MECHANICS OF

SOLID
MANUAL
PREPARED BY: HARSHAL B PATEL

M-1 MOTION IN VISCOUS MEDIA

1. PURPOSE
(1) To study a body falling through a medium with non-negligible
viscous drag.
(2) To determine the terminal velocity of such a body and to
investigate whether the drag is proportional to the square of the
velocity.
2. APPARATUS
Two-meter stick, coffee filters or paper muffin cups, dark cloth background,
stroboscopic lamp, camera.
3. THEORY
Textbooks often assert that when a body moves under viscous or frictional drag, that
the retarding force is velocity dependent. If the velocity is large enough, the drag force
can be proportional to the square of the velocity. Seldom does the student test these
assertions by experiment or direct experience.
When a body falls through a viscous medium, the net force on it is the sum of the
gravitational force and the drag force:
[1]

F = mg - f
where F is the net force, m is the body's mass, and f is the drag force. We assume a
coordinate system were positive is downward.
Consider a drag force proportional to the speed:
[2]

f = kv2
The net force on the body is, by Newton's law:

[3]

F = mg - kv2 = ma
If the viscous drag increases with velocity, given enough time it will become as large
as the gravitational force, and being opposite to mg, the net force on the body
becomes zero, the acceleration is then zero, and the body continues moving with
constant velocity. This condition is called "terminal velocity."
[4]

mg = kv2 , or v2 = mg/k
[5]

so, v = (mg/k)
This shows that the terminal velocities of bodies falling through the same medium are
proportional to the square roots of the masses. Since y = vt, then the distance two such
bodies fall in the same time is:
[6]

y2/y1 = (m2/m1)
Therefore if two such bodies were dropped simultaneously, and one were four times
as heavy as the other, the heavier one would fall twice as far in the same time.
Question: If two bodies were dropped simultaneously, one being twice as heavy as the
other, what distance will the heavier one fall compared to the lighter one in the same
time?
4. PROCEDURE
The predictions of Eq. 5 may be easily tested with minimal equipment if we can find a
body that reaches terminal speed very quickly, and falls slowly enough to time with
simple equipment. Such a situation may be easily achieved!
The small paper cups used for baking muffins not only are light in weight, but their
shape causes them to fall through air in a stable manner (they don't tumble). Also, they
are easily stacked, to give a body of the same shape, but mass 2m, 3m, 4m, etc., where
m is the mass of one paper cup.
The larger cups used as filters in automatic coffee machines also may be used.

By dropping such cups and timing their fall we can test the assumptions of Eq. 1 and
Eq. 2. For much of the work we won't even need a timing device. We will use the
technique of comparing two events occurring simultaneously, a method often used by
Galileo when he studied the motion of moving bodies. In this experiment you will
drop cups of different mass from different heights simultaneously so that they reach
the floor simultaneously. You will be able to not only see, but hear, whether they hit
the floor at the same time.
(1) First simultaneously drop two cups, one of mass m from a height of 2 meters, and
the other of mass 2m (two nested cups) from a lower height, say 50cm. Which one
hits the floor first? Try it again, adjusting the distance of fall of the heavier one until
they reach the floor simultaneously.
(2) In this case, and subsequent cases, do each trial several times, so that you can
determine the variation (error) in the determination of the smaller height. This gives
you information about how reliable and reproducible your experiment is, including
errors in the simultaneous dropping, in determining whether they land simultaneously,
and all other sources of indeterminate error.
(3) Repeat with cups of m and 3m, m and 4m, m and 5m, etc. You may wish to use a
larger distance of fall, say 4 meters, but then you may have a problem of starting them
falling simultaneously.
(4) Set up a black cloth background, strobe lamp, and camera to photograph the fall of
one of the cups. The photo should answer the question of how quickly terminal speed
is attained, and also give you a direct measure of that terminal velocity.
(5) Investigate the fall of other bodies, using all of the above techniques. Suggestions:
a wadded paper napkin, a feather, a sponge ball, a toy parachute.
(6) Consider the fall of a rubber ball. Using the methods of parts 1 and 2, you will find
that the only way that two balls dropped at the same time will hit the floor
simultaneously is if they fall from the same initial height. This will be found to be true
even if the balls have different mass! Clearly something is very different here
compared to the case of the falling paper cups. What does this fact tell you about the
nature and/or size of the drag force? Does it tell you anything about the gravitational
force?
(7) If a strobe light and suitable camera are available, photograph the fall of objects
against a black background in a darkened room. The photos may be enlarged (or
negatives may be enlarged by projection) to analyze the motion.

5. ANALYSIS
(1) Try to develop from your data a table of terminal speed vs. mass for the falling
paper cups. Consider using a graph of v2 vs. m to do this.
(2) You have been given the job of testing how well the data confirms the equation:
f = kvn
Your experiment seems to confirm that the exponent n has a value of 2. But,
considering the uncertainties in your measurements of time (simultaneity) and
distance, what is the uncertainty in your determination of n? You do not need to know
the actual times of fall, nor the actual terminal velocities to answer this question.
6. QUESTIONS
(1) Has this experiment confirmed Newton's law F = ma? If so, how? If not, why not?
(2) Has this experiment confirmed that the terminal velocity of a paper cup falling in
air is proportional to the square root of its mass? If so, how? If not, why not?
(3) Has this experiment confirmed that the viscous drag force on a paper cup falling in
air is proportional to the square of its speed? If so, how? If not, why not?

Inclined plane apparatus. [PASCO]

M-2 FRICTION AND THE INCLINED

PLANE
1. PURPOSE
(1) To measure the coefficient of friction for several combinations of materials, making
use of an inclined plane.
(2) To study equilibrium and non-equilibrium of a body on an inclined plane under the
action of forces.
2. APPARATUS
Inclined plane, wooden block, small cart with wheels, weight hanger, set of weights,
clock timer, meter stick. Some versions of the apparatus have wooden planes, some
have enameled metal.

3. BACKGROUND
Discussion of friction, and problems about motion on an inclined plane, will be found in
any general physics textbook. The basic relation for friction is:
[1]

Maximum force due to static friction = fs = sN

and
[2]

Force due to kinetic friction = fk = kN

where s and k are proportionality constants, called respectively, the coefficient of
static friction, and the coefficient of kinetic friction.
Following the usual notation, the forces acting on a body on an inclined plane are shown
in figure 1. W is the weight of the body (W = mg), N is the normal force due to the
plane, f is the frictional force, and P is the applied force present when a string is
attached to the body to pull it up the plane. Generally this situation is analyzed by
resolving the forces into components parallel and perpendicular to the plane, as shown
in Fig. 2. The components of the weight are:
[3]

W = Wx sin
[4]

W = Wy cos

Forces on the block, and the free-body diagram.

4. PROCEDURE
Note to students: A large amount of data will be taken in this experiment. To aid you in
organizing this data, special data sheets are included.
(1) Starting friction on level plane. Lay the wooden block on the plane with its large
face down. Apply a force, P, to it by means of a string running over a pulley to a weight
hanger. Add weights to the hanger until the block begins to move. In this way determine
the approximate value of starting friction. Determine the value more accurately by
starting just below this value and adding weight in very small increments. The error may
be estimated by noting the smallest additional weight which produces motion.
Place 100 grams on the block and repeat.
Place 200 grams on the block and repeat.
REMINDERS: You must weigh the wooden block. The string must always be parallel to
the plane.
(2) Sliding friction on level plane. With weight on the block as before, give the block a
push to overcome starting friction and remove weights from hanger until the block
slides with nearly constant velocity. There will be quite a lot of uncertainty in
determining whether the velocity is constant, so take some care in doing this. Determine
carefully the value of the uncertainty in P due to this cause.
In some cases it may be necessary to clean the plane with detergent. Do not touch the
plane with your hands, for body oil will cause slick spots.
(3) Equilibrium on the Inclined Plane. Investigate both starting friction and sliding
friction at different plane angles. Use angles of 15, 25, 35, and 45. (You have
already done this for 0.) At each angle, investigate the situation with different values of
W, including the following cases: A) no weight on block, B) 100 grams on block. C)
200 grams on block, and if there is time, D) 500 grams on block.
(4) Non-equilibrium. For this part, use the long plane. Two plane angles will be
investigated, 0 and 30. Determine the force, P, necessary to produce acceleration up
the plane at a rate convenient to measure with the clock timer. Measure the time to
accelerate from rest along a measured distance of the plane. An easy way to do this is to
use a distance of one meter: Start with the bottom of the weight hanger exactly one
meter from the floor. Release the hanger as you start the timer, and stop the timer the
instant the hanger touches the floor. Practice the timing operation until you can do it

with reproducible results.

Do the same for acceleration down the plane.
(5) Free body on plane. Remove the cord which applied the force, P. Use various
combinations of weights on the body to produce the following experimental situations.
a) block static on plane
b) block slides down plane with constant velocity
c) block accelerates down the plane
(6) [Instructor's option] Carry out an investigation as in (1) through (3) using the small
four-wheeled cart in place of the block. Use the same combinations of plane angle and
cart load as suggested there. The friction is very much smaller than with the block; and
you must be very careful to reduce sources of error to obtain a good measurement of the
friction in the wheels. Note that the friction in the wheels may be comparable in size to
the friction in the pulley at the top of the plane. Some ingenuity on your part will be
require to make sense of the data.
5. ANALYSIS
Part 1-4 of the experiment yield values for the coefficient of friction for two distinct
pairs of surfaces: (1) wood sliding on the plane, and (2) wheels rolling on the plane.
Theory predicts that each coefficient of friction should be constant. Your experimental
values may show quite a bit of variation, however. Is this variation due to random error,
or is there a residual discrepancy due to systematic error?
To answer this question, you must do an error analysis. The contribution of random
error is easily calculable from the error in your data by standard error propagation
formulae. The equation used was
[5]
P - W sin
=
W cos

The error in sin may be obtained from a table of sines. For example, if your angle was
25 0.5, look up in the table the values of sin 25; sin 24.5, and sin 25.5 to get the
range of uncertainty in sin 25. The range of uncertainty will be different for each angle
you used!

The dominant source of error in this equation will probably be the error involved in
taking the difference: P - W sin . Verify this with your own error analysis.
Compare your calculated probable error in with the average deviation of your
experimental values of . If the average deviation is greater than the probable error, you
probably have a systematic error present.
Inspect the variation in in your data. Is dependent on any other data quantity? If so,
which one? Try graphing this dependence, indicating the probable error in each value of
with an error flag. Is this dependence of any simple form? Can you suggest any
physical reason for such a dependence?
6. QUESTIONS
(1) Would the coefficient of friction of a 3-wheeled car be less than that of a 4 wheeled
car, assuming the cars weighed the same, and the wheels were the same? Calculate the
ratio of the values of friction coefficient in the two cases.
(2) Consider the pulley at the top of the plane. How does the friction in the pulley
depend on the tension in the string and the angle of the plane? State your assumptions
clearly, and derive the equation for the pulley friction.
(3) The angle of uniform slip is that angle of the plane which causes the free block to
slide down the plane with constant velocity. Show that this angle is given by
[6]

tan = k
where k is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

M-3 SIMPLE MACHINES

1. PURPOSE:
To study the operation of various kinds of simple machines, and
to analyze them in terms of mechanical advantage, displacement
ratio, efficiency, etc.
2. APPARATUS:
Various machines, meter stick, metric weights, spring balances,
string, lab. hardware.
3. THEORY:

First some definitions of words commonly used. A machine is a

mechanical device that is capable of doing useful work on
something else. Not all devices or mechanisms this, so they are
not properly called machines. However, many machines do
work, but doing work is not their primary purpose. The hinged
lid of a box is a simple lever, but when we open the box we
seldom think of it as a device for doing work. And we do not
describe it in terms such as "mechanical advantage" or
"efficiency". The child's see-saw is also a simple lever, but is not
something designed to do work on other things, though it could
easily do so.
Our interest here is in machines that do useful work. An external
agent does work on the machine and the machine does work on
some other external system. The work the machine does on the
external system is considered the "useful" work output, that
being what the machine was designed to do.
The work done on the machine is called the input, and the useful
work done by the machine is called theoutput. Some of the input
work is always "wasted" either through friction, or by acting
upon parts of the machine itself rather than on the external
system. Some of the waste may be eliminated by better design of
the machine, but the friction can never be totally eliminated.
Therefore the output work is always less than the input work.
This may be expressed by an equation:
[any machine]

Work in = energy "wasted" + work out

The energy efficiency of a machine is defined:
[any machine]

energy efficiency = (work output)/(work input)

The energy efficiency of a real machine is always less than one.
It is convenient to introduce the idea of an ideal, perfect
machine, in which no work is wasted. This is a useful idea, for it
sets an upper limit on what is attainable in practice, as a standard
of comparison. Such an idealmachine would have an energy
efficiency exactly equal to one.
One useful feature of machines is the fact that they may be
constructed to increase or decrease applied forces. Usually we
want to increase the force. This is not "getting something for
nothing" since to achieve the same output with smaller input
force requires the input force to move through a larger
displacement. Consider an ideal machine:
[ideal machine]

Work in = Work out

or
[ideal machine]

Fi di = Fo do

therefore
[ideal machine]

Fo do / Fi di = 1
The force ratio (Fo/Fi) on the left of this equation is defined to be
the mechanical advantage.
[any machine]

Mechanical advantage Fo/Fi

The ratio (do/di) is defined to be the displacement ratio:
[any machine]

Displacement ratio do/di

The displacement ratio is only dependent on the geometry of the
machine's mechanical system, but is not affected by friction. For
this reason, reducing or removing friction from a machine does
not change its displacement ratio. The displacement ratio is
therefore independent of the efficiency of the machine, and is
the same for a real machine as for its "ideal" counterpart.
The theoretical mechanical advantage of any machine is
the mechanical advantage it would have if all friction
were removed. The theoretical mechanical advantage is
the reciprocal of the displacement ratio. The theoretical
mechanical avantage therefore sets an upper limit on
achievable performance of a particular machine.

Elementary discussions of machines often omit consideration of

the work which may be wasted in lifting parts of the machine

itself (internal work). Clearly most machines waste work in this

way; the screw jack lifts its center post and handle, pulley
systems lift the mass of at least one pulley and the hook which
supports the load, even lever systems lift part of the mass of the
lever. Sometimes part of the machine mass may help out by
doing work at the output.
The "ideal" machine is therefore one in which
(1)
friction
has
been
reduced
(2) all parts of the machine are massless.

to

zero,

and

In the theoretical analysis of a machine, one may begin by

considering it ideal. Calculate the displacement ratio from the
machine's geometry. The reciprocal of the displacement ratio is
its theoretical mechanical advantage. We know that the actual
mechanical advantage will be less than the theoretical one.
Next we could more realistically analyze the machine by
including the masses of its parts, but still considering it to be
frictionless. A calculation of the theoretical mechanical
advantage done this way will be closer to reality. The next step,
including the friction in each part, can be done, but it is messy,
for it requires knowledge of the nature of all bearing surfaces,
the loads they carry, and the kind of lubrication, if any. Such an
analysis might be done when designing a machine, particularly
if the expense of building prototypes was very great.
4. PROCEDURE:

Various machines are set up around the room, investigate as

many as time permits. Draw a simplified picture of each
machine, showing input and output forces and displacements, as
well as the machine's geometry.
Some of the machines may be completely disassembled. For
these, weigh each part, and measure the machine's geometry.
Then do a theoretical analysis first, using the laws of physics
and geometry, to calculate the theoretical mechanical advantage.
Then analyze the machine taking into account the masses of its
parts, to obtain a more reasonable prediction of its mechanical
advantage. Predict also its displacement ratio. Finally assemble
the machine, measure its displacement ratio and mechanical
advantage, and compare with your predictions.
For the machines which cannot be fully disassembled, measure
the displacement ratio and mechanical advantage, and calculate
the efficiency. Make some calculations of how much work is
wasted in friction, and also calculate the amount of internal
work lost.
Finally, summarize your results for all machines in a table.
5. TYPICAL MACHINES:
In keeping with our philosophy of making physics students
aware of the roots of the subject, these examples are taken
from A First Course in Physics, by Robert Andrews Millikan
and Henry Gordon Gale (Ginn and Company, 1906).

All of these mechanisms were known to Archimedes (c. 287-212

BCE) and were part of the early history of engineering in many
cultures. Two others were in this "early machine" category: the
simple lever and the inclined plane. One mechanism of more
complex nature, the differential gear, was unknown to the
Greeks, but appeared about the same time in China. But there it
was used "in reverse" as a means for controlling the relative rate
of motion, and not for any mechanical advantage.

Jackscrew.

Wheel and axle.

Capstan.

Gear train.

Differential windlass.

Differential pulley and

differential chain hoist.

Worm gear.

Block and tackle.

Crane.

6. QUESTIONS:
(1) High efficiency is not always desirable in a machine. What
would happen if all friction were removed from a differential
chain hoist, or from a jackscrew? What is the importance of
friction in the capstan?
(2) Design a pulley operated "elevator" by which a you could lift
yourself by your own power. Don't ignore the weight of any
parts of the elevator which also must be lifted.
(3) What do the wheel and axle and the differential
windlass have in common? How do they differ?
(4) Some books describe the jackscrew as a modification of the
inclined plane. Discuss.
(5) Some books give a rule for finding the theoretical
mechanical advantage of a block and tackle by counting the
number of ropes supporting the weight. Figure out this rule, and
state it.
(6) The capstan's purpose is much different from most other
machines. It is used primarily to secure a heavy load without
allowing the load to fall. It is found on ships and sailboats today,
to aid in docking a boat to its moorings. The many wraps of rope
around the capstan ensure high friction under tension. But as the
tension on the rope decreases, the rope may be easily pulled,
sliding easily around the capstan post. Some capstans are rigid.

Some have a high friction wooden axle. Some modern ones are
metal with a ratchet to prevent motion in one direction. Do some
library research to find the many uses and types of capstans.
Talk with someone who does sailing as a hobby.
(7) The illustration of Archimedes at the top of the page is
decorative only. It raises some questions about this often-seen
quotation. Where would Archie stand? What could provide a
fulcrum? How could a lever this large work at all? Discuss. If all
the conditions of the picture were satisfied, what ratio of lever
arm lengths would be necessary?

M-4 PULLEY SYSTEMS

1. THEORY
Read the theory section of experiment M-3. Also review the
sections on force solution of equilibrium systems in any text.
2. APPARATUS
Pulleys, strings, weights, weight hangers, support rods and
hardware.
3. PROCEDURE
Pulley systems allow one to lift heavy loads using forces much
smaller than the weight of the load. Generally a force applied to
a rope supplies the input work. This force usually acts in a
direction parallel to the motion of the load.
Figs. A-F illustrate various types of pulley systems. For each of
these, do the following.

(1) First calculate the theoretical mechanical advantage by doing

a force analysis on the system. Do this by calculating the
required input force to just balance the system in equilibrium. In
this calculation, consider the pulleys massless (except in system
D). Also, calculate the displacement ratio.
(2) Select a heavy load, at least 10 times as heavy as the total
weight of the pulleys, and set up the system. Determine
experimentally how much force to apply to the input string to
balance the system. Apply this force by hanging weights on that

string. Compare the experimental value of mechanical advantage

with the theoretical value.
(3) Measure the displacement ratio, and compare it with your
previous calculation.
(4) Compute the efficiency of the system.
Some of these pulley systems have names:
System A: block and tackle. System B: Spanish burton.
System F has an attachment to the floor. The square block in the
diagram represents the load. Predict in advance how this system
will behave when you pull the free end of the rope upward.
4. QUESTIONS
(1) The theoretical mechanical advantage of a block and tackle
(such as system A) is equal to the number of ropes supporting
the load. Does this rule work for the other systems?
(2) Why do you suppose system C is sometimes called the
"fool's tackle?"

M-5 TORSION PENDULUM AND LATHE

1. PURPOSE:
(1) To determine the rigidity modulus of steel and brass.
(2) To measure the moment of inertia of several bodies.
2. APPARATUS:
Torsion
Torsion pendulum, with accessories.

lathe.

3. THEORY:
(A) RIGIDITY MODULUS
Consult a good textbook for amplification of the bare details
given here.

Fig. 1. Torsion.

The modulus of rigidity n (shear modulus) of a solid is defined

by:
[1]
F/A
n =
x/

where F is the applied force, A is the area of the face to which

the force is applied, x the linear displacement, and the distance
between the upper and lower faces.
When a rod or cylinder it twisted, it undergoes the same sort of
shear deformation in each part, and the rigidity modulus may be
written:
[2]
2L
n =

4
r

where is the length of the rod, r is its radius, L is the applied

torque and is the displacement angle (in radians).
(B) TORSION PENDULUM
Consider a body suspended by a rod, the rod being coincident
with a symmetry axis of the body. See Fig. 3. If the body is
given a twist about the rod's axis, it will oscillate with angular
harmonic motion with period:
T = 2(I/K)
where T is the oscillation period, I the moment of inertia of the
body (about its axis of rotation) and K the torsion constant of the
wire.
The torsion constant K is defined as the torque required to twist
the end of the wire through one radian, K /. K depends on
the dimensions of the wire and the rigidity modulus:
[3]

T = 2(I/K)
[4]
2K
n =
4
r

where is the length of the wire and r is its radius.

Fig. 2. The torsion lathe.

4. PROCEDURE:
(1) The torsion lathe is a simple apparatus specifically designed
to measure the torsion constant. The metal sample to be tested is
in the form of a one meter long rod, with special fittings at each
end. This rod is clamped at one end, the other end attaches to a
graduated wheel with a flexible steel strap around its rim.
Weights attached to the steel strap twist the rod, and the vernier
scale on the wheel allows the measurement of the twist angle.
Do not exceed the elastic limit of the material being tested.
Consult your instructor if you are in doubt how large a load the
material can tolerate.

Fig. 3. The torsion pendulum.

Measure the rigidity modulus of the steel sample and the brass
sample.
(2) The torsion pendulum uses the very same sample rods as the
torsion lathe, permitting an independent measurement of their
rigidity modulus by two methods, static (with the torsion lathe)
and dynamic (with the torsion pendulum.
The upper end of the rod is clamped into a special fitting
permanently attached to the wall. But before you attach the
sample, hang the iron ring over the wall mount, for you'll need

to lower it over the rod later, and this will save you the nuisance
of disassembling the apparatus then.
The horizontal plate at the bottom has a moment of inertia Io,
but its shape is not so simple that the inertia can be determined
simply from its dimensions (it has a hub and lock nut which
complicate the geometry). However, you have available metal
ring and two metal cylinders, of simple shape. These are shown
in Fig. 3. The moments of inertia of these objects may be
determined quite precisely by weighing them and measuring
their dimensions. The period of the pendulum is measured with
just the base plate attached. Then the ring is lowered onto the
base plate and the period of the pendulum is measured. The ring
is lifted back onto the upper support and the two cylinders are
placed on the base plate as shown in Fig. 3. The period is
measured.
Therefore you can measure the period of the pendulum with two
different moments of inertia: (Io + Iring) and (Io + Icyl). With this
information Io and K may be determined.
The ring has the simplest geometry, so take its moment of inertia
to be
[5]

Iring = M(R12+R22)/2
from direct measurements of its mass and radii. Use this to
determine Io. Use the parallel axis theorem, along with
measurements of the mass and dimensions of the cylinders, as
an independent check to see whether the dynamic measurement
agrees with the geometric calculation.

The parallel axis theorem is:

[1]

Ia2 = Ic + M
where M is the mass of the body, I a is the moment of inertia
about any axis, Ic is the moment of inertia about the axis through
the center of gravity, and is the distance of separation of the
two axes.
The moment of inertia of a solid cylinder about its own axis is
Mr2/2.
(3) Use the experimentally determined value of K to calculate
the rigidity modulus n and compare with the static value
determined in part (1). Do this for both metal sample rods, steel
and brass.

M-6 HOOKE'S LAW

1. PURPOSE
To verify Hooke's law for a spring and to determine the spring's
elastic constant by static deformation.
To investigate the vibratory motion of a mass on a spring and to
determine the elastic constant from the period of this motion.
2. APPARATUS
Laboratory stand, tapered springs of various types (brass, iron,
steel), weight hanger, weight sets, stopwatch, metric scale.
The maximum loading of the tapered springs is:
Iron
or
Brass: 800 gm
3. THEORY

Steel:

1.5

kg

Fig. 1. Analysis of a susppended

spring-mass system.

Hooke's law can be written:

[1]

Fs = -ks
where Fs is the tension in a stretched spring and s is the spring's
displacement from its unstretched position. k is the elastic
constant, or "spring constant."
In the figure, the force Fs of the spring acts upward on the
suspended mass, m. The downward force on the mass is mg. The
net force on the mass is therefore Fnet = Fs - mg, in all cases.
The position of the end of the spring is y, measured from an
arbitrary reference position. In the diagram the reference is the
upper support, though the reference height could be taken at any
position.
Since the reference point for the tail of the y vector is arbitrary,
so is the reference for the head of y. We take it to the end of the
spring, that being a convenient point to locate in the diagram.

The diagram shows three positions of the spring. The

"unloaded" position U is the position when no weight hangs
from it. The equilibrium position E is when there's mass M on
the end of the spring, suspended in equilibrium. The third
position is a "snapshot" of the mass while it is moving up and
down with oscillatory motion around the position E.
Since Hooke's law is linear, then if we add weight W to the
hanger,
[2]

W = -ky, or in this case, W = - k(y - yo) , for any y.

W is the weight of the mass added to the hanger. For the
equilibrium position, we have,
[3]

W = -ky = -k(ye - yo) = Mg

When a mass M is displaced from the equilibrium position, and
released, it undergoes oscillatory motion. Here M must be
the total mass (including hanger). At any displacement y we
have:
[4]

W - Mg = Ma , or -k(y - y ) - Mg = Ma
[5]

But from (3), -ky + kyo + kye - kyo = Ma

[6]

and therefore, -ky + kye = Ma

[7]

so, -k(y - ye) = Ma

or, a = -(k/M)(y - ye)

This is the defining equation for simple harmonic motion: "The
acceleration of the mass is proportional to its displacement from
the equilibrium position and in the opposite direction to the
displacement." So we have proven that a mass hanging from a
spring which obey's Hooke's law will move with simple
harmonic motion when displaced from the equilibrium position.
By solution of the differential equation (7) one may derive the
period of the simple harmonic motion of the mass-spring
combination:
[8]

T = 2(m/k)
Since F = ma, and from Hooke's law, F = -kx, then ma = -kx.
Therefore, m/k = - x/a, and
[9]

T = 2(-x/a)
3. PROCEDURE

Fig. 2. Apparatus arrangement.

Note that the large diameter
end of the string is at
the bottom. [CENCO]

(1) Suspend the spring from the ring stand. If the spring is of the
"tapered" kind, be sure that the larger diameter end is down.
Hang a weight hanger from the spring, and take data on
suspended mass vs. extension. Do not exceed the stated limits of
the spring. For the steel spring do not exceed 1.5 kg, for the
brass spring do not exceed 800 gm. If in doubt, consult your
instructor. Plot this data and determine the spring constant from
the slope of the straight line.
(2) Using the same spring, take data on the period of simple
harmonic motion of a spring mass combination. Do this for a
variety of values of mass. Keep the amplitudes small. Make an
appropriate plot relating period to mass.
You may find that the graph of period vs. mass shows an
unexpected relation. Eq. 8 does not take into account the mass of
the spring itself, which is also a moving part of the system.
However, since each part of the spring moves with a different

amplitude, we cannot simply add the spring's mass to the mass

of the load. The period of the system, with spring included is:
[10]

T = 2[m + me/k]1/2
where me is the "effective" mass of the spring. Find the spring's
effective mass from your graph, and express it in the form: m e =
( )ms where ms is the mass of the spring. That is, find the
constant ratio between effective mass and actual mass of the
spring.
(3) As time permits, repeat the above with a spring made of a
different material.
(4) Rather than suspend the mass, one can do this analysis using
an air track, with a glider as the mass, and two springs attached
to either end of the glider. Lighter springs, of smaller spring
constant are best.
4. QUESTIONS
(1) The tapered springs obey Hooke's over the widest range of
loads when suspended with the large diameter end down. This is
why they are made that way. Explain why this works.
(2) Some springs are wound with the wire under torsion, so that
they are naturally tightly compressed. The plot of extension vs.
applied force will show that the intercept on the extension axis is
negative, that is, the "unstretched length" is shorter than the
actual unloaded length. Explain.

(3) Does your data show that the weight of the spring itself is
important? How can you properly include the spring's weight in
your analysis? If you have had calculus, you can do this exactly,
finding the formula for the "equivalent" mass of the spring. If
you haven't had calculus, you can still find the equivalent mass
from your data. In either case, you'll have to know the total mass
of the spring, and its unstretched length.
(4) Find out from library research, or by direct derivation
(calculus) the relation between a spring's effective and actual
mass. Is this the same for a static measurement of k as it is for a
dynamic measurement?