r8 cm)
Norrh America
SONG SPARROW
RUFOUS-CAPPED BRUSH-FINCH
Me/otpiza me/odia
6 5 in (r7 cm)
Norrh America
1tlapetes pileatus
6 5 in (16 cm)
Mexico
CHESTNUT-COLLARED LONCSPUR
Ca/cariut ornatus
BUNTING
7 5
CAPE BUNTING
Emberiza capensis
6 in (r5 cm)
Embetizallatiaentris
6 in (r5 cm)
Africa
LARK-LIKE BUNTINC
Emberiza impetuani
6 io {r5 cm)
5-5
Africa
Southern Africa
in (r4 cm)
in (r9 cm)
North Americe
GOLDEN-BREASTED BUNTING
in (r5 cm)
North America
6
CINNAMON-BREASTED
Emberiza tahati.ri
SPOTTED TOWHEE
Pipilo macu/atut
Southeru Africa
CRIMSON-BREASTED FINCH
Rhodospingus cruentus
in (rr cm)
South America
4 5
in
jumping backrvard on the ground, pulling soil backwith their feet, exposing
hidden food. Sparrows and buntings generally specialize on eating seeds for
much of the year, but often feed insects to their young. Some also eat fruit;
many are considered almost omnivorous. Most species are strongly territorial,
a mated pair aggressively excluding other members of the species from sharply
defined areas.In many sparrows,pairs stay together allyear; other species often
travel in small family groups. Sometimes territories are defended year-round
and almost all available habitat in a region is divided into territories. Some
species form into large flocks during nonbreedingperiods. Songs ofemberizids
vary from btszzes and trills to pure tones and short, loud melodies.
BUNTTNGS
459
'.r
BLACK-FACED GROSBEAK
C ary t h ro ur t e t ? o I i ogai ter
7 in (I8 cm)
Mexico. Central America
BI-UE-BLACK GROSBEAK
Clanocotrpta ryanoides
7 in (r8 cm)
Cenrral America, Sourh America
SLATE-COLORED GROSBEAK
Sa/tator grotsut
8
in (zo cm)
4"
,
I
SOUTHERN YELLOW-CROSBEAK
P h e u c t i t us
8 5
t b 11 s ogas te
in (zz cm)
South America
PYRRHULOXIA
Cardina/is sinaatus
I5 in (zz cm)
North America
CRIMSON-COLLARED GROSBEAX
Rbodothraupis ce/aeno
8 5 in (zz crn)
Mexico
YELLOW GROSBEAK
P h e ut I ic u s c hr1 t opep / ut
9 in (zj cm)
Mexico, Central America
PAINTED BUNTING
Paserina ciris
in (r4 cm)
North America, Central America
5 5
Wesr Indies
Cardinals,
Saltators, and
Grosbeaks
46r
might expect, eating the largest seeds; small species, such as the North
American buntings, eat a lot of tinyweed seeds. Grains, soft fruits, berries,
and insects are also taken by the group. Although most eat seeds during most
of the yea\many switch to insects and other small arthropods during the
breeding season. Saltators,which tend to occupyopen-countryhabitats such
as woodlands, forest edges, clearings, and pastures, favor fruit and berries
(and some insect larvae); theywill balance a plucked fruit on ahorizontal
surface and take repeated bites. Cardinalids are rypically observed singly or
in pairs; in the tropics, many species regularly join mixed-species foraging
flocks with such other birds as tanagers and honeycreepers.Tiopical species
usually remain year-round in the same area; temperate-zone species are
often migratory, some, for instance, breeding as far north as southern
Canadabut wintering in northern South America or the Caribbean. The
Northern Cardinal, one ofthe least migratory ofAmerica's birds, remains in
the northeastern United States forwinteq and is a common visitor to snowencrusted suburban bird feeders. Many cardinalids are strongly territorial,
a male and a female pairing and together defending from others of their
species a territory, in which they breed and on which they find all or much of
the food for theiryoung. Others, such as some of the tropical grosbeaks, are
territorial, often spending time in loose flocks. Migratory species change
their aggressive habits with season. Some American buntings, for instance,
are strongly territorial during summer, chasing other buntings away from
their real estate, but on their wintering grounds, say in southern Mexico, they
congregate in flocks that feed together in agricultural areas. Many members
of this family are considered excellent singers, possessing striking,loud, rich
less
462
CAI
.nd
Ine
NcwWorld Blackbirds
:th
.e S,
f,st
he
Ch
ies
tal
or
ng
ies
Lre
rn
he
in
N_
al,
:ir
of
re
3e
le,
m
?y
rS
Ew woRLD
Netr: World
No
Vu/n cro
ecology,andbehavior.Distinguishingthem
from mostotherbirds
is
aparticular
as
gaping:
:h
sharply pointed, conical bills. Black is their predominant color, but many
combine it with bright reds, yellows, or oranges. In some, the sexes are alike
(particularlyin tropical species),but in others, females lookquite different from
h
h
differences between the sexes, females being smalle! are common. Grackles,
h
S.
e
ls
Distrihtrtion:
463
No.
o.f
Lilirtg
Spuitt'97
of-Sqtcics
h
la,
Endong,:rtd. 4, 7
No. of Sprcias Dxrirtrt
Sini:,:
t6oo t
PERT]VIAN MEADOWLARK
Sturnel/a be/liosa
8 in (zo cm)
Sourh Arnerica
ORIOLE BLACKBIRD
TROUPIAL
Lterus itterut
9 in (:3 cm)
South Americr
Glnnomyilax mexicanus
ro.5-rz in (27-3o cm)
South America
\
YELLOW-RUMPED CACIQUE
CRESTED OROPENDOLA
Pwrocolius deilmanus
r4-19 in (j6-48 cm)
Central America. Sorrth America
RED-BREASTED BLACKBIRD
Sturnella militat it
7 5 in (r9 cm)
Cenrral America, South America
RUSSET.BACKED OROPENDOLA
Pv rocoli us a ngus I ifron s
r4-19 5 in (35-49 cm)
South America
Africa
9-rr
in (23 z8 cm)
Aiiica
EPAULET ORIOLE
Iilerus uyanensis
8 in (zo cm)
South Arnerica
SHINY CO\!BIRD
Molothrrr bonariensis
7-8 5 in (rB :z cm)
Cenrral Anrericl, Soulh America,
GIANT COlVBIRD
ScaVhidura oryzioora
rz 15 in (3r 38 crn)
Central Arnerica, South Arnerica
West Indies
.i=+
YELLOW-SHOULDERED BLACKBIRD
Agelaitu xanthonur
8-9 in (zo-23 cm)
Puerto Rico
HOODED ORIOLE
Lterus crrcul/atus
8 in (zo cm)
North America
=?
?'
V,
.*
-,,
ORCHARD ORIOLE
SCOTT S ORIOLE
hterur ?aritorun
9 in (23 cm)
North America
Itterus spuriut
7 in (r8 cm)
WESTERN MEADOWLARX
BOAT-TAILED GRACKLE
BOBOLINK
Quitalus najor
9 5 in (24 cm)
North Arnerica
r.1
Dolichonyx oryziuorut
(r8 cm)
7 in
-Y
6
RED.WINGED BLACKBIRD
YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD
dgelaiut lboenircut
in (r8-e3 cm)
North America, Central America
9
5-ro in (r9-25
cm)
N-orth America
in shades ofbrown and black, have a dark secret-they are brood parasites.
Icterids occur in all sorts ofhabitats, including vroodlands, thickets,
grassland, marshes, forest edges, and even rainforest canopies, but they are
especially prevalent in more open areas. Their regular occupation of marshes
is interesting because they are not obviously adapted for living in aquatic
environments; they do not have webbed feet, for example, nor can they float or
dive.They eat a wide variety of foods including insects and other small animals,
fruit, and seeds. Some are fairly omnivorous, as befitting birds that frequently
become scavengers in urban settings. A common feature of the group is that
seed-eaters during the nonbreeding periods become insect-eaters at breeding
Icterids pursue
as
the orioles,
large
territory in which the nest is situated. But others, including many caciques
and the oropendolas, nest in colonies. Some species, such as Red-winged and
Yellow-headed Blackbirds, are strongly polygynous,with a single male during
a breeding season mating',vith several females. Nests, almost always built by
females, range from hanging pouches woven from grasses and other plant
materials, to open cups lined with mud, to roofed nests built on the ground,
hidden in meadow grass. Nestlings are fed by both parents (monogamous
species) or primarilyby the female (polygynous species). Most cowbirds are
brood parasites, building no nests themselves. Rather, females, after mating,
lay their eggs in the nests ofother species and then let the host species raise
theiryoung.
Some ofthe most abundantbirds oftheWestern Hemisphere are icterids,
such as Red-winged Blackbirds and Common Grackles. Brown-headed
Cowbirds, open-countrybirds, have been increasing, actually expanding their
range with deforestation. Some tropical orioles have been severely reduced
in numbers because they are hunted as prized cage birds. Currently eleven
icterids are threatened: four are vulnerable and seven endangered, three ofthe
latter critically so (Montserrat Oriole ,Brazil's Forbes'Blackbird, Colombia's
Mountain Grackle).The Slender-billed Grackle, a Mexican marsh dweller,
became extinct in the early 19oos.
467
AVIAN DIVERSIT\
of birds are there?
Ho'us manY kinds
Abookseekingto
introdu
:["',1t"']]]*JJ:::t
fot
to
an easY number
of
ing the real nurnber
into several
'd"gli*p'"t
interestin
of ornithology'th
hird species
are
^ro..,.
Animal
rePro
ofas
liil'iri'g.
dividuals of a species
sPecies are
ies of populatio
freelywitheach
so,atleas
.*oit .r.r*b.r
ofbir
we shouldbe abl
young
nd produce fertile
i
female birds together
the sa
are members of
tests
Captive breeding
,.#.nff:':;',|u.#
;'llJff;','J,lJil:H
i
or
fic issues that prevent,
Most
ber of bird species'
obviously,alittlelibra
changesrather frequ
two
Furthermore' no
species
tal number ofbird
r,but by large increments'
the
)urces seem to provide
sameinform,.io.'uu'o.,.uirdnumbers,andthenumberofknownbirdspecies
AND BIoGEoGRAPHY
AvrAN DIvERsITY
469
in the r85os, to 8,5oo in the mid-r93os, to about 8,6oo from the r95os through
the r97os, to 9,ooo during the r98os, to between 9,6oo and 9,9oo from the
r99os to today.
What's going on here? Are new species still being discovered and
described by science for the first time? Certainly some newly discovered birds
have been added to the list ofspecies during the past r5o years, especialh'
earlier in that period.Today, even though most of the terrestrial world has
been explored,bird species newto science continue occasionallyto appear. Of
all the bird families, it is probably among the NewWorld flycatchers (family
Tyrannidae) that the most undiscovered species remain.This is because
there are many species of flycatchers; they live in nearly every terrestrial
habitat; and many of them are drab and inconspicuous. As bird experts
reach previously inaccessible locations-hidden valleys, cloud-draped
mountain plateaus-in the remotest parts of South America, previouslv
unknown flycatchers are indeed sighted. For instance, one new species was
first identifi ed rn ry76 in northern Peru, and another was found in 198r in
southern Peru. Two more were first described in the scientific literature
inry97.Birds in other families also have been discovered recently-a new
species of barbet was identified in Peru inryg7,a new manakin in Brazil in
:1998ra new seedeater in Venezuela in zoor, a new owl in Malaysia in zoor,
and a newwren in Colombia in zoo3.
But relatively few species have been discovered in, say, the past 5o years,
and now, for every few new species discovered,probably
fewbecome extinct.
what accounts for the large recent increases in the number of known
living bird species? The answer has to do with avian taxonomists, that is,
biologists who study bird classification. One might think that after a couple
of hundred years of effort, the scientific classification of birds would be
relativelystable. Butwith each generation oftaxonomists,new classifications
emerge, sometimes because new methods are used, sometimes because old
methods are employed in differentways.With the advent of molecular
taxonomy methods (including ones that allow comparative studies ofbirds'
DNA), classifications of birds that were first worked out during the r8oos
and early rgoos are undergoing alterations, sometimes radical ones.
The main type oftaxonomic change resulting in an increase in the number
So
470
ded
cies
ugh
the
rnd
irds
ally
has
of
rily
use
rial
:rts
red
sly
vas
,in
lre
ew
in
OI,
.f S,
ct.
yn
is,
'le
)e
:IS
1d
1r
ls'
)S
in the country's northeast (and in New Guinea) and the Green Catbird
(Ailuroedus crassirostris) in the southeast. The evidence for the split rests
mainly on molecular comparisons of the birds.
Aside from historical and scientific influences on attempts to fix the
number ofbird species globally (as the number of described species changes
over time with more exploration, more research, and improved classification
methods), there are also some biological difficulties. Among these is the
fact that, although the most accepted definition of a species concerns the
inabilityofa male and afemale ofdifferent species to mate andproduce fertile
offspring, in nature this is not always the case. Sometimes z species are so alike
genetically (because they separated evolutionarily so recently), that they still
share most genes, enough so that a male
47I
472
iof
9,8oo species).In addition, of the 8oo species spotted as of r98o, some may
have been subsequently split into z or more species, or otherlt ise altered by
el)'
birder's frustration.
rot
'ate
avian taxonomists, thereby changing the count, and adding confusion to the
,1es
,en
lgs
9,/Jo sPecies.
Another r,vay to
ler
)nt
ers
rits
)nt
ilI,
ct.
nd
)ln
e'ee
US
n),
i1l
1g
of
)n
v)
CC
tte
ro
)n
3S
at
rf
473
ven'
common and widespread small bird of the NewWorld tropics, has been
variously included in the wood warbler family (Parulidae), allied with the
tanager family (Thraupidae), or made the sole member of its own famih
(Coerebidae).The z species ofrockfowl,large,terrestrialAfrican songbirds.
have, at various times, been considered babblers (family Timaliidae).
starlings (Sturnidae), and crows (Corvidae). Now they are usually placed
in their own separate family (Picathartidae).The 35o parrot species all look
like parrots, and one might assume theywould be an uncontroversial group.
but they are variously considered a single family (Psittacidae), or z families
(the zr cockatoos placed in a separate family, Cacatuidae), or 3 families (the
approximately 55 lories and lorikeets also separated out, as family Loriidae).
The ioras (4 species),leafbirds (8 species), and fairy-bluebirds (z species).
all confined to Asia, are sometimes considered to comprise a single familr
(Irenidae), are grouped into z families (the leafbirds and fairy-bluebirds
comprising Irenidae;the ioras part of another family), or are separated
into 3 families (ioras in Aegithinidae; leafbirds in Chloropseidae; fain'bluebirds in Irenidae).There are many other examples, including among
cuckoos, antbirds, cotingas, monarch fycatchers, and Australian chats, to
list just a few. A consequence of these shifting family assignments is that
there are always several competing global bird classification schemes, or
taxonomies, each ofwhich arranges the birds of the world a bit differentlvl
and which change subtly, or sometimes not so subtly, as new research is
reported, considered, and acted upon. How many bird families are there]
During the past 50 years, taxonomies that divided birds into r45 to 2oo or
more families have been used, the larger ones mainly in more recent years.
For this book,I followed a taxonomy that divides birds of the world into
about zoo families.
Hotu
does
How does the total of about 9,8oo bird species compare with the numbers
for other kinds of terrestrial vertebrate animals? There are about 4,8oo
mammal species, about 78oo reptiles, and about 4,8oo described species
of amphibians. (Almost all birds, mammals, and reptiles living on Earth
have been discovered, characterized, and named-that is, scientificallr'
474
Why is it that species diversity is greater among birds than among the
other groups of mainly terrestrial vertebrates? And, perhaps most curious,
why are there roughly twice as many bird as mammal species? After all,
mammals, like birds, are "warm-blooded," with effi cient respiratory and
circulatory systems that allow maintenance ofbody temperatlrres typically
well above their surroundings and therefore, usually, active year-round
lifesryles; and these attributes permit mammals,like birds, to be distributed
broadly from the equator to the polar regions. Moreover, mammals have
relatively large brains and are considered fairly intelligent. Further, birds,
owing to the constraints of flight, are remarkably standardized physically,
whereas mammals can be quite diverse in form and still function
as
mammals
Because birds fly and are quite mobile, they are able to make good use
of the third dimension of many habitats, height,which many other groups,
S.
such
f
S
:t
for them to occupy, or "exploit."Birds can easily and rapidly make use of
many different places in, say, a forest-some species making their livings on
the forest flooq others foraging on tree trunks, others in the lower canopy,
and still others in the high canopy. Mammals (or reptiles or amphibians,
for that matter) cannot as easily or efficiently utilize all these various levels,
so the number of niches open to them is more limited; consequently, the
number of their species that can exist at one time in a given region is lower.
In concertwith their unsurpassed ability among the terrestrial vertebrates
to make use of spatially complex habitats, such
as
475
as
The relationship between bird diversity and the tropics is discussed below.
Because of their flight abilities, birds can also
'
'
'
'
relatively high number ofbird species. Some biologists consider the current
era (the Cenozoic, the past 65
as the Age
ofMammals (with the previous era, the dinosaur-filled Mesozoic, the Age
of Reptiles), meaning mammals diversified recently and have become the
dominant terrestrial life form. But given that one measure of ecological
success is number of species and there are twice as many bird as mammal
species, are mammals truly now the dominant terrestrial animals?
Why
are some bird species abundant, others somewhat common, and some
rare?Two main factors influence the total size ofbird populations: the extent
ofthe geographical range of the species and the density of individuals within
the range. The former factor is easy to understand-species with larger
ranges, inhabiting more areas, generally can have larger total populations
than species with smaller ranges.The latter factor, population densiry is
more complex. Main infuences on population density are available food
476
he
rle.
breeding habitat and nest sites; the impact of predators, parasites, or both;
and these days, the impact of negative interactions with people.
So some bird species currently enjoy huge total populations because
as
(r) thev have large ranges; (z) they have abundant food and breeding resources;
(3) their breeding is often successful (that is, nest predation, parasites, or
te
nt
le
le
le
al
al
limit nesting
other
imminent threat from people. In some cases, people have actually aided the
success ofbird populations, as in the case of introduced birds (such as House
Sparrows and European Starlings) and birds that benefited from people's
large-scale alterations ofhabitats (such as NewWorld blackbirds thatbenefit
from conversion of large tracts of forests into more open, agricultural lands,
in which blackbirds often thrive). Conversely, some bird species now have
very small total populations because (r) their foods or breeding resources are
scarce; (z) their breeding success is often strongly depressed by factors such
as nest predation or brood parasitism (see p. fi6); and/or Q) they are directly
or indirectly threatened by people's activities-they are hunted or killed for
various reasons; their habitats are altered or destroyed; or they are negatively
affected by introduced bird species or other introduced organisms.
Because available food supply is one of the rnain factors that limits the
size of animal populations and because larger birds require more food than
smaller birds, smaller bird species are typically more numerous than larger
ones. One study found that among North American birds, those weighing
about r.4 ounces (4o grams), sparrow-size species,were the most numerous.
Most critically endangered species have very small total populations
because of the actions ofpeople (see "Understanding the Decline in Avian
,
re
rt
n
ir
LS
Diversity"below). But some birds are naturallyrare, even ifthey have healthy
populations. This is particularly the case with raptors (see p. 7r). Although
some raptors are common, typically they exist at relatively low densities, as
is the case for all "top predators" (predators at the pinnacle of a food chain,
preyed upon by no animal, except humans). Usually there is enough food
available to support only one or two of a species in a given area. For example,
a typical density for a small harvk species, one that may feed on mice and
small lizards,is one individual per square mile (2.6 sq km).A large eagle that
feeds on monkeys, sloths, and porcupines, such as the massive Harpy Eagle
of South and Central America, may be spaced so that a usual density is one
individual per50 square miles (r3o sq km), or even more.
477
fish down to tiny invertebrates) in the ocean and on beaches and mudfats,
and they often breed on islands or other relatively inaccessible sites where
478
with
:ed
rle.
,all
lre,
oet
of
nd
IPS
he
t').
of
.ris
)st
CC
'ds
le,
_er
VC
rte
SO
in
ln
fS,
is
1S,
to
't) t
=y
/-e
]S,
re
479
13
families have zoo or more species (table r lists the zo largest); about zo are
single-species families;36 families contain 2,3,or 4 species; and z7 others
480
c:1.
)st
Families
NUIlBER OI SPECIES
:he
rrk
425
ca,
Trochilidae (hummingbirds)
335
Psittacidae (parrots)
331
308
303
279
270
Formicariidae (antbirds)
269
Timaliidae (babblers)
265
rle
Thraupidae (tanagers)
245
he
Furnariidae (ovenbirds)
240
to
236
3St
Picidae (woodpeckers)
217
he
188
Tirrdidae (thrushes)
775
1.74
L57
155
Estrildidae (wubills)
740
734
rld
nd
ot
rn
in:
)re
tes
.ns
)lt
oo
rl)'
ed
an
ise
in
)n
)n
ny
lY'
13
have 5 to ro species.
re
rS
481
Ostrich, Emu, rheas, and so on, were once more diverse and widespread.
We know this because there are surviving skeletal materials and written
observations of z other, recent ratite groups that are now extinct: the moas
of New Zealand and the elephant birds of Madagascar and North Africa.
Second, some groups have very limited ranges, which for ecological
reasons constrain species diversity. Simply put, if a family is restricted to
a small area, especially one that supports only limited habitat types, then
a limited number of ecological opportunities, or niches, can be exploited;
therefore, a relatively small number of species can exist there. Some examples
in this
Comoro Islands.
Third, members of some groups are quite successful at exploiting
resources relative to members of other groups, and therefore, over time, mav
become more common. For instance, the most diverse bird family, the Nelr'
World flycatchers (familyTyrannidae), contains very efficient and successful
catchers and consumers of insects. Probably owing to this success and to
their occupation of diverse and complex habitats (such as rainforests), the
group has been able to spread widely, diversifr extensively, and penetrate
many available bird niches wherever it occurs. Likewise, tanagers (familv
Thraupidae), efficient consumers of fruit, a superabundant and, in the
tropics, always available food resource, have become very diverse,with about
z5o species, mainly in tropical South and Central America. Honeyeaters
(distributed in the Australia/New Guinea region and New Zealand;familv
Meliphagidae), which specialize on eating plant nectar, are very diverse
(about r7o species in the family, about 7o in Australia) and hugely abundant in
Australia,where manyplants produce significant amounts of nectar. (Some
evolutionary biologists believe speciation-the creation of new species from
those that already exist-is less driven by ecological circumstances than I
imply above, and that some animal groups, such as some bird families, are
species-rich owing not onlyto diverse ecological opportunities,but to other
factors
as we11.)
482
ofthe Hawaiian
Islands. But from people's first colonization, these birds were hunted for
their feathers; their forest homes were cleared for agriculture; their eggs and
youngwere eaten by introduced nest predators such as rats and mongooses;
their food was reduced by introduced bird species that competed for food
and by introduced farm animals such as pigs, goats, sheep, and cattle,
which destroyed native vegetation that provided food; and their immune
systems were overwhelmed by introduced diseases. Today, only about r8 of
these honeycreeper species remain, and several of the surviving species are
endangered,with very small total populations.
species ofhoneycreepers existed prior to human settlement
te
r-l
oi-ts
I
il.
cal
Ito
)en
ed;
lles
:e s,
:he
,ll
ae)
:by
ng
farnilies-t:hat
it
)a)'
e\\'
is a species from an ancient group that in the past was more diverse but today
tu1
to
he
rte
ill'
he
ut
:TS
Lll'
SC
in
te
m
AVIAN BIOGEOGRAPHY
I
re
-'r
le
We all know that ifwe traveled to Africa, most of the birds we would see
are different from those we would see in South America or Australia.
This is because there are geographic patterns in bird distribution. When
discussing the distributions of animal (or plant) groups, we are delving
BrocEocRApHy
483
484
ry.
fn
stl
rd
'er
.es
ef
nt
of
in
)w
ey
11e
:d
he
12,
of
m
in
,ft
rd
id
;il
:h
ty
)S
]S
.S;
).
Various methods are used to describe the particular regions in which bird
groups and species occur. We can divide terrestrial portions of the earth
into physically discrete hemispheres or continents and then saywhich bird
groups occur in each hemisphere or continent (for example, waxwings,
family Bombycillidae, and accentors, family Prunellidae, are Northern
Hemisphere groups; toucans, family Ramphastidae, are a South American
group).Old World versus NewWorld, a historical division, also has some
utility (for example, the blackbird family,Icteridae, andwoodwarbler family,
Parulidae, are New World groups; the sunbird family, Nectariniidae, is
restricted to the Old World). Old World refers to the regions of the globe
that Europeans knew of before Columbus, Europe, Asia, Africa. NewWorld
refers to the Western I{emisphere-North, Central, and South America.
with more seasonal climates, extend from 4.5 degrees north and south
latitude to the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, at 66.5 degrees north and south.
Arctic regions, more or less always cold, extend from 66.5 degrees north and
south to the poles. Occasionally the terms boreal and austral are used, the
former referring to northern, primarily north temperate, regions; the latter,
to southern, especially south temperate, regions.
Ever since the rSoos,however,when biologists began traveling regularly
among the continents and noticing great similarities in wildlife within broad
regions of the world but major differences between and among regions, there
485
PALEARCTIC
NEARCTI
ATLOIROPICAI,
ORIENTAL
NEOTROPICAL
AUSTRALASIAN
FI G
The first two of the six zoogeographic regions are located north of the
tropics: the Nearctic (encompassing North America fnorth of the tropics]
and, sometimes, Greenland) and the Palearctic (Europe, northern Asia, and
northern Africa).The next three are largely tropical: the Neotropical (Central
and South America and the West Indies), Afrotropical (or Ethiopian; subSaharan Afrrcaand Madagascar), and Oriental (all of southern Asia from
India to Southeast Asia to Japan) regions. The final one, the Australasian
region (or Australian; encompassing Australia, New Guinea, and New
Zealand), has both tropical and south temperate components. These 6
regions contain most of the world's terrestrial wildlife. Antarctica is not
included because the 7th continent has few terrestrial vertebrates (though
penguins, for instance, breed there). For convenience, many bird references
include Antarctica with the Australasian region. Other problem places with
respect to regional classification are the remote Pacific islands; they have
few unique groups of birds or other animals that would set them apart in a
separate region, and they have small numbers of groups from several of the
continental faunas.
The six zoogeographic regions separate areas ofwildlife with common
characteristics.Among the birds,various groups are restricted to,concentrated
in, or characteristic ofthe respective regions.
+86
'
'
'
)e
sl
rd
al
)m
tn
'
with about
in
)t
;h
]S
h
re
'
re
'
487
as
488
$l1,
tl
result among birds is great species richness in the tropics and relatively
impoverished bird faunas in temperate and arctic regions. Table z lists the
z4 countries with the greatest number of bird species.These countries are
situated entirely or mainly in the tropics, areverylarge, or both.Table 3,for
comparison, provides bird species inforrnation about the United States,
Australia, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
rn
rw
ral
CS
as
and more remote the island, the fewer bird species found there.The reasons
na
for these island biodiversity trends are clear.To explain,we need to consider
how organisms first arrive on islands.
If a new island appeared today just offthe coast of California, either
it split offfrom the coast and so will have most of the animal species that
occur on the adjacent mainland, or it arose from the sea floor, perhaps via
volcanic or earthquake activiry and now is pretty much barren oflife.In the
latter case, many animal species from the mainland, especially birds, which
can fly easily to the nearby island,will soon occur on the island. (But not all
species of birds on the mainland, or other types of animals, will cross to the
new island, thus explaining whv even near-shore islands tend to have fewer
species than the nearest mainland areas.)
Butwhat about remote islands, such as volcanic ones that arise from the
sea floor in midocean? Consider the Hawaiian Islands, volcanic cones in
the mid-Pacific that are about as isolated and remote as you can get-2,ooo
miles (3,zoo km) from North America and 3,3oo miles (5,3oo km) from
Japan. Islands such as Hawaii are too far away from mainland areas for
mainland species to colonize easily. Only a few organisms will be able to do
CC
CS
is
ry
.d,
t,
St;
1n
br
ht
er
,ly
re
:d
:S)
re
Lls
re
In
er
ry
489
r. They
fly-birds
as snakes
drifting
may drift
female.
49O
TABLE z. Countrieswith
85o
MILES
SQUARE KM
TROPICAL
(, r,ooo)
(' r,ooo)
ENVIRONMENT?
Colombia
440
7,1.39
Yes
Peru
496
1,285
Yes
3,286
8,512
Mostly
Ecuador
109
284
Yes
Indonesia
735
1,905
Yes
Venezuela
352
912
Yes
Bolivia
424
7,099
Mostly
China
3,705
9,597
Mostlynot
India
7,269
3,288
Pardy
Democratic
Republic ofCongo
906
2,345
Yes
Tarrzania,
365
945
Yes
Kenya
224
580
Yes
Mexico
756
1,958
Cameroon
1,84
475
Yes
Myanmar
262
679
Partly
9'1,
236
Yes
1,068
2,767
Mostlynot
967
2,506
Yes
30
aa
Yes
Thailand
198
513
Yes
Angola
487
7,247
Yes
Nigeria
357
924
Yes
Ethiopia
436
7,728
Yes
20
51
Yes
SQUARE
COUNTRY
Brazil
Uganda
Argentina
Sudan
Panama
Costa Rica
Partly
BREEDING
1,700
1,547
1,500
1,388
1,530
t,296
|
1,103
926
929
827
847
772
690
867
830
897
680
732
676
765
687
626
600
TOTAL
7,727
1,710
7,635
7,559
7,539
1,360
7,275
1,,244
7,279
1,086
7,076
1,068
1,054
1,000
999
992
983
937
929
915
909
862
861
850
numbers presented here are estimates only, because the total number ofspecies
in a country or region varies slightly depending on the method ofcounting and the source
consulted. For example, sources may or may not include seabirds in their counts. Some
.A/ale: Species
S
,f
o
ir
avifauna totals include only birds that breed within a given region; others include all birds
in the region, including nonbreeding migrants. Some include species seen only occasionally
in a given country, while others do not. Also, species numbers change when various new
systems of classification come into vogue.Therefore, most important to note in the table
notthat 7,727 species have been seen in Colombia, but that Colombia, a
moderate-size tropical South American country supports a huge number ofbird species,
more than 1,700.
is, for instance,
TA
BL
States,
(,I,ooo)
COUNTRY
ENVIRON[IENT?
DREEDINC
TOTAf,
United States
3,619
9,373
No
650
768
Australia
2,968
7,687
Partly
649
757
Canada
3,582
9,976
No
426
578
94
243
No
230
590
United Kingdom
Nola: Species numbers presented here are estimates only, because the total number ofspecies
in a country or region varies slightly depending on the method ofcounting and the source
consulted. For example, sources may or may not include seabirds in their counts. Some
avifauna totals include only birds that breed within a given region; others include all birds
in the region, including nonbreeding migrants. Some include species seen only occasionally
in a given country, while others do not. Also, species numbers change when various new
systems ofclassification come into vogue.
of species? Smaller islands tend to have fewer species, say of birds, because
smaller islands have fewer habitat types and so there are fewer niches that
bird species can occupy.Think about it this way: A large island may have
almost all the kinds of habitats that
high elevation zones, beach, scrub, forests, grasslands, wetlands, and so on,
and each habitat can support a characteristic avifauna. But small islands
may have just a few habitats-some coastal islands are comprised ofjust
rocks along the water and forested interiors, and atolls, barely rising from
the ocean's surface, often consist simply of coral beach, some grasses and
shrubby vegetation, and coconut palms. Another factor contributing to
larger islands having more species is that they support greater population
sizes than smaller islands. Because large populations, on average, are less
likely to become extinct than small populations, species on large islands are
more likely to persist. Therefore, even if similar numbers of species become
established on both large and small islands,large islands, over long periods
oftime,will retain more ofthem.
492
in Wry Limited.dreas
use
hat
aYe
Lnd
on.
rds
ust
lm
nd
'to
on
ESS
are
TIC
,ds
493
Why
see today.
494
es;
to
TA
BL
Species
NUMBER
OF ENDAMIC
SPECIES
408
COUNTRY OR ISLAND
Java and
rer
ifn
'ey
rat
1a
373
Australia(mainland)
185
Brazil
185
Philippines
714
Peru
105
Madagascar
ne
92
Mo<ico
1d
94
7y
74
NewZealand
ad
70
China
ry
67
Colombia
ed
67
1d
58
India
43
Solomon Islands
40
Venezuela
37
Ecuador
:d
28
Ethiopia
tn
26
Jamaica
ly
25
FrenchPolynesia
tS
25
rd
24
24
F'ji
24
Teazatit
24
Srilanka
22
NewCaledonia
2t
Cuba
2t
Japan
)n
ral
in
ty
rd
re
c,
9;
Hawaii 36)
Principe
Narc The number ofendemic species for each area varies depending on source consulted,
Factors that affect different counts include the date ofthe count (more species being
discovered or delineated in lateryears); whether all outlying islands that are political
possessions ofthe country in question are included in the count; and the avian taxonomy
used for the count.
Although currently there are vast numbers of individual birds and a large
number of qpes ofbirds, many species are now threatened with extinction.
We know (from historical documents and, for many species, surviving bodv
materials) that at least rz8 bird species became extinct during the past 5oo
years, ro3 of them in the past 2oo years. Currently about rz percent ofbird
species (about r,r8o of them) are considered by authoritative conservation
organizations (for example, International Union for Conservation ofNature,
and Birdlife International) to be globally threatened, that is, in danger of
total extinction. After years of careful field surveys, consultation of scientific
literature, and gathering data from international sources, an exhaustive
compilation of information about threatened birds was produced in zooo
(Birdlife International's Threatened Birds of the World); it presents current
ranges and population sizes, threats, and conservation information for each
threatened species. According to this comprehensive source, about 68o
species are r.ulnerable (facing a high risk of extinction in the medium-term
future); about 3zo are endangered (facing a very high risk of extinction in the
near future); and about 18o are critically endangered (facing an extremely
high riskof extinction in the immediate future).After considering available
evidence and analysis ofpopulation trends, this source predicts that, unless
significant conservation measures are undertaken,perhaps 46o ofthese r,r8o
threatened species will become extinct by zroo.
496
TA
Lall,
lan
30f
iall
,ird
TOTAL SPEClES
Drepanididae (Hawaiian
RESTRICTEDRANCE SPECIES
PERCENTAGT
OF 6PECIES
18
18
100
Mesitornithidae (mesites)
100
Zosteropidae (white-eyes)
94
79
84
honeycreepers)
Todidae (todies)
80
Para&saeidae (birds-of-paradise)
44
29
66
Megapodiidae (megapodes)
79
11
58
76
56
Hirundinidae (swallows)
89
55
t57
11
63
LEA6T
8e
)n.
dy
co
.rd
f,n
and bitterns)
f,
Meropidae (bee-eaters)
25
of
Threskiornithidae
33
fic
ye
Otididae (bustards)
25
)o
Ciconiidae (storks)
t9
nt
Gruidae (cranes)
15
:h
13
io
Recurvirostridae
(stilts and avocets)
11
m
IC
Ly
le
'S
as
might be expected, to
497
numbers because farmers or ranchers believe the birds damage their crops,
orchards, or livestock.Th.y are also killed for sport and for their parts (for
instance, for their wings, bills, or feathers, to make decorative or ceremonial
objects). Generally, but not always,larger birds are more affected by hunting
and trapping than smaller birds (chickenlike birds for food;parrots, especiallli
498
ral
predators such
Ier
tor
)n,
he
-.1
rts
:d,
'al
)p
1g
of
ls,
at
85
re
]-g
:d
rg
as
Je
ie
S,
)r
rl
c
\'.
)'
,/
e
e
f
-I
Which kinds of birds are tbreatened, and nshere are they located?
Many types of birds are threatened with extinction but there are some
general patterns in what kind they are and where they live. Some types of
birds are more susceptible than others to the negative impacts of humans
and to natural catastrophes. Species with small ranges are particularly
vulnerable. When and if their numbers fall, these species or groups face a
greater chance ofextinction than others because they lack other places "to
go,"otherpopulations in far-offplaces that might survive. Narrowly endemic
birds, such as the restricted-range species referred to inTable 5, are subject to
such extinctions. Particularly good examples are species that are endemic to
islands.If a species of bird occurs only on a single island or on a small group
oftiny islands near to each otheq all its eggs are, so to speak, in one basket.
If there is a calamity there-a powerful hurricane, a volcanic eruption-the
499
entire species could become extinct, because all individuals there die and
there are no others elsewhere.This type of species extinction-but caused
by people instead of natural catastrophes-has apparently happened often
to island-bound birds over the past 5oo years as people colonized remote
islands. People caused habitat destruction and brought animal predators
that the native birds had no fear of or experience with.In one of the worst
examples, gg percent of forests were destroyed on the Philippine island of
Cebu (mainly to clear land to create sugarcane plantations),which caused
the extinction of many of Cebu's endemic forest birds.Worldwide, about
r3o bird species have probably become extinct in the last 5oo years, and
about roo of them were island endemics. (And the problem persists: more
than 9oo of the 9,8oo or so living bird species are island endemics, and so
continually vulnerable. )
Flightless birds,for obvious reasons,are also highlyvulnerable to people
and to mammalian predators (rats, cats, dogs, mongooses) that people
introduce to areas in which they live. The best examples are among the
rails, a group of often-skulking small and medium-size swamp and densevegetation birds that inhabit most parts ofthe world, including many isolated
islands. Five or more rail species from tropical Pacific islands and several
from New Zealandbecame extinct as people colonized their islands. Some
of these rails, such as the Guam Rail (now extinct in the wild but surviving
in captivity),were flightless.In fact,fully a quarter of the world's rail species
are almost or completelyflightless.They are thought to have lost the power
of fight because it is energetically expensive to maintain (especially the large
chest muscles) and unnecessarywhere strong natural selection pressures do
not favor it (such as oceanic islands that lack mammalian predators). Many
of the surviving fightless rails are endangered.
Birds that occur in certain kinds of habitats are more often threatened
with extinction than others. For instance, tropical forest birds are
increasingly threatened as tropical forests are cut and burned for logging,
fuel wood, or agri cultural an d other land development. And grassland birds,
such as some larks and pipits, are threatened because their relatively flat,
open, grass-growing homes are ideal for various kinds of agriculrure (crop
farming, ranching, grazing)-so grasslands in good, natural condition are
increasingly scarce.
Some birds, of course, not only survive amid the massive environmental
5OO
d
d
TA
BL
COUNTRY
THREATENED
VULNERABLE
ENDANGERED
Indonesia
1.14
/t)
30
14
Brazll
113
54
36
23
40
24
13
46
23
.S
;t
Colombia
ENDANGERED
Peru
73
China
73
59
11
.t
India
68
52
Philippines
65
41
12
72
Ecuador
62
43
13
:)
New Zealand
62
40
76
United States
53
29
10
1.4
Mexico
39
t9
1.2
Argentina
39
31
Russia
J6
27
Malaysia
35
29
Thailand
35
26
Myanmar
JJ
zo
Vietnam
.).)
2t
10
Australia
JJ
20
11
33
23
32
29
32
22
Ttnzrnit
Papua New
Japan
Guinea
changes wrought by people, but even thrive, increasing their ranges and
numbers.Those that have benefited from people's alterations ofhabitats and
other developments include some members of the heron and egret family
(Ardeidae), some gulls and terns (Laridae), some nightjars (Caprimulgidae),
some pigeons and doves (Columbidae), some thrushes (Turdidae), some
swallows (Hirundinidae), some blackbirds and cowbirds (Icteridae), some
in the crow family (Corvidae), and many finches and sparrows (Fringillidae,
Estrildidae, Emberizidae).
Threatened bird species are not evenly distributed among the various
regions ofthe world.They are concentrated in the Neotropics and Southeast
Asia, areas with very high species diversity and many endemic birds.
Countries with the most threatened species are listed inTable 6. Some small
5OI
places have large numbers of threatened birds. For example, the Hawaiian
5O2
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irds
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America.Yol r
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1996.
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R. S.,
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zooo.
Wrrrs, D. R. 1999.
\Mrrtnns,
General Index
A
accentors,4z3-5, 487
1,
Accipitridae, 7r
accipitrids, Zr-5
Aegithalidae, 37r, 493
Aegithinidae, 474
Aegothelidae, r79
African buntings,455
rrla.
fe
tE.
iast
lon.
I.
ress,
487
,NS
biodiversity, T, 474-6
bird abundance, 478-8o
bishops,4o1rr
487
zI-2, I39,486
antbirds, 2457,487
antpeckers,4r3
antprttrs,245
antshrikes,245
antthrushes,245
antureos,245
ant\wens,245
anvil-headed srorks, 56
apalises,389-9o
8,
,4qhelocona,47r
IT
berryoeckers, 4218
bitterns,5rl
r619
Antuctica,
Apodidae, r8r
Apodiformes, r8r, r85
Apterygiformes, r4
aracafls,223
broadbills, u37
bronze-cuckoos, 163
brood-parasitism, r 6j, 166, 2251,
Aramidae, ro3
467
arboreal, g
h
1g
Ardeidae,5r,5or
Artamidae,3og
asities,238
astraplas,305
Atrichornithidae,
at-risk spccies, rr
zz5
r4r-z
alethes,34r
alien species,498
amakihis,44r
Anatidrc,7, g, 473, 479,
Anhimidae, 62,487
anhingas,49-5o
Anhingidae, 49
anis,
Casuariformes, r3
catbirds,3518
Cathartidae, 69
Certhiidae, 263
swu,
bec-eaters, zo5-6
bee
)ry,
becards,257
Acanthisittidae, 238
Acanthizidae, 275
rn
bazas, Tr
Ctrdinalidae, +6r
cardinalids, 46r-z
cardinals,46r-z
cardinal-grosbeals, 46r
Cariamidae, ro4
bare-eyes,245
267
attilas,257
auklets, r4r
aulo, r4r-z
Australasia,8
Australasian region, 4867
Austlrlasian babblers, 289-9o
Australasian mudnesters, z9o
Australasian robins, 283-4
Australasian treecreepers, z6j-4
Australian chats, 2718r
brownbulls,38r
brush-turkeys, 8r
Bucconidae, zl7
Bucerotidae, zrr,487
buffalo-weavers, 4o7
bulbuls,38r-4, 487
bullfinches, 435
buntings, 455-9, 46r
Burhinidae, rz3
bushbirds,245
bushshrikcs, 129-1o
bustards, 97, ro9-ro, 487
chat-tyrants,257
chickadees, 375-6
DDT,z8
Chionidae, r39
Ciconiidae,55
Ciconiiformes, 5r, 55-7
Cinclidae,345
cinclodes,244
Cinclosomatidac, u 9r
Dendrocolaptidae,
Dicruridae, u 97
dikkops, rz3
Diomedeidae,3r
dippers,34r-5
distraction display, rzr,
distribution, 8, 483-95
dive-hunting, z7
Cisticolidae,389, 487
class,5
classification, 3-5
clay licks, I55
CNoropseidae, 474
Climacteridae,263
cockatoos, 157-8
z5r
Coerebidae, ++7,474
colies, r89
Coliidae, I89
Colliiformes, r89, 494
Columbidae, r47, 479, 5or
Columbiformes, r43, r47
dreps,439
Dromadidae, rz7
drongos,297-9
duclc, 63-7,487
Dulidae,34o
dynamic soaring, 3r,
condors,6g-7o
conebills, 4419
Conopophagidre, z5o
conseruation status, ro
eaglcs, 7r-5
coots,918
eared-nightjrs,
Coraciidae, zo7
Coraciiformes, r95, t99,2ot, zo5l
earthcreepers,244
2rt
orants, 49--50
7,
r77
ecological diversiry
butcherbirds, 3r r-3
buttonquail, 83-6,97
con'ids,3ol-4
emeralds, r85
cotingas, 25r-3,487
Empidonax,472
buzzards, Tr
Cotingidae, z5r,
emu-wens,27r-3
487, 493
couas, r66
coucaLls, r66
coursers,
Crillaeidae, z9o
z5
13r-
Campephagidae,3:r
canaries,435-8
ctrnasteros,244
Cracticidae,
Capitonidae, 2r9,487
Caprimulgidae, r75, 5or
Caprimulgiformes, r75
crakes,97
caracaras! 77
crescent-chesrs,249
camaropteras, J89
egrets,5rJ
elaenias,257
Corcoracidre, zgo
cordonbleus,4r3
Coruidae,
lj
co rm
r33
cochoas,347
2O7,
239
Dicaeidae ,428
cocks-of:the-roc(
lrrS
dacnises,45r-4
chiffchafri,39r
caching,3o4
caciques,463-7
curlews, rr5
currawongs,
Crotophagidae, r67
crowned-pigeons, r47
crows,3or-4,5or
crow-shrikes, 3rr
crltic coloration, rro, rZ5
cuckoo-rollers, zo9
cuckoos, r63-5
cuckoo-shri kes, 3zr-z
Cuculidae, r63, r67
Cuculiformes, r59, r63
curassows,9r-2
countershading,
crossbills, 435-8
Charadriidae, u9
Charadriiformes, rr \ rrg ng,n3,
t25tt29, r3t,r35,t37
r2g--lo
croP, 136
avadavats,4r3
aYocets,
crombecs,3gr
jl
cranes! 9z 99-ror
creepers,263-4
crrmson-wngst 4r3
GENERAL INDEX
505
go.ldfinches,
,135
Irenid
goldeneye,6T
gonoleks,329
gooneybirds,3z
grackles,4oj_7
fairies, r85
GrilJiniJac,
families, single_specics,
ramltv, S,4ZJ_4
4g
lantails,:95
island
I
island
gr1
grassbirds,39r
grasslinches,4rj_6
.Jacanas,
.lacamafs,2rJ_5
grebes,2Z_9
Jaegers,
greenbuls,38r
greedets,472
griffons,
Sor-4
jewel-babblers,
grosbeaks,
435,
46r_z
ground-cuckoos, r67
ground-hornbills, 2rr
ground-rolJers, zo9
ground- thrushes,
34r
ground-rpants,257
grouse,8j_7
Gruidae, gg
6scirls,3zg
famingos,6r_z
flightless birds, r37,97_8,
rso.
484! 5oo
floricans, ro9
mesltes, ro5-7,492
Me sitornirhidae, roz
a8:
rl7_g
meraltails,
u
It{imldre, j57.lS7
mrntvets,
mtners,244
mots.
honeydew,2gr
48o, 5or
439_4r, 45r_4
295
4r. r3o_9
rr5
hoopoes,:15
monjitas,257
monogamous breedins.
ro
moorhens, gT
kookaburras, rg5-7
korhaans, rog
487
lancebills, r85
Laniidae.3:7
lapwings,
mountain_frnches,435
487
mousebirds. rg9_9r
lo_:r
munras,416
487
murres, I4r
Muscicapidae,34T
llusophagrdae, r59,
487, 491
mutronbirds,
Jj
mlnas,35r-5
Myzomela,277
lerp, z8r
natlve, g
lily-trotters, rrr
limpkins, roj
Nearctic region,4go_7
near-threatened species,
linnets,4j5
honeyeaters, :71gr,
4g7
honeyguides, :25_7,
agz
487
or,487, 493
leaftossers,244
377,
rzr
,3sT8,
tchers,295_6
, 275,
noatzrns. r6g
honeycreepers.
J2r_2
minhs,397
tnoas,4gz,
494
mobbing behavior,
kinglers, jo5-7
kites,7r1
leafbirds,3r5_0,
Himantoput, rzg
Hirundinidae,
911
Juncos,45g
kingbirds,257
kingJom,5
kingfishers. r95_7 a8z
H
Haematopodidae, rz5.
472
namerkops,56
rg5
Micraeu, zg4
kagus, ro7
kestrels,
TT-8
flowerpeckers,
Gruiformes,86,97
4:7_g
99, ro5, roq
flowerpiercers.
guaDo,14t 17
447_9
tlycrtchers, 295_6, j9_4o,
guano
birds,44
3
147_so.
467
guans,9r-2,
497
flying rbility,78, r88,
guillemots, r4r
a75_o
lodres,4o7_rr
guineafowl, g7
91_5, agz
foliage-gleaners, 244
gulls, 135-0, 5or
toraging fl ocks, mLred_species.
forest-falcons,
77
forktails, j47
IIeropidae.:o5
JaYS,
Tr
6nfoots, lo5-7
6rcfinches,4r3
hretails,4r3
mergf,nscrs,67
rII_3
Jacanidae, rrr
jackdarvs,3or
grasslvrens,27r_J
faunal regions,484_g
hnchbills,38r
_92
Strnd
tr
logrunners,:gg
Iongbills,39r,
az8
longclaws,
4zr
longspurs,455
478
gallitos, 249
game birds,83,86_Z
r4j
gannets,457
Gaviidae, z zr
Gaviiformes,-:5
geese,
$1,487
491, 50r
illadopsises,
gnatcatchers,
gnateaters,25o
3657
gnatwrens, j65
goatsuckers, r75
488_q
maJkohas, r63
mannikins,4r6
man-olwar birds,4r
manucodes,
j5r,
So5
marsh birds,
5r,
tr3,4q
55,
2,97_9, rot.
496-9
mutins,3Z7
introduced predato rs,
tZ, 3\, Bt, nt
meadowlarks,
rnvasrve species,49g
roras,3t5_6
GENERAL INDEX
79,
a8i
34r
NorthAmerican spaffows,
4s\
tvumda, gj
Numididae,
9j, 487
nuthatches, tSq-Or
4zr, 4611
megapodes,
79_81, agz
Megapodiidae,
506
es,
manal<ns, 255-6,
47o, 4g7
manna, z8r
397
incubator birds, gr
Indicatoridae, :25,
4g7
lnogenous, g
indigobirds,
4r7_9
lntroduced species, g, g3,
ntcators,3gr
Malaconotidae,
329, 491
malimbes,4oT_rr
Maluridae, z7t
icterids, 46j1,477
Glareolidae, 13r
gleaning, 295
global divereiry gradient,
magpieJarks,
3rrj
pagpies,3or_4
Icteridae, 463,
473, 4 8o, 485, 487,
gizzard,5o
487
macaws, t5r
ibises,519
gerygones,276
477,480
I
IbiJorhynchidae, r1o
ibisbills. r1o
ge\era, 493
8enus,5,4g3
Nyctibidae, iSo,
aS7
Philepittidae, :38
Old
Old
Old
Old
World
World
World
World
orioles, 3r7-9
sparrows, 405-6
rulture s, 7r
Oriental region,
3r5,
486-7
or\oles,317-9, 4631
Oriolidae,3rT
oropendolas, 4637
Orthonychidae, 289
oscine,6
osPreys, /5
Otididae, ro9, 487
ovenbirds, 243-4, 4 43, 446, 481
owlet-nightjars, r79-8o
owl pellets, r74
owls, r7r-5,47o
oxpeckers,35r-5
Oxlruncidae,
z5r
P
Pachycephalidae, 285
painted-snipes, r15-8
Palearctic region, 4867
palmchats,34o
Pandionidae, T5
pantrng, r33
paradigallas, 3o5
Puadisaeidae,3o5, 488
paradise-crow, 3o5
paradise-flycntchers,
295
Paradoxornithidae, 369
Philippine creepers,
264
Phoenicopteridae, 6r
Phoeniculidae, zr5
phvlum,5
Phytotomidae, z5r
Picathutid,ae, qoo, 474, 493
Picidae, zz9
Piciformes,
z17, zr9
,223t 225,22g
Picus, zz9
pigeon-milk, r5o
Pr8eons, r43, 147-5o, 50r
pihas, z5r
ptp'rts, 4zt-2, 472, 487
parulas, 443
peafowl, 86
Pedionomidae, rz4
rubythroats, 347
Plarysteiridae, 335
Ploceidae, 4o7, 48o, 487
plovers, rr9-zr
plunge-diving, ++-5,
47,
purpletufts,:5r
Pycnonotidae,38r, 487
pygmy-tyrants, 25l
pytilias,4rS
75
sungrebes,
saltators,46r-z
sandgrouse, I43-5
sapphires, r85
sawrnSs,377
syrim,6
scaups, 67
scoters,6T
tailorbirds, 39r-5
screamers, 6r-2,487
tail streamers,39,
scrub-birds, 267
scrubfowl,8r
scrubwens,275-6
takeoff runways, 35
tantger s, 447, 45r- 4, 487
tapaculos,2491o
tuonomrsts, 47o,472
secretarybirds,
tchagras,329
temperate regions,485
seedsnipes, rz3-4
terrestrial, g
Thamnophilidae, 245
thermometer birds, 8r
thickheads, 285
thick-krees, rz3-4
Thinocoridae, rz4
thornbills, r85, 275-6
thornbirds,244
thorntails, r85
r03-4
serremas,
selrns,4J5
shamas,
j47
shearuaters,33-5
sheathbills, 137-9
shoebilJs,56
shorebirds, r15-33
shortwings,34r
shrike-fl ycatchers, 335-7
thrashers,357-8, 487
shrikes, jz7-3r
shrike-thrushes,285
shrike-tits,285
siskins, 435-8
sittellas, 359-6r
rails,918,5oo
Rallidae, 97
Ramphasidae, zz3, 485, 487, 493
range,
petronias,406
Pewees,257
Phaethonticlae, 39
Phalacrocoracidae, 49
phalaropes, rr5-8
redstuts,347, 443
Regulidae,367
relict group,48.1
Remizidae,3To
rhabdornises, 264
Rhabdornithidae, 254
rhers, 13, 48q, 487
177
seedcrackers, 413
quail-thrushes, z9r-3
queleas,4oT-rr
ro57
swallows,377-9, 5or
swans,631,487
swifts, r8r-3
Sylviidae,3gr, 487
sandpipers, r15-8
sicklebills, 3o,5
sillry-flycatchers, 339-4o
quetzals, 193-4
238
quails, 83-6
redpolls,435
sunbird-asities,
Petroicidae,283
sunangels, r85
Sagittaridae,
46, rg7
Podicipedidae, z7
Polioptilidae, j65
Pomatostomidae, 289
poorwills, r75
potoos, r8o,487
pratincoles, 13r-j
prinias,389-9o
Prionopidae,328
ratites, r37,48r-2
ravens,3or-4
Recuruirostridae, rz9
perching birds, 6
petrels,33-5
Sulidae,45
Rynchopidae
sabrewings, r85
Podargidae, r79
Su
runways, J5
sunbeams, r85
Pelecanidae,43
Pelecanoididae, 38
storm-petrels, lf8
Strigidae, r7r
Struthionformes, 13
Pittidae, 233
plains-wanderers, rz4
plantain-eaters, r59-6r
plantcutters, z5r
Passeridae,4o6, 479
passerine birds,6
stolks, 55-6, 69
stints, rr5
stone-chats,147
stone-curlews, r2l
stooping,78
subspecies, 47r
sugarbirds, 427-8
pufibirds, zr19
puffins, r4r-z
puflegs, r85
Parrotfinches,
parrotlets, r_5r
parrots, 15r-5, 487
partridges, 8-l-z
roadrunners, r67
robin-chats, 347
robins, 283-4,3411
rockforvl, 397-4oo
rockjumpers,34r
rock sparrows,4o6
rock-thrushes, 34r
rollers, zo19
rosy-finches,435
pufibacks,
413
starlings,35r-5
Steatornithidae, r8o, 483
Stercorariidae, 137
stilts, r29-3o
Rostratulidae, rr8
Parotla, 3o5
pmotbills,3697o
spoonbills,5lg
prttas, 233-5
Ptidae,375,47z
428
spinetails,244
rooks, Sor
rosefinches,435
pardalotes,275-6
Pudalotidae, 275
Puamlthiidae,
ptarmigcns, 83-6
Pteroclidae, r43
Pterocliformes, r43
Ptilogonatidae, 34o
Ptilonorhynchidae, z7o, 488
parakeets, r5r
Rheidae, 487
Rheiformes, r3
Rhinocryptidae, 249
Rhipiduridae,295
Rhynochetidae, ro7, 483
rifebirds, So5
Timallidae,397, 474
Tinamidae, r9, 487
Tinamiformes, 493
tinamous, rg-2o, 484, 487
Sittidae, 359
skimmers, r319
t\ts,36916,472
skuas, r319
trt-tyrants,257
snipes, rr5-8
tLtyras,252
snorvfinches,4o6
soarrng,3r,33, 7r, 75
social-weaver, 4o7
tody-qrtnts,257
solitaires,34r
songbird,6
South American seedeaters,
to\cans,223-4, 487
spadebills, 257
towhees,455
treccreepers,263-4
tree-quail,87
treerunners, 244,36r
treeswifts, r83
tremblers, j57-8
Trochilidae, r85,487
sPafow-weavers, 4o7
trillers,3zr-z
GENERAL INDEX
507
Troglodltidae,
363, 487
Tiogonidae, r93,487
Trogoniformes, r93
fiogoas, ry3-4,487
tropical forest birds, tfueats
to,5oo
tropical regions (tropics), 485
tropicbirds, 39-4r
trumpeters, Io3-4,487
tubenosed seabirds, 3r-8
fl[acrn,
r59
tlTant-manakins,
Tytonidae, r7r
508
wezvers, 4oTrr,487
wens,363-4,47o,487
wheateils,347
whipbirds, z9r1
whisders,2857
wngas,333-4,482
Yangjdze, y3,482
Y ireonidae, 323,
turkeys, 87 931
Tirrnicidae, 86
turnstones, u5
twinspots,4r3
Tyr atn\dze, 2 57, 47 o, 487
tyrannulets, 257
tlrant fycatchers, 25f 6r
wood-quail, 87
wood-rails, 97
woodstus, r85
woodwallows, 3o9-ro
wood wublers, 443-6, 487
wings,339-40,487
turacoverdin, 16r
5or
woodpeckers, zz9-jz
wattJebitds,277, z9o
wubills, 413-6,487
umbrellabirds, z5r
Upupidae, zr5
waterthrushes, 443
wattle-e1rcs,3357
Viduidae,4rT
Tirdidae,34r,
255
whisding-thrushes, 34r
white-eyes,3857
493
whitefaces, 226
2, 487
whitethroats, 39r
whydahs,4rT-9
widowbirds,4oT
wng sPus, rr9
woodcocls, r15
woodcreepers, 239-4r
woodhoopoes, zr5
woodnymphs, r85
wterfowl,631
wood-putridges,
ireos,3z3-5,
47
487
vu.lnerable species, rr
mItures, 697o
wgt^ls,4zta,487
GENERAL INDEX
87
x
xenoPS,244
Y
yellowtlroats,
443
yuhinas,397
Z
nne of
overlzp, +72
Index
Species
A
,1 ca
,4nser alby'rons,65
laris, z8o
t ha ge ny s rulogu
46
Aran / horbyt
cb
len u
laipiter gentilis,73
A rc ip ter
t r io i rga
ndis
trit
Acridotheret
u t, 74
353
is, 351
Aclit
ul t uri n u m, 94
A eth
afri ca n u s, lz
opbor us
occi de n
la lis, zB
egithalos
io
,4etbia
ut
fu
cip h agus,
18
ldiae, 43o
Aetbofiga ti?aruja, $o
Aga4orn is roseicollis, r54
Agela iu pboeniceus, 466
lgelairc xantbomus,465
sponsa,65
41
A ma urorn il pboen
i cu
rus, 96
lmazona amazonica,t53
AmazonafrufiL r5z
mazona inperialis, r53
mfelior rubrotritnus,
luna,
i, z3
64
lnat smitbii,66
lrboropbila clloropus,
8z
5z
lori, to8
\4
u r,
cblolonot
456
,4 rta m
ut clan
terus, 3o8
u t le u t or byn c b r s, 3oB
a?
uJ
?erlonatus, 3oB
A r la?e
pilloider,
2oB
cunicularia, r7z
ter
afrianut
Bulhogus
Co to?t roPha/us t.
Celeus
n ipa lm a tu :,
;tt:
lugubri, z3o
Centropus
pbatianin us,
165
Centropus siaerui1164
Ce22hut columba, r4o
Cercomacra
Cercomela
melanaria, 246
sinuata,349
Cer@triebas
353
u,
?aena,349
Cteopt is novaebolla
I a, 349
d iae, 66
rgd
Buteo
2la4tpteru,73
Buteo
tuaitsoni,
Cbaetoft
T3
aurailiut,344
rufesceru, 266
Attbi
beloisa, fi7
Attiorafariata, 378
prasi
a n
if
a b e II ifo
Ca I icalic us m adagascar
ientis, 332
Calidris alba, u4
Calidrit alpina, t6
Calidris canu!us, 16
Calidrisferrugiua, u7
zzz
Auriparusfaoieps, 368
lytbya americana,65
lytb1a auttralis, 66
lyrbyaJilliguk, 65
Balaenkeps rex,54
Chlidonias leucopterut,
C hlo
roc
ry I e ama
em i I iae,
ca llipara
t o me
ra c b1
i,
156
ra, 388
nl/orby
ncb us gu
tri
383
urifrons, 3r4
laris, 362
Cbryococcyx mia
Cardinalis sin
Corduelisfommea, 434
Carduelis mage/lania, 434
Carduelis nolala,4j6
tus, 46o
nil, t76
ut i
ll us,
165
Bartram ia longicauda, 16
314
Cint
si,
cb i nen
Cbordeiles otuti2e
ua
186
ea, 452
bardwklii, 3t4
i t ri efe r i i, 453
Cblororn
j2 to r b1a il
Chloropsis cocbin
Callipegla ryuanata,88
Cal loceqbalon n hria tum, 56
I yp
f aoiu
q4
a, t96
Chlorocbry a
Chloro2tis
Ca
zo n
Cblorocbaris
Cb loropsis
88
Calli?ePla ganbclii, 88
Ca
378
dnerea,288
i c a,
u s,
Cbionis alba,48
C b I or oc icb la
li d ri s 2 ti lotn em is, 16
C a m e rolte ro
n u s,
Cbotienpis ibidis,294
Cbauna lorquata,6o
golerita, t56
Cacatua leadbea teri, 156
Cautua sanguinea, S6
Cacalua
Calotitta colliei,3oz
ch u t
46
i, r;E
Ca ! ba ra cta ma ccorm i i k
ltrichorn*
C a II ipep la ru I forn
wollueberi, 374
r, 48
338
338
Boslrychia hagedatb, 58
Botaurut lealiginosus, 5z
Callaeas
Baeolo2bus
s le
garrulu
Bonasa umbellus,E4
Ca
Bombycilla
rmi s, t6 5
Cacomonlis merulinus, t6z
Cacomantis oariolosus, t65
Cairina moschata,64
Calcarius ornalus,458
Baeolopbus
Bonbyilla cedrorum,
Ca c o n
Bias nusitut,336
,4
178
Chakolbapt indica,48
,4naslomus ostitans, 74
,/lndige n a la m i niros / ris, zzz
.4
jaoeruis,
,4 u lacorbyn
z5z
)4myornir striatu,272
us
motao, t5z
,1 rta m
lmandota amandaaa,4t5
pririt, y6
Ba tracbostom
rzz
Burhh ut magniroilris, tzz
Buteo ailgur 72
Buteo brail1uru5 73
.4rtanus cinercus,3oB
,4
dy te s lo rs te
I rremono?t
Batis
Burbinus grallari
442
12/onil netallica,354
,4rgusiaaus argut, Sz
i,
Alenalia intclPrer,
Alcrlura lalhami, So
er
lqhriza airgala, u6
Ardeotis
,4lectoril rhukar,84
is
47r
47t
Qbe/ocepbala hrco4sis, 274
Apbelocom a coeru lescen
302, 471
pbelo co m a u I t ra m o r ina, 1oz
,lrdeola idae,
lkiqpe peracensis,396
ra
lfbrnia.
,4rdea cinerea,5z
58
Alauda ar.oeruis,4oz
u ro
388
A ma
186
,t2beloepba la in t ularit,
lra
i n
igriolli,
12ter1x australit, rz
A?leryx haartii, 12
12u nipaleasis, t9z
,4quila audax,74
.4quila chrytaelos, T3
lra arorauna,t5z
,4 e tltopyga gou
,4 mad
A2helocepha la ta
A2 ten
crilatella,4o
Ajaia ajaja,
horax
,Iix
Aegitbina ti4bia, y4
atadirrs, 173
Aegoliutfunereus, t73
,4 ega t bc le s cr k to t u t, r78
.4egolius
I ero d ra m
,4 n t hraca
Balis raperuis,3j6
A?ali5 nigrie?t,188
lpaloderma narina, r9z
Aili1i natulariu, u4
At lol b ilorn
B a s i I e u ter u s /ra
66
lpalisfaaida,
rt7
is hy2oleucot,
.l nrerands temi?almata,
lo
czanout ki i, z4z
rampb us na
I heuti, 39
SPECIES INDEX
353
509
Cinnlris
Cinnyrisfura,4z
Cinnlrit mariguensis,
Craxfauiolata, 9o
Creadion carunculalut, 288
Crea to? h ora c i rcrea, ]5z
Crinifer zonuru5 16o
CrotEbaga ani, 168
43r
ilinensi,
45o
C*tiola exilis,388
C is t i ola s u b r uf ca2 i Ila,
chu
C /adorbyn
388
cocepbal us,
/e u
rz1
Dulut dominiul
ci nn
amon omeu s, rB
18
Cuculus rlamosus,
t64
Dlaphorophlia jamuoni,
3o 6
ceyloneruis, 346
Cutia aipalensis,396
oes?ertinus, 434
Cotcyzus ameri.canus, t6z
Cyanerpes cyaneus,453
Coth
oiridis,
Cochoa
348
?uNtigula, 228
Co/a?let ru?iilla, 228
Clta
Cy an o lan i u s ma daga
sc
Cyanolyca tucullata,
joo
Co/a?let
irgi
C o / in u s a
Collur
inila
ic in
ari n u s, 332
3oo
us, 88
n i an
Cygnus buccinator 65
Clornis banyumas,346
Cyornis turtosu,348
Clpsiurus balasiens is, t8z
Columba iriditorques,
Cyton)tx nottezumae,
48
88
Daois myana,
Dac
Daphoenos
C o nol ophaga
ca s I a n r i ce? s,
48
r, 2 48
Coraciat bengbalensit,
zoi
Coratina maxima,3zo
Coratin a nooaebolla ndia e, 3zo
Coradna ?a?uentir,32o
Coracina ilriala,3zo
Corag!?t dtralus,6S
C orc ora x m e I an or ha mp h o s, 288
Cormobates
Coro in el la
leu
m elan
leuca, 326
Corvus albicollis,3o3
Corou albus,
3o3
a eo
la
rris ta I a, 16o
C o ry t ha i xo i des I e u t oga
ster t6o
Cosl2ha dirhroa,349
Coxlpba nataleruis, 349
Colinga maynana, z5z
Cottrnix
delegorguei, 85
Coturni x y\ilo?bora, 85
Cra
c! i cu
5ro
t n igrogu
Ia
rit
3rz
452
tyortlx tboraticui, 88
it
ta chrysa?tera, 360
Da?tion 0?enre,34
Da?trius ater,76
Dendragalus obscurus, 84
Dea droti n cla a n abal ina, z 4o
Dendrocitta oagab uada, 3o3
Dendroclgna autumnalis, 64
Dendroia adelaidae,
Dcadroicafura,44z
442
?iala,
Diglosa n1tialit,448
Digloso2* ryanea,448
Dinopium jauanense, z3o
Em
be
riza
a.t ioe
Eo?s a I t r i a
ge
orgia
a,
Eudfftes firyrocome,
Eudyptula minor zj
23
E up I e c / e s Jian
Euplectes
is can
ut
4o 9
hatlaubi, 4ro
Eupodotis nerulereu,
tol
Euqodo tis
to9
sen
egalensis,
c eros
qrc
ost i
i, 332
Diomedea exulant,3o
SPECIES INDEX
46
r o Ii n u s
aJi
i an us, 85
te rc u
I a cirrh
t a, t 4o
r4o
Fregeila lroPica,36
G
Gilbahyblncbus leutotis,
Calbula dea, zt4
Galbula 2astazae, zr4
Galbula rufcauda, zr4
zr
r4
Callinago jametoni,
28 2
Fregata ariel, 4o
Fregala magnifceru, 4o
Fregata minor, 4o
Diomedea bulleri,3o
jo
t h oq1gia,
tr i s, 458
Diomedea albatrus,3o
Diomedea irrorata,
Diomedea melanophrls, 3o
Diomedea nigriles, 3o
I a za
N'u/marus glacialis, 34
Furnari us leucolut, z4z
all
edu
Dideum cruentatum,426
Diaeum ignipectus,4z6
Diaeum /rigonotigma, 426
adsimilis, 298
Dicrurur bracteatu!, 298
Dicrwut hottenlottu!, 298
5 286
Fulica alra,96
fus
D icaeum chrysorrheum, 426
Diouru
t u
Elminia longiauda,294
z3t
ta
D e ndrof
Diglosa lafresn
Fi
Fra
t e n s,
52
Dumlias thalarina,346
Eulhonia janaia, 453
Euphania rufoentris, 45o
c et
yz
I.hlrulea palliata,
Fa I c u n c u I u s fro
Egretta thila,5z
Elaenia martinio, z6o
Elanut leuturus, T3
Eleilron urinatum, zoz
Falco rusticolus,76
E
Egretla
fenoralis, 76
leregrinus, T6
picazuro,46
Faho
y6
Columba
Falro
Fran
Culiiala
t macgregorii,
Falripennis canadensis, 84
Fako alopex,76
Falto renchroidet,76
338
Cry2lurellus soui,
Cut
Cocco I hra
Crypturellus
C la
Cnem
Crypterellut undulatu, 18
Cryptospiza rbelleli, 4r4
Cry2/urellut booucardi, 18
su
Crolopbaga
3o3
Cisolis lcueriana,
is,
54
Gaoid immer, z4
Gaoia patifca, z4
Gaoia stellatd, z4
velo4 168
Geocotcyx
tmilhii,r49
peru.oian a, z 4z
Ceospiza magnirottris, 457
G eos i t ta
C eothl1fis
rostrala, 442
Geothlypis
trirbat
445
Geotrygon alb{acies,46
Gerygone
mouki,274
Gerlgone oliracea,274
Glareola maldivarum, r3z
G la
C lau cidi
G la u ti di
n ferla
I u
qo
m, r7o
C la$o?t;
H
Haematofus bacbman i, rz6
Ho ema to?ilr lon girosttit, 126
Haematorjx rcnguitie?!,
Haklon malimbica, 196
Haliaeetu
82
t96
Ha lcyon smlrnensis,
vocifer, Tz
Haliastar indrs,74
Ha/iastur sphenurus, 74
H arpac tes ery I brocePba I ut, tgz
Harpates oresAios, r9z
Harpia harq!a,74
H e dyd iqn a co I I ar i t,
43r
Heliornisfu/ica, rc6
Ltemixoslfltvala,382
H erpeto tberes o ch i n a a n s, 76
H e I eromyias albitPec u laris, z8z
a o i
d e s,
Heleroscelus incanus,
3L;19
tt4
Ilyliotar1adgaska
Lagopus leucurus, S4
Lagolu mulus,84
Lalage triolor, lzo
Lam?
ro
melanole
391
uo,
Melanipa
45o
12s
ipz t es
le
ut otePha /
u,
38o
Me leagris ga lloPaao, 94
Meleagris ocetlata, g4
ri
ferr ugi n
Laniofulous,45o
La
n ia
us
t,
M ela
33r
otis
M elicbn
ca
Laaiut excubilox
NeaPbron
Meloryrila tigra,456
Nilaut
Ninox
Merganetla drmatd, 64
Lei2oa otellala,Eo
McroPs nubicus,2o4
Mcroli orilatut,2o4
Leutopternis albicolli, 74
Li b! n ot tan u s Jien dt ut, 27 g
Li he noilom u s fust u s, z7 9
Lithtnos tom us oersito lo r, z7 9
L i b n e ra in di st i n t ta, z7 9
Oceanites
Oc e an
Ocrea
jaunia, loz
Momotut n afrala,2o2
Oreomanesfraseri, 448
Oreolrochil us t himborazo, t84
Oriolas auralus,3tB
Oriolut cbinensis,3rB
Oriolus cruentus,3tB
Iilerus parisorum,466
Matronyt npensi,4zo
Macrolygia amboinen s*' r49
M al a ono t u s b lan tho / i, 33r
Irena Vuella,314
Iri d o arn
s
is
ruf
a et t e x, 452
Ixobrycbus minutus,5z
Ixoreus naeaius,34z
M ullerilicus
la
corhlntb us
embro
a ce u
Jacanajacana,
ttz
JYx
ruJicolli, z3r
Ortalir gultal4, go
Orlbonyx temn inckii, 288
Otur
259
M;tadestes
genibarbi,
lenniilttii,
r73
a I rogulari s, 392
Ortygospiza atrico llis, 4t4
Orlzoborus angolerui, 456
Ortho tom u s
Mrciaxicola alqina,
342
obrurus,343
Mladesles lounsendi, 342
Mycteria americana,54
Mytteria ibi,54
Pacbyepba la
4exorali,
Pat bycep ba I a
rufo
Myadestes
Jabiru myteria,54
ft8
Muricapa dauuria,348
Myiagra rrbecula,294
Myiagra rufcollis, zg4
Manorinafaaigula,
My
278
io
borus
me
lanocePbalut, 442
en t r
Pailion
Megadlptes antiPodes, z3
Megalaima australis, zzo
Mlzo nel a
er1 t hrocePha
Myzomela
M egalai
J-ucat
u s,
356
ma haematePba
la' zzo
zB
baliaetus, T3
Panurus biarmitus,368
Paradisaea rubra,3o6
349
la'
Pachy?tila aittata,34
Pacbyrampbut aglaiae, z6o
M argarops
259
Ictcrus iterus,464
353
t us,
?ileata, 348
th u t sa laadorii,
Molothrus ater,465
Molathrus bonariensis, 465
Morus serralor,46
Ma
Onyc hogn
Macronous gularit,396
Oeflanthe
albiilla,286
M a cron
la?botet,49
Iclerus cuullatus,465
34
Jit ca t a, 36
Macheiramphus alcinus, 74
Matrocepha/on maleo, 8o
te u r,
gigan
gracilis,36
o m
Ory?ha?s
es
dr
MiraJru saho/a,4oz
M itrep ha n e t Vha eocerc us, z6o
Mitu saltini, go
Mohoua
Lutrinin .allioPe,343
Oceanodroma melania, 36
Oceanodroma letbys,36
Lcpbura leucomelanos, 84
Lophtra nytlbemeta, Sz
ed
MiraJro
t78
Nlmpbit u botlandicas, Y6
Nlstalus chacuru, z16
Minus folyglotros,356
Li n no,lron u t griseus, tt 4
Lintota ldppanita, u4
Lisotis melanogtster, to8
Loilih ura iailancathorux, 4rz
Londu ra puntt ulata, 4t5
Lophrrra ignita,Sz
jamaietsi,
yr
afer,
boobook,
z4z
453
Mergus nerganser, 65
Merops hirundineut, zo4
72
t73
Ninox rufa, r73
Niaox tcutulala, r7o
alfin*, z4o
?ercno?teru,
Netta?ut ?uhhellus,66
Lanius srbach,3z6
Larotterna inca, t34
Larut heermanai, t34
andiola,
zz6
Melierax metabates, Tz
Melitbreptus lunatut, 278
Melotichla mentali, 394
Leplasthen ura
Neocbmia pbaelon,4tz
Lanius cabanisi,326
Lanius tollurio,326
326
Neochen
te s rob u s tut,
piteata, 15o
ju bata, 64
Nemosia
leucomelas, 174
r us
Nannoplerum harrisi, 48
Natica longirostri, z4o
Lepidocolaptes
I ! e t er op h a s ia Pi
Mega2odius reinwardt, 8o
Melanerles candidus, zlo
v6
279
Paradoxornis
gulari,
368
SPECIES INDEX
5II
Parisoma boehmi,3g3
Pse
Pvudoscitura
Parus spilonotus,3T4
Picusfaaitufia,
Paxerfaoeolus, 4o4
Passer griseug 4o4
Pa:ser metanurus,4o4
Patser montanus,4o4
drit,
Patserina
Pipra
i, 4o8
rittata,
z4z
plrololbus, zzo
Rolhlre rauloul,Sz
Rostra/ula semicollaril,
Psopbio leucoptera,
Psopbodet
roz
otidenta/it, z9z
rieferii,
Pterocles exustus,
Pitta clanea, 44
Pitta guajana,44
P tero c I e t gu t I rra
Pteroglo s us
bea
P terogl o r us
er1 t bropygi u s,
Peletanus erythrorblnchos, 4z
Pelecanut occidertalit, 4z
Pelecan us onocrotalus,
P i ty rias
gtmotii,
Peletanoides
uritatrix,
Pelecan
36
36
tpicillatat, 4z
con
4z
Peleranus thagus, 4z
Pellorn e um ruftept 396
Penelopina nigra, go
t us
amm
eu
s, 3zo
ocep
bal a, 3o8
rubiginou5
Ploceus
4o8
Pe t ro ir a goo den oo i i, zB z
en
ioph a e us
Pha
en
rh
lorop
ba
ur,
fi 4
Phaelbon rubricauda,4o
Pbae/hornis bispidus, t86
Poecile
Phalacrocorux carbo, 48
48
Polioltila
us
2ol
i ocepba
PolStborrc plancus, T6
Po ly t e / i s anr h op ep I ut, r54
Pbalacrocorax urile, 48
Pbalaroprs tricolor, 116
Phaps
Pomatorbin
thalcoptera,49
us
rh*
lcfr?ora lit,
Porfbyio por4byrio,96
Por2hyrula martinia, 96
e lli i, r2o
hr! s oga t te r, 46 o
Pheucticus firytope2lus, 46o
Prinia
faoiant,
P ri n i a
Prinia maculosa,388
Prionops runireps,3z6
Phile?itla rcbkgeli, 46
Philetairus socius, 4o9
Pbiloma cltus fugtax, rr7
Pblegopt is n igromac u la ta, 246
m i t ch
cu s c
Phoebetria
Pboen icirc
laQebrata, 3o
Pboeniconaiat minot 6o
6o
Phoenicoplcrut ruber, 6o
Phoenitu lus
llor ol
us I
rioirgatus, 392
pia,3oz
512
Se
nidera
re
in ua
norais
ra
mpbas tin
Se
a o
lanfordi, 38o
tut
lay s o n i,
388
io e n t ri t, 388
lari s, 274
i treogu
fro*a lis,
S eric u I u s
274
38 z
mnaria, 437
Serinu conicollil,437
S eriil us.flaoi oe n tri !, 437
Serinus
striola/us,
437
Qaelea
rdlii, zzz
u, zzo
Siali: faveola,
rubinus, 259
457
Sigelus silens,349
SDECIES INDEX
Pyrocepbalus
Psa
ca o
ri cornis
Sericornis
Plgotcelis anlarctica, z3
288
S em
ti cepr, 398
Pon atoiloil ut
P h egorn is
z8
P b e uc li
caerulea, 366
o r d i, 48
Pha lacrocorax melano leuto s, 48
Pba larrororax n iger, 48
o ra x ga im
lu
Se le
Pym onotu s
n oaae
castaaiels, 392
Seiterrus montiq 392
Plcnonotujocotus, 38o
z8
ruferens, 374
Poliocepbal
Styt brops
Pufinu: griseu:,34
Prfinus neuelli, 34
Pycnon otus
zB
peli, 17o
Stotopelia
Py
Podijmbw 2odiefs, z8
Poecile atriapillus, 374
y8
cb
S chifforn
Seite rcus
ristatut,
zzz
Podiels thilenti, z8
Podiceps
ii, zzz
Ptilonorhyn
Src?at umbretta,54
Podie2s auritut, zB
b o uga i n o i /I
7z
Pycnonotut cafer,38o
Pbaelbon lepturus,4o
Phaino2epla nitens,
uharna et
Pbae/hon aelhereus,4o
P b a I atrot ora x
S ayornis
/*, t 44
lariut,
Sarlidiornis melanotos, 64
Saxirola torquata,348
r44
Penelopejacguacu, go
co
gy un
Pterodes
Platalea regia, 58
Platycertrc elegans,44
Pe /e c an us r ufe s c e n s, 4z
Pe r icro
is
z5z
u s serpen
Pelecan oides
S
Sagittari
Paoo crista/us,84
Pelagodroma marina,36
254
t7
Rostrhamut uciabili6 71
biinctus, t44
Pterotles dctoratuq t44
torqudtus, tzz
Psittacula longiauda, 43
Psophia crepilans, rcz
Pipreola
Rhyachopsitta 2achybyncba, t 1;
Mlnochetos juba/us, rc6
44o
caban it
Psopboc
46o
igrila
Psilo2ogon
z3r
Jixiiauda,
udon
Sifiafron/alir, 36o
Sitta ?N;lla, j6o
erytbro4s,4og
it qlfrica
S m u lsorn
52hecotberes
n u !,
r32
oiridis, 3t8
Spheniscus demeruut, z3
Spheniscut bumboldti, z3
Sphcnoeacu afer,39+
Rallus longirottri, 96
Rdm?hastor toco, 222
Spindalit zena,453
Spi zi x o s c a n ifr o n s, 783
Sporophila co//ar*, 457
Sporopbila corvin a, 456
utrala,366
Rhea americana,
248
il us clakopteru t, r3z
oae t us coron
al us, 7z
Regulus ulendula,366
Regulus
uB
r c orar
i us
Stiltia isabella,4z
Strelera gratulina, jtz
StrePera
ilerri1 lor,
312
Slrix
rit, r82
nebulosa, 17z
Tberistitus caerulescent, 58
Thalasoia antarctica, 34
Tlta I ura a ia furata, r84
Vireolanius leucotis,
Tamir suscilator,85
Tyra nn
Te rp s ipb
para d is i,
hrsina oiridis,
zg
452
tzz
Sula nebouxii,46
Sula suta, 46
r4o
T
Thchyb ap t u s
notae bollan d ia e, z8
Th cbyci n et a a / b i I in
a, 378
Talegalla cuaieri, So
Tangara
arlbu,
ngara
harllaubi, 16o
o
rpbyre
I o2 h u t, 16
Tr ic h o la ema
le u
co
t54
la s, zzo
Tringa nebularia, u7
Tringa tolailus, rr7
Ta u rac o p
baema/od us,
rir
xe n
o?iro
tr il
332
Ura egin tb rc
be ngalus,
4t5
Uraeginth u s gra na t ina, 4t 4
co
I iu s macro
Uropsalit
rrs, t9o
n
i,
Y
Yubina eoeretti,398
lyra,q6
Urotbraupis ttolzmar
indicu, rzo
milet, tzo
Varellus senega llus, rzo
Zetaida a uriculata, r 46
Zeru ida galapagoensis, t46
Zenaida meloda,46
Zo notri cb i o a tricapi tla, 457
Zootbera lunulota,344
Zoothera
Vanellus
iro s I
Vqne/lus
rissale, 356
o?
Toporu pell+r97
Trihoglosut
466
Xema sabini,44
Xen
ubulatu, rg8
Toxosloma
Thuraco
Todut
453
Tyrannus tyrannu,258
Su/a leatogastel 46
3z
Vultur gry2bus, 68
Tbreskiorn is aethiopicus, 58
Tbres ki orn is s2inico I I i s, 58
qiniola,343
Zartero?s
Zotlero?s ?o/l;du,386
Vireofavfroru,
atria?illa,
386
Zostero2sja2oniu, 386
Zostero2s
Z
o s te
luteut
rog s 2a
12 e b
386
ro s us, 386
324
Vireo griseus, Sz4
SPECIES INDEX
513
Miffiin,
(Houghton
Birds aJ'the ll/orld (Lvnx Edicions). He is working on a guide to the larks, pipits, and
wagtails of the u,orld and a field guide to the birds of the Eastern Palearctic and China.
srrl
JoHN
zooo), Bey,ontl Bird'uatching: Mare than There Is to Knotu about Birdizg (Peachtree
Publishers, rg93), and A Field Guide to Little-Knoun and Seldom-Seen Birds of North
Arnerica (Peachtree Publishers, 1988). Exhibits include "Birds in Art" and'Art of the
Animal Kingdom."
FRANK KNrcHr isoneofAustralia'spremierwildlifeartists.Bookcreditsinclude
Parrots of the World: An ldentifcation Guide (Princeton University Press, zoo6), Field
Guide to the Birtls afAustralia:Zbe Graham Pizzey and Frank Knight Field Guide (Harper
Collins, zoo5), and A Field Guide to the Mammals ofAustralia (Oxford University
Press, zoor).
L is a masterful bird artist, teacher, and nature tour leader. Book credits
include Field Guide to the Birds ofEastAfrica (T. &A. D. Poyser and A & C Black, zooz).
He has contributed many color plates to the Handbook of the Birds of tbe World (Ly*
Edicions). He is working on new bird field guides for Africa.
BRIA
sM A L
DAVID BEADLB is an experienced bird artist. Book credits include Birds of Chile
(Princeton University Press, zoo3),A Guide to the ldentifcation and Natural History of
the Sparrozus of the United States and Canada (Academic Press, 1996),Tbe Red-Winged
DAN LANB is a bird artist, bird tour leader, and research associate at the Museum of
Natural Science at Louisiana State University. He has contributed bird artwork to
scientific publications and books such as Trogons and Quetzals of the World (Smithsonian
Books, zooo) and E cuador: Trauellers' Wildlife Guide, Peru: Travellers Wildlife Guide, and
B ra zi I :
G u i de
(Interlink
ooks,
zo
o5
).
JoHN o'NErLL,
a research associate at
Press, r99r). He is
I
ACC
llltiiili
l':