Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
2nd Edition
Jos Arrillaga
Preface
The high voltage mercury-arc valve and its application to the development
of an HVDC transmission technology have been described in earlier books
by Adamson and Hingorani, Kimbark and Uhlmann. In common with
these texts the first edition of this book, published in 1983, described the
basic principles of static power conversion and their application to power
transmission by high-voltage direct current.
By then, however, in parallel with the development of microelectronic
technology there had been an equally impressive, although less publicised,
macroelectronic development in the power field sharing the same basic
ingredients, i.e. switching and silicon. The main exponent of macroelectronic technology must surely be the solid-state HVDC valve. By the time the
first edition of this book was being prepared, thyristors had already
displaced mercury-arc valves in new HVDC schemes, and the book
reflected the change. Although the basic principles of operation remain
the same, the past 15 years have seen a worldwide acceptance of HVDC
and particularly the installation of a large number of back-to-back interconnections. There have also been substantial improvements in the ratings
and reliability of thyristor valves and the appearance of more controllable
solid-state devices; the latter have encouraged a new technology called
FACTS (flexible AC transmission systems) which is proving to be very
competitive with HVDC for some specific applications. However, thyristor
technology has not remained at a standstill and a variety of new concepts
and techniques have been appearing with the aim of reducing the cost of
HVDC and extending its area of application.
This expanded edition of the book includes the main technical advances
of the past 15 years and describes the new concepts which, no doubt, will
help to make HVDC even more competitive in the new millennium.
Again, I would like to acknowledge the valuable help received early
on from all the experts mentioned in the first edition and extend my
gratitude to my present colleagues C.P. Arnold, P.S. Bodger, S. Chen,
xii Preface
W. Enright, B.C. Smith, N.R. Watson and A.R. Wood for their support
and dedication to the HVDC cause. I acknowledge the continued encouragement and financial assistance received from TransPower NZ Ltd for
our research into HVDC transmission.
It would be difficult to properly acknowledge all the sources of information used in the preparation of this book; I must, however, single out the
vast amount of work carried out by CIGRE study committee 14 on HVDC
transmission from which I have derived inspiration, the practical information and photographs obtained from industry, especially GEC-Alsthom
and ABB, and the close collaboration that I have had over the years with
the Manitoba HVDC Research Centre.
Contents
Preface
1 Introduction
1.1 Historical background
1.2 The mercury-arc valve
1.3 The silicon controlled rectifier (thyristor)
1.4 Future switching trends
1.5 The HVDC claims
1.6 The advent of a FACTS technology
1.7 References
2
xi
1
1
3
4
7
8
8
9
10
10
10
13
13
14
17
18
18
19
23
24
26
27
27
28
32
33
39
42
vi Contents
50
52
55
Harmonic elimination
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Pulse number increase
3.3 Design of AC filters
3.3.1 Design criteria
3.3.2 Design factors
3.3.3 Network impedance
3.3.4 Circuit modelling
3.3.5 Tuned filters
3.3.6 Self-tuned filters
3.3.7 High-pass filters
3.3.8 Example of recent filter arrangement
3.3.9 Type C damped filters
3.3.10 Simplified filtering for 12-pulse converters
3.4 DC-side filters
3.5 Active; filters
3.5.1 AC-side active cancellation
3.5.2 DC-side active cancellation
3.6 References
56
56
56
57
57
58
62
70
70
72
73
74
74
76
77
80
80
81
82
84
84
86
88
93
93
97
97
100
100
100
101
103
104
105
106
106
108
108
Contents vii
B - DC SYSTEM CONTROL
5.4 Basic philosophy
5.5 Characteristics and direction of DC-power flow
5.5.1 Tap-changer control
5.5.2 Reversal of power flow
5.5.3 Modifications to the basic characteristics
5.5.4 Operational nonminimum margin angle
5.5.5 Power-flow control
5.5.6 Frequency control
5.5.7 Power/frequency control
5.6 Different control levels
5.6.1 Overall control co-ordination
5.6.2 Hierarchical power control at the New Zealand link
5.7 Telecommunication requirements
5.8 References
111
111
112
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
121
123
124
126
128
129
129
130
130
132
133
136
138
138
140
141
142
143
144
145
148
150
155
155
156
157
159
159
160
160
160
162
162
viii
Contents
1A
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
162
165
167
168
171
174
174
176
178
181
182
184
190
192
194
195
197
198
198
226
228
228
200
200
200
201
201
207
207
208
209
210
211
214
214
216
218
219
219
221
224
225
226
Contents ix
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
229
231
232
233
233
235
235
238
238
240
243
243
244
245
250
251
10 DC versus AC transmission
10.1 General considerations
10.2 Power-carrying capability of AC and DC lines
10.3 A comparison of AC and DC transmission characteristics
10.4 Other considerations
10.5 Infeeds at lower voltage levels
10.6 Examples of the application of the break-even distance
10.7 Environmental effects
10.7.1 Electric field
10.7.2 Radiated interference
10.7.3 Acoustic noise
10.7.4 Visual impact and space requirements
10.8 Existing AC transmission facilities converted for use
with DC
10.9 Very long-distance transmission
10.10 References
253
253
255
258
259
263
264
266
266
267
269
270
278
278
278
278
279
279
280
282
283
285
270
273
276
x Contents
11.5 GTO-based voltage-source converters
11.5.1 A GTO back-to-back HVDC link
11.5.2 HVDC light
11.6 DC cable developments
11.7 Direct connection of generators to HVDC converters
11.8 Small HVDC tappings
11.9 References
Index
286
287
289
289
290
292
294
296
Chapter 1
Introduction
Introduction
Equipment for
temperature
control of anodes
Control pulse input
Grid bias device
Excitation and
ignition set
Tank
Mercury diffusion
pump
Excitation anode
Ignition
Pre-vacuum tank
Cathode (mercury
pool)
Chassis
Water
Outlet
Inlet
Figure 1.1
earlier medium-voltage valve, its main aim being the elimination of the
reverse emission of electrons which causes reversal of conduction or arc
back.
With the graded electrodes it is possible to achieve a more uniform
distribution of the reverse voltage in the vicinity of the anode. This
reduces the energy of the charge carriers striking the anode material, and
with it the likelihood of arc backs. The grading electrodes are connected
to an external capacitive-resistive voltage divider, which together with the
interelectrode capacitances limits the voltage difference between them to
about 5 kV. The anode porcelain forms a vacuum-tight envelope that
functions as a supporting insulator for the different electrodes in the
anode assembly. Depending on the rated current, up to six parallel anodes
are placed on top of the stainless steel tank.
The quality of the porcelain used for the external cylinder is essential to
the viability of the HVDC valve. Under the influence of the direct-voltage
component across the valve, some ion migration occurs which causes ion
depletion at one end and ion increase at the other. This effect produces
conductivity variation and thus causes uneven voltage distribution. In later
designs the use of very high-resistance porcelain has reduced this problem
dramatically.
Another important problem was the deposition of material throughout
the valve which results from charge carriers striking the walls during
firings and blockings. This effect appears to limit the maximum direct
voltage achieved with mercury-arc bridges to about 150 kV and necessitates considerable maintenance.
Figure 1.2
IK
Introduction
1.2. The collector of a pnp transistor structure forms the base of the npn
transistor structure, or vice versa. The thyristor function is based on the
regenerative action of the two coupled transistors and is modelled as a
four-layer, three-terminal device.
The complete voltage-current characteristic of a thyristor unit is illustrated in Figure 1.3. A small current injection through the gate terminal
makes a forward-biased thyristor switch from a very high to a very low
impedance stage, thus approximating the characteristic of the ideal switch,
with practically unlimited amplification factor.
Two-terminal breakover (in the absence of gate injection) can also take
place, either by sufficient forward (anode-cathode) bias (V) or excessive
rate of change of voltage dV/dt. Once the thyristor is turned on, it can
only be turned off, or blocked, by reducing the main circuit current below
a very low critical value, called the holding current (//>).
Under reverse bias, there is a critical breakdown level (VBD)> below
which the thyristor behaves like a pn junction diode, i.e. with only a low
leakage current.
The thyristor can be destroyed by excessive reverse voltage (VBD),
extended overcurrents and excessive rate of change of current (di/dt).
Therefore, when connected in series, the individual devices have to be
properly protected against overvoltages, overcurrent, di/dt and dv/dt.
For the use of thyristors in HVDC transmission to be economical, it was
necessary to improve their ratings. Although a typical thyristor in the late
1960s had a peak blocking voltage of approximately 1600 V and could
carry about 1000 A, modern devices permit in excess of 4000 A DC in a
six-pulse bridge and a 10 kV blocking voltage is not far away. Higher
voltages and currents are feasible but normally at the expense of severe
derating on other important parameters. The main limitation of the
forward region
+ on anode
reverse region
- on anode
Figure 1.3
Thyristor IV characteristic
Introduction
Standard wafer diameters of 100 and 150 mm are currently used by the
ETT and LTT devices, giving repetitive peak off-state voltages of 7500
and 8800 V and average on-state currents of 2100 and 3500 A respectively.
Although the ratings of the individual devices are still increasing, there
is no need for dramatic growth in this respect because of the progress
made in thyristor-valve architectures; the individual devices can now be
connected in series and in multibridge configurations to process practically
unlimited power.
these IGTBs have today reached 1600 V/1200 A, and 3300 V/1200 A
have already been announced; they also have inherent short-duration
high-current capability. At present most IGBTs are manufactured in
modular form; a module includes a number of individual chips connected
in parallel. However, presspack designs have already been developed
which permit the stacking of devices in series for high-voltage applications.
Because it has high switching speed and low switching loss, and can also be
switched snubberless in a suitably low-inductance circuit, the IGBT can be
operated at high pulse-width modulation (PWM) frequency, typically
several kHz for large units to minimise harmonics and equipment size.
This book attempts to justify the above claims with reference to the
present state of the art and particularly to thyristor technology.
Introduction
1.7 References
1 'The history of high voltage direct current power transmission', Direct Current
Part I, December 1961, p.260; Part II, March 1962, p.60; Part III, September
1962, p.228; Part IV, January 1963, p.2; Part V, April 1963, p.89
2 PIMENOV, V.P.: 'The work of the Direct Current Institute (Leningrad)', Direct
Current, 1957, 3, (6), pp. 185-91
3 LAMM, U.: 'Mercury-arc valves for high voltage DC transmission', Proc. IEE,
1964, III, (10), pp. 1747-753
4 BERNERYD, S., and FUNKE, B.: 'Design of high voltage mercury-arc valves'.
IEE conference on High voltage DC transmission, Publication 22, Manchester,
UK, 1966
5 LIPS, H.P.: 'Semiconductor power devices for use in HVDC and FACTS
controllers'. International colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Johannesburg,
South Africa, 1997, paper 6.8
6 ADAMSON, C, and HINGORANI, N.G.: 'High voltage direct current power
transmission' (Garraway Ltd, London, 1960)
7 KIMBARK, E.W.: 'Direct current transmission' (Wiley Interscience, New York,
USA, 1971)
8 UHLMAN, E.: 'Power transmission by direct current' (Springer-Verlag, Berlin/
Heidelberg, Germany, 1975)
9 HINGORANI, N.G.: 'High power electronics and flexible AC transmission
systems', IEEE Power Eng. Rev., July 1988
Chapter 2
2.1 Introduction
The static conversion of power from AC to DC and from DC to AC constitutes the central process of HVDC transmission.
It is therefore important to begin the subject with a clear understanding
of the conversion principles, and of the steady-state relationships, which
exist between the various parameters involved in the process of static
power conversion.
This Chapter describes the requirements of stable converter operation,
the effect of controlled rectification and the commutation phenomena.
Detailed consideration is given to the voltage and current waveforms, and
to the reactive-power demand and harmonic problems attached to converter operation.
configuration is basically a voltage converter, with the possibility of altering the DC current by thyristor control
If a large smoothing reactor is placed on the DC side (Figure 2.1c), only
pulses of constant direct current flow through the switching devices into
the transformer secondary windings. These current pulses are then transferred to the primary side according to transformer connection and ratio;
thus the result is basically a current converter, with the possibility of
adjusting the direct voltage by thyristor control.
The use of voltage conversion was rejected in mercury-arc converters
owing to the impossibility of recovering from arc-back disturbances. Even
with thyristor schemes, rapid changes in the supply voltage can only be
accommodated within narrow limits and require the use of large series
impedances, which would be uneconomical in terms of reactive-power
(a)
(b)
(0
01
Figure 2.1
VcO
12
(cO
e'
'
s3 i 5
i
(e)
41 i 3 i
4
(0
V6
V2
(f)
-3
J-5
\
- -5
^2
B1
85
V3
85
D !
\ I
R1
Cathode
potential
F !
Neutral
\
Anode
potential
VB
82
f?4
VB
82
5&6 6&1 1&2 2&3 3&4 4&5 5&6 6&1 1&2 2&3
(h)
Figure 2.2
14
(a)
MR)
Cathode busbar
Neutral
- Anode busbar
Reference
anode busbar
Figure 2.3
16
MR)
3<Y)
S(6J
(a)
(c)
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
2(8)
4(f?)
18
steady-state and normal operating conditions!). Such voltage can, therefore, be used as the commutating voltage.
Xcj=Xss+Xtj
If the bridges are under the same controller, or under identical controllers,
it is preferable to create a single equivalent bridge. The commutation reactance of such an equivalent bridge depends upon the DC connections and
on the phase shift between the bridges.
Bridges with the same phase shift will commutate simultaneously and
the equivalent reactance must reflect this. For a series connection of k
bridges the commutation reactance of the equivalent bridge is
Xc(series) = kXss
xtj
(2.2)
Figure 2.6
(2.3)
20
xp + xt+x"d
where Xv is the transformer secondary leakage reactance, Xp is the transformer primary leakage reactance, Xt is the transformer tertiary leakage reactance and X"(i is the subtransient reactance (direct axis) of the synchronous
condenser unit.
At the sending (Benmore) end (Figure 2.8) the subtransient reactance of
the generators is combined in parallel with the secondary reactance of the
interconnecting transformer. The primary reactance is beyond the filters
and can thus be neglected. An approximate equivalent circuit is illustrated
in Figure 2.86. Although there are two converter groups commutating on
this reactance, the commutations are not simultaneous owing to the 30
phase-shift of their respective transformers. Thus, the effective commutation reactance per group is
X"d + nXs
(2.5)
where X is the two-winding transformer leakage reactance, Xs is the interconnecting transformer secondary leakage reactance (note filters
connected to tertiary winding), X"a is the generator subtransient reactance
and n is the number of generators connected. Eqn. 2.5 is only valid for
commutation angles not exceeding 30; however, this covers most operating conditions.
sc
To North
Island
system
SC
22
To South island
system
o-
Figure 2.8
-CO-fw
(a)
3
'3
VCY
*CB
(c)
Figure 2.9
24
As the rates of change of % and -i\ are equal (provided that the commutation reactances are balanced), the voltage drops across ^ c R and XCY are the
same and thus, during the overlap period, the direct voltage vd is the mean
value of t^GY a n d t>cR.
From the circuit of Figure 2.9a and assuming XCR = XQY = XQ w e c a n
write
^CY - ^CR = 2(Xc/co)d(ic)/dt
(2.6)
sin cot
(2.7)
(2.8)
yc
/2X
(2.9)
(2.10)
Figure 2.10
26
Figure 2.10a) reduces the negative potential of phase red and causes the
first voltage dent. The firing of valve 5 (at Ph) increases the potential of
the common cathode to the average of phases yellow and blue; this causes
a second commutation dent, at the end of which (at S3) the common
cathode follows the potential of phase blue (owing to the conduction of
valve 5). Finally, the commutation from valve 4 to valve 6 (between P6 and
S4) increases the negative potential of valve 1 anode and produces another
voltage dent.
Figures 2.10c and d illustrate the individual valves (1 and 4) and Figure
2.10*? the phase (red) currents, respectively.
A number of reasonable approximations have to be made to simplify the
derivation of the steady-state equations that follow. These are:
(2.11)
where Vc0 is the maximum average DC voltage (i.e. at no load and without
firing delay); for the three-phase bridge configuration Vc0 = (3y/2/n)Vc,
and Vc is the phase-to-phase r.m.s. commutating voltage referred to the
secondary or valve side of the converter transformer.
Eqn. 2.11 specifies the DC voltage in terms of Va a and u. However, the
value of the commutation angle is not normally available and a more
useful expression for the DC voltage, as a function of the DC current, can
be derived from eqns. 2.10 and 2.11, i.e.
SX
Vd = V c 0 cos a - / r f
n
(2.12)
2.6.2 AC current
The r.m.s. magnitude of a rectangular current waveform (neglecting the
commutation overlap) is often used to define the converter transformer
MVA, i.e.
U = y/{ (1/TT) ln^\ I2dd(ojt)} - V2VV3
(2.13)
Ii = Idy/f>/n
7 rf (cosa-cos<^)
cos a - cos (a + u)
i=Id-Id
cos a - cos (a + u)
(2.15)
for
a+
< mt < a +
3
+u
(2.16)
(2.17)
(2.18)
28
tice, full inversion cannot be achieved and the delay angle must be less
than 180.
With reference to Figures 2.11a and e, a commutation from valve 1 to
valve 3 (at P5) is only possible as long as phase Y is positive with respect to
phase R. Furthermore, the commutation must not only be completed
before C6, but some extinction angle y\ (> y0) must be left for valve 1,
which has just stopped conducting, to re-establish its blocking ability. This
puts a limit to the maximum angle of firing a = % - (u + y0) for successful
inverter operation. If this limit were exceeded, valve 1 would pick up the
current again, causing a commutation failure.
Moreover, there is a fundamental difference between rectifier and inverter operations which prevents an optimal firing condition in the latter case.
Although the rectifier delay angle, a, can be chosen accurately to satisfy a
particular control constraint, the same is not possible with respect to angle y
because of the uncertainty of the overlap angle, u. Events taking place after
the instant of firing are beyond predictability and, therefore, the minimum
extinction angle, yo, must contain a margin of safety to cope with reasonable uncertainties (values between 15 and 20 are typically used).
The analysis of inverter operation is not different from that of rectification, carried out in Section 2.6, and will not be repeated here. However,
for convenience, the inverter equations are often expressed in terms of the
angle of advance p (= n - a) or the extinction angle y (= p - u).
Thus, omitting the negative sign of the inverter DC voltage, the following expressions apply
^
(2.19)
or
(2.20)
or
Vd = Yfl (cos p + cos y)
(2.21)
(2.22)
(e)
Figure 2.11
30
(2.23)
(2.24)
and
Substituting Vd and Id from eqns. 2.11 and 2.14 in eqn. 2.24 the following
approximate expression results
cos (p = V2[cos a + cos (a + u)]
(2.25)
The reactive power is often expressed in terms of the active power, i.e.
<2=P.tan</>
where tan (f) (derived from eqns. 2.18 and 2.24) is
sin (2a + 2u) - sin 2a - 2u
t a n <p =
(2.26)
h,
Kl.ll)
(2.28)
Vc
- Vc
Figure 2.12
CMp.u.)
Ptp.u.)
Figure 2.13
32
MAP
MPC for y
constant
Figure 2.14
(2.29)
n=l
71 "u
(2.30)
(2.31)
(2.32)
where a is the angle, A / 2 is the average value of the function F(cot) and A^
and Bn are rectangular components of the nth harmonic. The corresponding vector is
An-jBn=CnZcl>n
(2.33)
34
(b) T h e direct current is perfectly constant (i.e. has no frequency components). This can only be achieved if the DC smoothing reactor has infinite inductance.
(c) The valves begin conducting at equal time intervals.
(d) The commutation impedances are the same in the three phases (i.e. all
the overlap angles are the same).
Direct voltage harmonics: Using as a reference the single three-phase bridge
configuration (i.e. p = 6), the order of harmonics is n = 6k The repetition
interval (see Figure 2.106) is TT/3 and it contains three different functions
which, using as a time reference the voltage crossings, are expressed as
follows
cot + \ forO < mt < a
6J
I
1 -
(2.34)
JE
(2.35)
cos
( + ! ) u + ( ,+ I ).2, o cos 2* ,( - I ^u
)!!
u | cos
- 2(n - \){n + 1) cos | (n + 1)
u
qcos(2oe
+ ^)f
1/2
(2.37)
Figures 2.15 and 2.16 give the sixth and 12th harmonics 2 as a percentage
of Vc0 = S(y/2) Vc/n. These curves and equations show some interesting
facts. First for a = 0 and u = 0, eqn. 2.37 reduces to
Vno = j2Vc0/(n2-l)
(2.38)
or
i^
(2.39)
giving 4.04, 0.99 and 0.44 per cent for the sixth, 12th and 18th harmonics,
respectively. Generally, as a increases, harmonics also increase, and for a =
(TT/2) and u = 0
(2.40)
10
20
30
40
Angle of overlap u
Figure 2.15
36
10
20
30
Angle of overlap u
Figure 2.16
i =0
2n
i = -Id
2n
,
and
2n
2n
(2.41)
- JI/2
JI
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.17
(2.42)
(2.43)
where k is an integer.
The magnitude of the nth harmonic is given by
In
*-d
(2.44)
nn
and that of the fundamental
(2.45)
(2.46)
38
Eqns. 2.42 and 2.46 are the same excepting that harmonics 5, 7 (k = odd
numbers in eqn. 2.43) are of opposite sequence, and therefore with two
bridges in series as above, only the harmonics corresponding to n = \2k
1 will enter the AC system.
The current waveform and harmonic spectrum of a double-bridge 12pulse configuration are illustrated in Figure 2.18 (with the overlap angle
ignored).
If the commutation angle is taken into account, the current waveform
for the star-star connection has been defined in Section 2.6.2; the characteristic fifth, seventh, 11th and 13th harmonics, as a percentage of the
fundamental (I\), are illustrated in Figures 2.19-2.22, inclusive.2 It is seen
that the harmonics decrease with increases in commutation angle (u), the
rate of decrease being greater for higher harmonics. For the same u,
1/V3
* * Time
(a)
1.0
0.8
a.
<
0.6
0.4
0.2
J L
11
13
23 25
Frequency
x Fundamental
(b)
Figure 2.18
19
cr
\ \
IT
2
c
18
Q>
(D
17
CO
16
a = 30\Y
a = 20
15
a = 10 \
14
10
20
30
a =
40
Figure 2.19
a = 0
10
20
30
Figure 2.20
2
c
CD
CO
(0
W
CO
10
20
30
40
Figure 2.21
0)
CO
T3
C
10
20
30
40
Figure 2.22
Variation ofUthharmonic
overlap
42
h = >VAC *DC
(2-48)
where F^DC and >VAC are transfer functions for the voltages and current,
respectively, and W = 0, 120, 240 for each of the three phases.
In the absence of commutation overlap (Figure 2.23 - in dotted lines),
the transfer functions for the voltage and current modulation are rectangular waveforms and can be expressed as9
cos n
(2.49)
where
An = 4/n . Vw sin WV2 . cos n V 6
(2.50)
(2.51)
(2.52)
44
Aaji
Aaji
Aaji
Aa(i
-1
(a)
Y
\j/AC
-1
Figure 2.23
/ ac /phase
+1
switching
ing function
n
; modulated output
.a
o
modulating function
DC + ripple
Figure 2.24
46
However, the same secondary mechanism also applies to these harmonics. Unfortunately, the spectrum that appears as a result of commutationperiod variation does not reduce nearly as quickly with increasing order.
Thus, for the terms 12 k, commutation-period variation is as important
a mechanism as the direct transfer, and for higher orders it is substantially
more important. This variation is more difficult to describe and generalise.
However, these harmonics can be expected to be present at levels up to 20
% of the terms described in the first paragraph of this section.
In summary, the frequencies on the DC side from a positive-sequence
harmonic multiple k + 1, or a negative-sequence harmonic multiple k - 1,
can be written as
/DC = (12n k)f0
(2.53)
(2.54)
(2.55)
48
11
0.050.0413
5 0.030.02-
23 25
0.010
10
15
1.1.
35
20
25
30
harmonic order
(a)
35
.1 1.
47 49
40
45
50
12
1024
O
Q
36
5-
48
, 35
1
10
15
'
20
25
30
harmonic order
35
..i .1
40
45
50
(b)
(2.56)
(2.57)
(2.58)
One of these frequencies (/i - 2/2) will beat with the fundamentalfrequency voltage of system 1 at a frequency
/ i + ( / i - 2 / 2 ) = 2(/i-/2>
(2.59)
which for a 50/60 Hz conversion scheme becomes 20 Hz. This is a flickerproducing frequency. This same frequency will be referred to generator
rotor-shaft torque at 20 Hz, which may excite mechanical resonances.
Again, this type of crossmodulation effect is most likely to happen in
back-to-back schemes owing to the stronger coupling between the two
50
AC 2 +
AC 2
,,2::r:,,
ACf
DC
:::,":;:
::;,
::;.,
rTrh
(12n/c-|) Ulf2-^
(12/77-1)
k^lf2
12n 1 ^
(12/77-1) /C-,
Figure 2.26
Harmonic transfers across a 12-pulse HVDC link; the encircled elements indicate harmonic sources and m, n
(1,2,3
...)
52
(a)
(c)
Figure 2.27
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
Case 5
firing-angle asymmetry
5 valves
= 15
1 valve
= 15.2
the modern controllers. Figure 2.27 illustrates this effect for an unrealistic
case of unbalance.12 As predicted by Figure 2.26, the result is a high level
of second harmonic on the DC side and of third harmonic on the AC side.
Under more realistic conditions the levels of asymmetry and distortion to
be expected are relatively small and can be determined very precisely by
steady-state three-phase AC-DC conversion analysis.
The importance of various factors of asymmetry has been considered by
CIGRE SC1413 with reference to the 12-pulse configuration. The document considered the five different cases listed in Table 2.1; in practice, the
global effect results from a combination of all the asymmetries and the
quantities may be larger or smaller than those individually calculated.
Table 2.2 contains the levels of the first 25 harmonics resulting from
each of the five test cases.
The main conclusions of the CIGRE report were:
54
Table 2.2
Harmonic
order
1
Case 1
Case 2
100.0000
100.0000
0.0690
0.1300
Case 3
100.000
Case 4
100.0000
2
3
4
5
0.2080
0.414
0.0666
6
7
0.1840
0.366
0.5160
8
9
10
11
0.0430
0.0904
3.090
3.1000
3.0800
2.940
3.0800
1.490
1.5000
1.4900
1.390
1.4900
0.0225
0.0472
0.0683
0.135
0.0133
0.0617
0.122
0.0172
100.0000
0.0279
0.0268
0.0253
0.0234
0.0213
0.0189
0.0163
0.0136
0.0109
12
13
14
Case 5
15
16
17
3.0900
0.0056
1.4900
0.0009
0.0011
0.0028
0.0041
0.0032
18
19
20
21
0.0136
0.0339
0.0058
0.0062
0.0062
22
23
24
0.842
0.8510
0.8480
0.801
0.8430
0.0060
0.8450
25
0.597
0.6020
0.5960
0.542
0.5960
0.0048
0.5980
errors in the firing angles also produce harmonics of all orders, odd
and even; however, for practical (permitted) tolerances the values of
the noncharacteristic odd harmonics are much lower than those caused
by the other sources of asymmetry;
the principal causes of triplen harmonics are asymmetries in the transformer reactances;
the effects owing to differences between the phase reactances and in
the firing angles depend also on the transformer connection, being
more important in the absence of delta connections.
2.14 References
1 UHLMANN, E.: 'Power transmission by direct current' (Springer-Verlag,
Berlin-Heidelberg, 1975), Section 1
2 ADAMSON, C, and HINGORANI, N.G.: 'High voltage direct current power
transmission' (Garraway Ltd, London, 1960), Chaps. 2 and 3
3 ARRILLAGA, J., ARNOLD, C.P., and HARKER, B.J.: 'Computer modelling of
electrical power systems' (John Wiley Ltd, London, 1983), Chap. 3
4 KIMBARK, E.W.: 'Direct current transmission' (Wiley Interscience, New York,
1971)
5 CIGRE Working Group 14.07: 'Guide for planning DC links terminating at AC
systems locations having low short-circuit capacities. Part 1: AC/DC interaction
phenomena'. Report 68, June 1992
6 ARRILLAGA, J., and WOOD, A.R.: 'Harmonic cross-modulation in HVDC
transmission'. International colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Paper 6.7, Johannesbury, September, 1997
7 SWARTZ, M., BENNETT, W.R., and STEIN, S.: 'Communication systems and
techniques' (McGraw-Hill, 1966)
8 PERSSON, E.V.: 'Calculation of transfer functions in grid controlled converter
system', IEE Proc, May 1970, 117, (5), pp. 989-97
9 HU, L., and YACAMINI, R.: 'Harmonic transfer through converters and
HVDC links', IEEE Trans. Power Electron., July 1992, 7, (4), pp. 514-25
10 WOOD, A.R.: 'An analysis of non-ideal HVDC converter behaviour in the
frequency domain and a new control proposal'. PhD thesis, University of
Canterbury, New Zealand, 1993
11 AINSWORTH, J.D.: 'The phase-locked oscillator - a new control system for
controlled static convenors', IEEE Trans., 1968, PAS-87, (3), pp. 859-65
GIESNER, D.B., and ARRILLAGA, J.: 'Behaviour of h.v.d.c. link;
lanced a.c. fault conditions', Proc. IEE, 1972, 119, (2), pp. 209-15
13 CIGRE WG 14-03: 'AC harmonic filters and reactive compensation for HVDC
with particular reference to non-characteristic harmonics'. 1989
Chapter 3
Harmonic elimination
3.1 Introduction
Since the commutation reactance is low in relation to the DC smoothing
reactance, an HVDC converter acts, from the AC point of view, as a source
of harmonic currents (high internal impedance) and from the DC point of
view, as a source of harmonic voltage (low internal impedance). The
orders and levels of such harmonics have been discussed in Chapter 2.
Excessive levels of harmonic current must be prevented as they will
cause voltage distortion, extra losses and overheating, as well as interference with external services (e.g. telephone and railway signals).
The obvious place to eliminate the harmonics is the source itself. In
theory, characteristic harmonics could be eliminated either by some
complex converter configuration (which would be uneconomical), or by
the use of a series filter preventing the harmonics from arising (which
would upset the correct operation of the converter).
Therefore, accepting that the appearance of harmonics is an inherent
property of the static-conversion process, it will be necessary to reduce
their penetration into the AC and DC systems.
Any solution which increases the pulse number reduces the harmonic
orders penetrating into both sides of the converter and should be fully
exploited. Beyond the economic range of higher pulse configurations,
harmonic elimination will normally require the use of filters.
These are now considered separately.
Harmonic elimination 57
Converter
busbar
Figure 3.1
Converter
transformers
6-Pulse
bridges
D.C. line
58
where
Kf= 5000(/1000) = 5/
Pf= C-message weighting
Vf= r.m.s. voltage of frequency / o n the power line
and
11/2
v=
3.3.2 Design factors
Two basic concepts in filter design are filter size and quality. The size of a
filter is defined as the reactive power that the filter supplies at fundamental frequency, which is substantially equal to the fundamental reactive
power supplied by the capacitors. The total size of all the branches of a
filter is determined by the reactive-power requirements of the converter
and by how much this requirement can be more economically supplied by
Harmonic elimination
59
=i=c
Figure 3.2
60
T
(a)
a
E
Figure 33
Figures 3.2 and 3.3 show typical circuit diagrams and characteristics of
the two types and Figure 3.4 illustrates their incorporation within the
conventional six-pulse HVDC converter configuration.
The diagram in Figure 3.5 indicates that the harmonic current generated by the converter divides between the shunt filters and the AC
network. To be efficient, the filter needs to be of much lower impedance
than the AC network and ideally must not resonate with the AC-network
impedance.
Therefore, the key to good filter design is a clear understanding of the
two components of the equivalent circuit, i.e.:
(a) The harmonic source (discussed in Chapter 2).
(b) The impedance of the AC network at harmonic frequencies.
Harmonic elimination
Converter
busbars
a b c A.C. circuit
breaker (CB)
61
6-pulse
bridge
Converter
transformer
Figure 3.4
- 0 Harmonic
-A source
Filter
A.C. network
i
Figure 3.5
62
"A
\
250 -
\11OO
T1101
ISA
><
7 650^
/
640>
-250
f 630
J
635
1660
680
-500
Figure 3.6
250
500
750
Harmonic elimination
63
500
570
575
-500 L
250
500
750
1000
R(Q)
64
Figure 3.8
Harmonic elimination
100
200
300
65
400
resistance, Q.
Figure 3.9
Table 3.1
Harmonic
order "
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
z2
e2
(degrees)
(ohms)
(degrees)
87
77
78
61
58
78
78
63
63
55
48
79
55
43
51
75
78
82
76
52
0
86
23
71
59
52
46
-49
0
43
-14
5
-22
25
8
-13
0
-40
-73
6
-69
0
-53
-58
29
-55
-65
-60
-2
19.7
26.6
45.5
29.2
30.8
47.6
55.7
70.9
81.1
109.6
24.1
51.8
129.7
35.5
43.1
54.7
84.6
146.0
236.4
163.0
65.9
37.4
72.6
62.0
157.8
200.3
381.7
179.0
56.0
162.8
118.2
107.6
82.4
41.6
102.8
210.3
136.8
114.4
88.7
66.2
70.5
69.2
52.0
37.5
37.1
90.6
41.8
28.4
35.6
82
30
49
17
29
40
54
24
26
-38
-10
56
-19
-10
24
53
68
68
10
-69
-39
-35
0
58
51
1
-61
-72
-34
-34
-53
-54
-69
-5
-37
-65
-33
-52
-76
-12
-79
-70
-70
-70
11
-63
-71
-69
-22
Harmonic elimination
67
2 5040302010-
Figure 3.10
10
20 30
R, Q.
40
50
68
180160140120X, a 100-
806040200
Figure 3.11
20
40
60
80 100 120
radius 750 Q (as shown in Figure 3.13) was considered sufficient to encompass all possible impedance loci derived from the 24 operating conditions
considered.
These figures indicate that the first harmonic to exhibit a resonance
condition is the 13th, whereas a generalised impedance circle approach
300-.
250-
13
200150X, Q
10050-
0-50-
40
Figure 3.12
Harmonic elimination
69
14-49
-800J
Figure 3.13
would have allowed even low-order harmonics (2nd, 3rd) to exhibit resonance.
In this particular application a further refinement was introduced.
Having chosen the particular worst (resonance) condition from the
polygon search areas, the remaining system impedances for harmonic
numbers two to 25 were chosen from a number of tables of harmonic
impedance, from the column which included the impedance closest to the
resonant impedance. For harmonic numbers greater than 25, the network
impedance was chosen from the impedance circle of Figure 3.13 to maximise the voltage distortion at each harmonic.
The calculated R jX values used in the polygons are the equivalent
Thevenin impedances of the entire network reduced to the Sellindge 400
kV busbar. These include the harmonic impedances of individual plant
items such as transmission lines, generators, transformers, etc.
It must be understood that the quantitative impedance plots used in this
scheme cannot be taken as typical and used as a default option in other
schemes. For instance, in cases of AC networks with long EHV or UHV
lines, the first resonant frequency may even occur below the second
harmonic.
The discrete polygon approach provides a realistic way of representing
the AC network for the purposes of AC-filter design. It avoids the pessimism of a generalised approach using a single search area, and offers a
technique which provides acceptably quick solution times for the highly
iterative task of filter design.
The cumulative effect of the existing nonlinearities will impose an extra
burden on the converter plant (filters in particular) at the bus under investigation. Traditionally the harmonic currents injected by the converter are
increased by some percentage (typically ten per cent) to take into account
70
(3.1)
Harmonic elimination 71
(3.2)
where fn is the resonant frequency
Xo = con L= \/(cDnC) = ^J(L/O = inductive or capacitive
reactance at resonance
(3.3)
(3.4)
(3.5)
C=l/((onRQ
(3.6)
or
L=RQ/con
(3.7)
Often, two single-tuned filters are replaced by a double-tuned filter. This
has proved more economical because it uses only one common inductor
and the power loss at fundamental frequency is lower.
In practice, a filter is not always tuned exactly to the frequency of the
harmonic that it is intended to suppress, for the following reasons:
(a) Variations of the power-system frequency, which result in proportional
changes in the harmonic frequency.
(b) Changes in the inductance and capacitance of the filter owing to
ageing and temperature variations.
(c) The accuracy of the actual tuning is restricted by the discrete nature of
tuning steps.
The total detuning is
S = Aco/con = Af/fn + \ (AL/Ln + AC/Cj
(3.8)
(3.9)
zf
where
(3.10)
72
+ 4Q2<52)]
Bf=-2Q5/[R(1
(3.12)
+ 4(g52)]
(3.13)
Vn=iy(Yf+Yj
or
i2 \
'
'-
90s
ZVd
1 1 2 -i/2
' '
(3.15)
Harmonic elimination
73
Cost
Capacitance
Figure 3.14
The additional cost of providing the inductor variation has to be justified by savings in the capacitor cost and by improved performance. Whenever the detuning effects are small or when the required fundamental
frequency reactive power of the filter is high, self tuning is not normally
considered economic. However, a new self-tuning concept discussed in
Chapter 11 may provide an economical alternative.
74
II
(a)
Figure 3.15
ib)
High-pass filters
a Second-order filter
b Third-order filter
Since the sharpness of the high-pass filter tuning increases with the ratio
R/XQ, the Qof this filter normally refers to that ratio (i.e. the inverse of the
expression used for the resonant filters). Typical values of Qare between
0.5 and 5.
The second and third-order high-pass filters shown in Figures 3.15a and
b are extensively used in HVDC schemes. These are designed to reduce
the injection of harmonics above the 17th order into the AC system.
When designing such damping filters the Q is chosen to obtain the best
characteristic over the required frequency band, and there is no optimal Q
as with tuned filters. Because of their bandwidth there is no sensitivity to
fundamental-frequency deviation or component-value drift.
Harmonic elimination
75
240 kV
Groupi
Group 2
Group 3
11/13/HP
11/13/HP C-Bank
160 MVAr 160 MVAr 128 MVAr
(a)
Group 3:
Group 1/2:
C1=s
C2:
11th arm
56 MVAr
13th arm
40 MVAr
shunt capacitors
64 MVAr 64 MVAr
(b)
76
Figure 3.17
Harmonic elimination
77
On the other hand, damped filters need to be bigger in terms of fundamental MVAR to achieve the same level of filtering performance as do
tuned resonant filters. The harmonic losses in tuned resonant filters are
usually lower than those in damped filters, although the opposite is true
for the fundamental-frequency losses.
do not carry fundamental-frequency power and therefore have substantially lower losses;
do not need to provide reactive power, their only function being
harmonic mitigation;
have, in their main capacitor, to withstand the full pole to neutral DC
voltage.
Also, the harmonic impedances do not change with the operating conditions and it is therefore possible to use tuned filters with higher Q factors
and thus smaller capacitors and reactors.
The criteria to be met by the filters relate mainly to telephone interference from the DC line. The CCITT directives (published in 1989) require
that:
kq = J E (/ x Hn x Cnf
78
where
= harmonic order: the upper limit usually considered ranges
between 2.5 and 5 kHz
Cn = normalised weighting factor at harmonic n, referred to 800 Hz
or 1000 Hz for the psophometric and C message weights,
respectively
Hn = frequency-dependent factor, taking into account variations (if
significant) of the mutual impedance among the HVDC line
and the telephone lines, of shielding and of telephone circuit
balance
/12 (A)
i i
0.18-
0.14-
0.10
0.06-
100
Figure 3.18
200
300
400
500
Distance (miles)
Harmonic elimination 79
0.9 H
200 kV
0.4-0.6 H
ololo
San Dalmazio
(Italian mainland)
400 KV
L6
2.5 H P
r 07
> 1000
ohms
0.7 j
mH'
280
mH
63
ohms
!
:30
Celilo
Sylmar: same as Celilo except neutral
bus surge capacitor 5 11F
(a) Sardinia
0.83 H
0.5H
533 kV
0.21
HF--
0.5 J .
12
244
0.3-- 0.035-L
mH 9
8.8 I
110
Ohms <
Dorsey
0.29 i
F ^
<;
ohms <
7c
-V
16-
X 0.018
- f
^F
0.06 H
MF
f^F X
3.25 4:
12&24
0.75 H
0.4 JJ
0.9^
A]
A]
120
mH
123
mH
1000
fohms
20
mH
ohms ,
Arrowhead (Duluth)
Center: Same as Arrowhead
Figure 3.19
Dorsey (Winnipeg)
Henday: Same as Dorsey
80
Computer programmes are used for this purpose8'12 which calculate the
self impedance, mutual impedance and capacitive matrices for any
frequency and line.
As an estimated worst case, the results are then combined by adding the
root of the sum of squares (of the peak profile) derived from each end of
the link. At each harmonic a profile along a single equivalent conductor is
obtained. This is determined from the vector addition of the harmonic
current values from each of the DC conductors and the DC overhead
ground wire. The equivalent conductor is assumed to be located along the
centre of the DC lines. A typical 12-harmonic current profile, with filters
included, is illustrated in Figure 3.18.
Typical types and locations of DC filters in several existing schemes are
shown in Figure 3.19.
A A
'
Signal processing
circuti
ioh
r-4"
F3
.J
I
I
I
Figure 3.20
Harmonic elimination
81
nonlinear load. These are fed, through an amplifier, into the tertiary
winding of a transformer in such a manner as to cause cancellation of the
harmonic currents concerned. The main area of concern with this system
is the coupling of the output of the amplifier to the tertiary winding in
such a way that the fundamental current flow does not damage the amplifier. A quaternary winding and filter are used, as shown in Figure 3.20, to
reduce the fundamental current in the amplifier output.
Another important difficulty is the transfer of the amplified compensating current waveform from the low to high-voltage side of the transformer.
A small-scale prototype was developed and discussed in Reference 13; its
extension to a 300 MW converter was alleged to require a 750 kW amplifier. Thus the replacement of the lower-order characteristic harmonics
does not appear to be a viable proposition at the moment.
82
arrester
protection
circuit
neutral bus
Figure 3.21
Active DC filter
3.6 References
1 KIMBARK, E.W.: 'Direct current transmission' (Wiley Interscience, New York,
1971)
2 KUUSSAARI, M., and PESONEN, A.J.: 'Measured power line harmonic
currents and induced telephone noise interference with special reference to
statistical approach'. CIGRE, Paris, 1976, paper 36-05
3 ARRILLAGA, J., BRADLEY, D., and BODGER, P.S.: 'Power system harmonics' (John Wiley 8c Sons, Chichester, 1985)
4 ARRILLAGA, J., et ah 'A.c. system modelling for a.c. filter design, an overview
of impedance modelling', Electra, 1996, (164)
5 WATSON, N.R.: 'Frequency-dependent a.c. system equivalents for harmonic
studies and transient converter simulation'. PhD thesis, University of Canterbury, New Zealand, 1987
6 LAURENT, P.G., GARY, C., and CLADE, J.: 'D.c. interconnection between
France and Great Britain by submarine cables'. CIGRE, Part III, Paper 331,
1962
7 BAKER, W.P.: 'Measured impedances of power systems'. International conference on Harmonics in power systems, UMIST, Manchester, England, 1981
8 ARRILLAGA, J., SMITH, B.C., WATSON, N.R., and WOOD, A.R.: 'Power
system harmonic analysis' (J. Wiley 8c Sons, Chichester, September 1997)
9 CLARKE, CD., and JOHANSON-BROWN, M.J.: 'The application of selftuned harmonic filters to h.v.d.c. convenors'. IEE Conference on High voltage
DC transmission, Publication 22, 1966, pp.275-76
Harmonic elimination
83
10 STANLEY, C.H., PRICE, I J., and BREWER, G.L.: 'Design and performance
of a.c. filters for 12-pulse n.v.d.c. schemes', in IEE Conf. Publ. 154 on 'Power
electronics-power semiconductors and their applications', 1977
11 OUELETTE, K.R., and LEWIS, D.W.: 'Harmonic interference from d.c.
lines'. Manitoba Power Conference EHV-DC, Winnipeg, 1971, pp.543-78
12 HARRISON, R.E., and KRISHNAYYA, P.C.S.: 'System considerations in the
application of d.c. filters for h.v.d.c. transmission'. CIGRE, Paris 1978, Paper
14-09
13 SASAKI, H., and MACHIDA, T.: 'A new method to eliminate AC harmonic
currents by magnetic flux compensation - considerations on basic design',
IEEE Trans. Power Appar. Syst. 1971, PAS-90, (5), pp.2009-19
14 JANSSON, B., et at 'New features of the Skagerrak 3 HVDC intertie', International Colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Wellington (NZ), 1993, paper 6.3
15 NYMAN, A., EKENSTIERNA, B., and WALDHAUER, H.: 'The Baltic cable
HVDC project'. CIGRE, 1996, paper 14-105
Chapter 4
converter 1
(a)
(c)
ela-
L*
\\< i a -
A
A
.,. j o
A
A
converter 1
converter 2
y \
y
converter 3
-cm
-Q
A
Figure 4.1
- x i xi
86
energy from hydro resources in the South Island. Given the relatively
short submarine interconnection, the scheme was feasible using conventional AC technology. However, the depth of the Cook Strait would have
restricted the use of AC cable to relatively low voltages and thus resulted
in many parallel circuits. Under such conditions, and given the reasonably
large overhead transmission, the DC solution was found to be more
economical.
Konti-Skan (1965)3
This is a monopolar 250 MW, 250 kV DC (using earth return), partly overhead, partly submarine interconnection between Sweden and Denmark.
The cable section, although sufficiently long (87 km), is divided into two
parts and an AC interconnection would have been feasible. In fact, the
economic justification for DC was very marginal, but it offered the advantage of future further extension (by means of a second pole) to 500 MW, a
power rating beyond the stability limit of an alternative AC interconnection between the two countries.
Sakuma interconnection (1965)
The first zero-distance frequency interconnector, this link was built to
interchange up to 300 MW (at 125 kV) in either direction between the
50 and 60 Hz power systems in Japan in case of AC-network disturbances
or lack of energy in either of the systems. In this case, there was no practical alternative to the AC-DC-AC converting station.
Sardinia-Italy (mainland) (1967)
The monopolar 200 MW at 200 kV DC link (with earth and sea return)
was mainly installed to provide frequency support to the Sardinian AC
network by power/frequency control of the DC link.
Transmission alternates between submarine cable and overhead line as it
passes through Sardinia, the sea, Corsica, the sea and the Italian mainland.
The total cable distance of 121 km justified the use of DC.
This scheme has now been replaced by a three-terminal 300 MW link
with a 50 MW tapping station in Corsica which went into operation in
1987.
Vancouver Island (1968)
In parallel with two existing 132 kV AC cables, this 74 km DC link was
built mainly to reinforce the supply of energy to the Island. It contains
overhead and submarine cable lengths. A 312 MW pole was built between
88
1968 and 1969 with mercury-arc valves. A second pole, of equal power,
was added in 1979 using thyristor technology.
Pacific intertie (1970)
Unlike the other schemes discussed above, the Pacific DC intertie runs in
parallel with two other AC circuits at 500 kV (60 Hz).
This DC scheme was partly justified in terms of distance (1372 km of
overhead transmission) and partly by the availability of additional control
features which were expected to help damp out the power oscillations
experienced in the parallel AC transmission system already in existence. It
consisted of a 1440 MW at 400 kV bidirectional link to take advantage
of the seasonal diversity in load and generation between the northwest and
southwest areas of the United States. The original link was replaced in
1986 by a 1920 MW link using thyristor valves.
Kingsnorth scheme (1974)
The main purpose of the 640 MW (at + 266 kV) three-terminal Kingsnorth-Beddington-Willesden DC scheme in the UK was the reinforcement of an existing AC system in areas of high load density without
increasing the short-circuit level. It would have been difficult to justify the
use of DC purely in terms of distance, as the two underground transmission distances were marginal (59 km and 82 km, respectively). This link is
now retired from service.
Nelson River Bipole 1 (19 73- 77)
HVDC transmission was selected to transport bulk power from distant
hydro generation to the loading centre (in this case Winnipeg). The
distance involved is 895 km with an initial nominal capacity of 1620 MW
(at + 450 kV) and an ultimate capacity of about 6500 MW. The first stage
of the Nelson River scheme used the highest power mercury-arc valves
ever developed (i.e. 150 kV, 1800A); this stage also made history by being
the last case of successful competition for mercury-arc over the solid-state
technologies.
The impact of the thyristor technology was not just because of valve cost
(which initially was much the same as the cost of the mercury-arc valve)
but also because of the overall economic effect of station plant and layout.
Even before the commissioning of the last two mercury-arc schemes
(Nelson River and Kingsnorth) the small experience gained with thyristor
valves was sufficient to discourage any further development of the
mercury-arc technology.
The technical reasons in favour of solid-state HVDC transmission are
basically the same as those given for the mercury-arc schemes discussed
above. However, a brief look at the solid-state schemes in existence will
help us to understand the great progress made with the new technology.
Eel River (1972)
If the Nelson River made history for being the last of the old technology,
another Canadian River (the Eel) started the new technology. To be fair,
solid-state additions to previously-existing schemes had already been operating in Sweden and the UK. However, the Eel River scheme (320 MW at
2 x 80 kV) was the first large HVDC project specifically designed for
thyristor valves. It is a back-to-back asynchronous interconnection of two
systems (New Brunswick and Hydro-Quebec) of nominally equal
frequency but drifting in relation to each other.
Each station consists of two converter bridges with a total of 4800 aircooled thyristors placed in changeable 40-unit modules. It was necessary to
parallel four thyristor units per converter arm.
Cahora-Bassa (1978)4
A decision was taken in 1969 to use solid-state valves to transmit 1920 MW
at + 533 kV between the Zambia River in Mozambique and Johannesburg,
separated by 1360 km. This was the first scheme, whether AC or DC, in
the megavoltage range (between poles). It was also the first case of international bulk power transmission. The first stage of the scheme started
commercial operation in 1978. It used over 36000 thyristors, oil cooled
and oil insulated in an outdoor-valve layout involving four bridges per
pole at each end of the link. It is interesting to consider that switching,
which used to be the curse of power-transmission circuits, had become the
basis of power controllability. In fact, the normal operation of the
complete Cahora-Bassa scheme required of the order of 4 x 106 ON and
OFF individual switchings per second.
Skagerrak (1976)5
A further step from the Inga-Shaba project led to this scheme where
the four individual valves (per phase) of a 12-pulse converter are
90
92
tion of a 2000 MW link was issued by EDF and CEGB in 1981 to exploit
the different daily load curves and generating plant mix of the French
and British systems. The converter stations are linked by eight cables
operating at + 270 kV. The scheme consists of two 1000 MW bipoles
between Sellindge in SE England and Bonningues-les-Calais in Northern
France.
The main novel feature of the scheme is the use of different converter
equipment (with valves and control of different manufacturers) at each
end of the link. On the English side the converter plant includes three
high-speed static compensators of the saturated-reactor type to provide, in
conjunction with switched capacitor banks, the required reactive power
control capability for load and load rejection conditions.
Sileru-Barsoor (1989)
The Indian-built 196 km long 100 MW 100 kV six-pulse monopolar link
was initially developed with the purpose of gaining design and operational
experience on HVDC transmission. Two further stages were planned, first
a 12-pulse extension and then a second extension to make the link bipolar
with a final rating of 400 MW 200 kV.
Fenno-Skan (1989)9
This is a 200 km sea-cable interconnection to exchange up to 500 MW at
400 kV between Finland and Sweden. It is a monopolar link with sea
return. Its main purpose is to use the available peak-power reserve of both
countries, transfer power from North Sweden to Southern Sweden via the
Finnish network and increase the power-transmission capability on the AC
interconnections owing to higher stability limits.
Gesha (1991)10
Long-distance bulk-power transmission justified the use of DC for the
Gezhouba-Shanghai interconnection, a 1200 MW, 500 kV scheme and
the first HVDC in China.
New Zealand hybrid (1992)11
The expanded configuration of the Cook Strait link involved combining
the earlier four mercury-arc bridges into two 12-pulse groups in parallel in
one pole (at +270 kV) and adding a new 12-pulse thyristor valve group on
the other pole (at -350 kV). The total power capability became 1240 MW
and required new submarine cables and substantial reinforcement of the
overhead transmission insulation.
(1992)12
This scheme was built to transfer bulk power from the Rihand-Singrauli
thermal power-generating complex to the load centre around Delhi. Over
a distance of 814 km a nominal power of 1500 MW is transferred at
500 kV.
Baltic cable (1994)13
With a 255 km cable length, this 600 MW, 450 kV link between Sweden
and Germany offered a considerable leap in cable technology. The scheme
has also provided experience in the use of deep-hole electrodes and active
DC filters.
Kontek (1995)14
This link rated at 600 MW and 400 kV utilises the highest rated cable in
commercial service. It has both sea and land-cable sections (totalling 120
km) and is used for economy energy transfers between Denmark and
Germany.
94
Figure 4.2
1 HVDC line
Unusual map of North America highlighting four blocks of AC transmission connected together by DC links
(xi)
(xii)
Vyborg (CIS - Finland, 1981)19 - three independent, parallel backto-back units totalling 1065 MW at 85 kV to provide contracted
energy supply from Russia to Finland.
Duernrohr (Austria, 1983)20 - a monopolar 550 MW at 145 kV link
installed at Duernrohr to exchange energy between East and West
Europe.
96
Figure 4.3
4.5 References
1 HINGORANI, N.G.: 'High voltage DC transmission: a power electronics workhorse', IEEE Spectr., April 1996, pp.63-72
98
pp.680-85
11 GLEADOW, J., O'BRIEN, M.T., and FLETCHER, J.E.: 'Principal features of
the DC hybrid link'. International colloquium on HVDC andflexibleAC power
transmission systems, Paper 1.3, Wellington, NZ, 1993
12 DUBE, S.K., et ah 'Operating experience of the Rihand-Dadri 500 kV
HVDC transmission'. IEE conference on AC and DC transmission, 1996, pp. 1348
13 NYMAN, A., EKENSTIERNA, B., and WALDHAUER, H.: 'The Baltic cable
HVDC project'. CIGRE, 1996, 14-105
14 NIELSEN, T.G., CANELHAS, A., and HANSEN, B.S. 'KONTEK - the
HVDC link with the longest land cable in the world'. International colloquium
on HVDC and FACTS, Paper 6.1, Wellington, NZ, September 1993
15 YASUDA, M., MIZUSHIMA, K., KATO, Y., and SEKI, A.: 'Shin Shinano
frequency converter station'. CIGRE, 1978, paper 14-02
16 SENDA, T., et ah 'New technology applied to the recent HVDC converter
stations in Japan'. CIGRE, 1992, paper 14-02
17 RUIZ DIAZ, O., et ah 'Acaray HVDC back-to-back station'. CIGRE, 1982,
paper 14-02
18 SAKAI, T., et ah 'The Uruguaiana frequency converter station interconnecting
the Brazilian and Argentina AC system . Toshiba Rev., 1985, (153)
19 EMELUANOV, V., HEIKKILA, H., and MAKELA, L.: 'USSR-Finland HVDC
intertie'. CIGRE, 1978, paper 14-11
20 KANNGIESSER, K.W., MORAW, G., and POVH, D.: 'Commissioning and
system tests for the HVDC back-to-back tie Duernrohr/Austria'. CIGRE, 1984,
paper 14-01
21 LIPS, P., and THIELE, G.: 'Design and testing of thyristor valves for the
HVDC back-to-back tie Chateauguay'. Proc. int. conf. DC power transmission,
Montreal, June 1984, pp.228-33
22 DOHERTY, R.D., JOHNSON, R.K., SCHWEITZER, S.F., and WEAVER,
T.L.: 'Miles City converter station - early operating experience'. CIGRE, 1986,
paper 14-03
23 KOLODZIEJ, E., and HINGORANI, N.G.: 'Layout consideration for the
Oklaunion HVDC tie'. IEEE PES, tenth conference and exposition on Overhead
and underground transmission and distribution, September 1986
24 KLENK, E., et ah 'Advanced concepts and commissioning experiences with the
Sidney converter station'. CIGRE, 1988, paper 14-10
25 SCHMITT, et ah 'System performance and basic design aspects for the Elzen-
Chapter 5
A CONVERTER CONTROL
5.1 Basic philosophy
The ideal control system for an HVDC converter should meet the following requirements: 1
(a) Symmetrical firing of the valves under steady-state conditions.
(b) Instant of firing to be decided with regard to permissible values of
commutation voltage (rectifier) and commutation margin (inverter).
(c) Minimal reactive-power consumption in the converters, subject to the
condition that it is achieved without an unacceptable risk of commutation failure.
(d) Insensitivity to normal variations in voltage and frequency of the AC
supply network.
(e) Some degree of prediction of the optimum instant of firing in the
inverters, based on actual network voltage and direct current, subject
to the condition that it is achieved without an unacceptable risk of
commutation failure.
(/) Current-control characteristics with sufficient speed and stability
margin to cope with changing reference values and disturbances.
(g) Continuous operating range from full rectification to full inversion.
The theory presented in Section 2.5 is based on perfectly symmetrical and
sinusoidal waveforms with the firing angles (a) occurring at exactly equal
intervals and in the appropriate cyclic sequence. Deviations from such
ideal conditions give rise to two basically different control methods which
are discussed in Sections 5.2 and 5.3.
A.C. line
voltage
m
/A \
Critical
level
trigger
circuit
Variable
delay
-L.
Grid
pulse
(valve 1)
w
A A
/ \
1 ~
lds\
Figure 5.1
y-
Amplifier
102
V2VC-
Figure 5.2
the end of the commutation period will be different from the magnitude
anticipated by the controller, and compensation is made for the rate of
change of current. Thus the equation used as a basis for a predictive
constant extinction angle (CEA) is2
y[2Vc cos a + y/2Vc cos y0 = 2OJL (Id+ u)
dcot
(5.1)
where a is the firing delay angle, y0 is the preset CEA, u is the commutation angle and Vc is the commutating voltage (r.m.s.), e.g. VC(RB) is used to
compute eqn. 5.1 for valve 1.
This type of control has the advantage of being able to achieve the
highest direct voltage possible under asymmetrical or distorted supply
waveforms. On the other hand, any deviations from the ideal voltage
waveforms will break the 120 symmetry of the current waveform and
thus cause extra waveform distortion, as explained in Section 2.11.
Operating difficulties encountered in the early schemes indicated that
the distorted converter currents cause AC-voltage distortion which can
influence the firing pulse spacing via the control system, and often reinforce the original distortion.
In theory, this situation can be improved by placing control filters
between the AC system and the control system, so as to attenuate the
harmonics. However, the use of control filters has disadvantages too, like
the filter's inherent phase error, which varies with system frequency, and
its inability to attenuate negative-sequence fundamental voltages, the effect
of which is precisely to cause irregular firing-pulse spacings. Moreover,
with filters included, the control system will ignore the presence of harmonics on the AC voltages, whereas the valves will respond to the actual
voltages reaching them, including harmonics.
104
Firing pulses
to converter
Figure 5.3
six output pulses normally occurs at successive intervals of 60. The STOP
pulses are also obtained from the ring counter but two stages later (e.g. the
START pulse for valve 1 is from stage 1 and the STOP pulse for valve 1 is
from stage 3, normally 120 later). One oscillator and one ring counter per
bridge constitute the basic control hardware.
The various control modes only differ in the type of control loop which
provides the oscillator control voltage, Vc.
The phase of each firing pulse will have some arbitrary value relative to
the AC-line voltage, i.e. an arbitrary value of converter firing angle a.
However, when the three-phase AC-line voltages are symmetrical fundamental sine waves, a is the same for each valve.
In practice the simple independent oscillator would drift in frequency
and phase relative to the AC system; hence some method of phase locking
the oscillator to the AC system is required. This is normally achieved by
connecting Vc in a conventional negative-feedback loop for constant
current or constant extinction angle, as described in the following two
sections.
loop, tending to hold current constant at a value very close to the reference.
To visualise the operation of this loop, imagine that the current is nearly
equal to the reference, such that the amplified error (Vc) happens to be
precisely that value required to give an oscillator frequency of six times
the supply frequency. The ring-counter outputs, and thus the valve-gate
pulses, will have a certain phase with respect to the AC-system voltage.
Suppose, further, that this phase, which is identical to firing angle a,
happens to be such as to give the correct converter DC output voltage,
which, with the particular back e.m.f. of the DC link, results in the correct
DC-line current. This is steady-state operation.
The loop is self correcting against disturbances of any source. For
instance, a drop of back e.m.f. in the DC system causes a temporary
current increase, which reduces Vc and hence slows down the oscillator,
thus retarding its phase and finally increasing the firing angle a. This
tends to decrease the current again, and the system settles down to the
same current, with the same Vc and oscillator frequency but a different
phase, i.e. different a.
The control system will also follow system frequency variations, in which
case the oscillator has to change its frequency; this results in different Vc
and hence current, but the current error is made small by using high-gain
amplification.
This constant-current scheme is the main control mode during rectification; it is also used during inversion whenever the inverter has to take over
current control, as explained in Section 5.5.
The control system response is fast but, in practice, its effect will be
slowed down by the relative slower response of the DC line which includes
capacitance, inductance and smoothing reactance.
106
M. .
Figure 5.4
OH
state operation and full inversion, Vc2 controls the oscillator holding the
smallest y at a predetermined value by closed-loop control.
Under these conditions Vc\ is zero because the inverter constant current
(CC) setting is less than the DC-line current (determined by the rectifier
CC control); hence the inverter CC loop is trying to decrease oe by making
Vc\ as low as possible. The minimum Vc\ is clamped to zero volts and thus
during normal inverter operation the CC loop is ineffective.
Component B is an additional feedback voltage (V^) applied during the
transient conditions when y < ymin. A sudden impulse is then applied to
the voltage-controlled oscillator, which has an integrating characteristic
and thus can suddenly shift the phase (i.e. angle a) by an appropriate
amount.
1Aa
Figure 5.5
claims that the prediction is effective for the incoming firing, and uses a
feedback loop to update the predictive model for the subsequent firings.
In both the basic phase-locked oscillator and the equidistant-firing
predictive schemes, a change in the control voltage directly changes the
frequency of the oscillator, and the synchronisation of the oscillator takes
place with the help of the main current-control loop or the extinctionangle control loop.
108
Shift
register
Voltage
comparator
Voltage
controlled
current
source
Capacitor
discharge
circuit
ex-Control ler|
(a)
A^ci.i
vl2
1 /f A ..A
[AW2
Ar/i /i i
\A I
V V V\
tan 6
vP
(ot
* 60
5.6
nn
n_
110
Disturbing
magnitudes
Y*
y-Measuring
circuit
v.
Y*
/
'
+
+
YN
V
controller
Y^,
Grid
control
ld act
Controller
Figure 5. 7 Block diagram of the closed-loop extinction-angle control with asymmetrical controller and of the current control with selecting circuit (
1970 IEEE)
control) and therefore the above conclusion must be restricted to asymmetries which require no current limiting. For large asymmetries, with the
power decreasing to very small levels (with either control), the reduction
of direct voltage during the fault is less important; in such cases the use of
equidistant-firing control provides more reliable commutations and facilitates the rapid return of power flow when the asymmetry ends.
On the subject of adding predictive control to the basic closed-loop equidistant control, simulator studies, carried out with reference to the CrossChannel link, have led to the following conclusions:
(a) In normal steady-state inverter operation, whether balanced or not, it
is essential that at least half the valves in a group are on closed-loop
control; otherwise harmonic instability occurs (except with a very
strong AC system, which is irrelevant for design purposes).
(b) The addition of a predictive y control which is not normally in operation, but standing by at a few degrees less than normal, reduces the
probability of commutation failure owing to very small disturbances
from the AC system.
(c) However, some magnification of the original disturbance is inherent
in all predictive y controls of whatever type.
(d) The net effect for moderate AC-system disturbances (remote fault) is
to cause so much magnification that the distortion is beyond the
capabilities of predictors, and commutation failure then follows in
many cases where it would not have occurred without the predictive
addition.
B - DC SYSTEM CONTROL
5.4 Basic philosophy
From an operational point of view, the use of constant-current control
provides a greater safeguard against disturbances. Therefore, if there is a
choice and the economics are right, constant current should be used as the
basic control philosophy. This, however, is not possible with conventional
AC-power systems which, being normally multiended, require reasonably
constant voltages at the point of common coupling.
The use of current conversion as the basis for rectification and inversion
has already been justified in Section 2.2. Moreover, present DC schemes
consist of point-to-point system interconnections and constancy of DCvoltage levels is not a primary consideration because these are not directly
available to consumers. There are, however, other considerations influencing the control philosophy, among them featuring prominently the overvoltages resulting from open circuiting and load rejections and the high
resistive losses resulting from constant-current transmission at low power
levels.
A hybrid voltage/current philosophy is possible with a DC transmission
scheme to suit the needs of the particular operating conditions. This is
achieved by adjusting the DC-voltage levels on both sides of the link, by
means of on-load tap-changer control on the steady state, and by thyristor
control following large or small changes of operating conditions at either
112
end of the link. The DC current is only limited by the small resistance of
the transmission line and is therefore very sensitive to such variations.
It will be shown in the following sections that the provision of current
controllers at both ends, combined with transformer on-load tap changing,
offers a perfectly satisfactory solution to this problem; thus the use of
current control is universally accepted in HVDC transmission.
Vd=Vc()--Irl
(5.2)
C.C. control
/3V2\
/3to/.\
(a = n -
Rectifier
i
C.C. control
Inverter
/3V2\
/ 3a)L
Wccos p+
V JI
V n
C.E.A. control
(3V2)
JI
(3V2)
Vc cos
Figure 5.8
YO
<=
/3V2\
VCCOSYO-
/3coL\
114
Ids
(a)
Figure 5.9
(b)
d\ A
>^
-^
- ,
d'
A^~-~~\
"?^
8 8
0
fid
Figure 5.10
DC voltage profile
line. This point is also reached from the inverter-end open-circuit voltage,
(Ko)i> reduced by the extinction angle, (V^i cos y, and by the commutation reactance. It should be obvious that point A represents the same operating condition as indicated by the crossing point in the characteristics of
Figure 5.9a.
Let us now assume that there has been a substantial AC-voltage reduction at the rectifier end, such that the DC-voltage ceiling (the natural
voltage) of the rectifier becomes lower than that of the inverter. In the
absence of a current controller at the inverter, the voltage across the line is
reversed and the current reduces to zero (current through the valves
cannot reverse). However, an inverter-current controller will prevent a
current reduction below its setting by advancing its firing (i.e. reducing a
and hence inverter DC voltage), thus changing from extinction angle to
constant-current control. A new operating point, A (Figure 5.96), results at
a current reduced by the current margin. In Figure 5.10 this condition is
represented by the dotted lines and clearly shows that power flow will
continue in the same direction, in spite of the lower AC voltage at the
sending end.
116
Idm -
Ids
(a)
Figure 5.11
(b)
118
a = 0
B'
B
'dm
F
D'
K'H K
G H
Figure 5.12
lds
Ymin
const. Ud
1.0 p.u.
Figure 5.13
120
AP*
CE
&f*
Figure 5.14
stepping, and synchronisation of order setting at the two ends of the link,
by telecommunications.
In most cases there is only one master controller (at one of the stations)
which sends a current order to the pole controls of the two ends of the
link. The power is monitored by multiplying voltage and current (summed
from both poles) and fed back directly to the controller. As in previous
control methods, to prevent unacceptable current orders (e.g. during start
up) limits are normally built in.
+ Af
Figure 5.15
122
p
df/dt
Telecom.
-1
Figure 5.16
**
h
Telecom.
(a) Bridge controls - to control the firing instants of the valves within a
bridge and to define the y0 and a min limits.
(b) Pole controls - to co-ordinate the bridges in a pole to provide the
ordered current, with minimum harmonic generation.
(c) Master controls - to provide co-ordinated current orders to all the
poles.
(d) Overall controls - to provide the current orders to the master controls
in response to required functions such as power-transfer control,
system-frequency control, system damping or combinations of these.
A simplified block diagram of a multibridge control is illustrated in Figure
5.16. The bridge controls, and in particular the valve-firing circuits,
contain most of the components involved, and are therefore kept independently for each bridge unit (or converter group in modern 12-pulse
schemes) for reliability reasons.
Henday
Radisson
Figure 5.17
124
(d)
(e)
if)
ig)
ih)
ii)
110kV
system
1x350kV 1430A
bipole +270kV/-350kV
nominal rating 992MW, 1600A
continuous overload rating 1240MW 2000A
^ t 99_su|?manne_cables_
2x350kV 1430A
Haywards
Figure 5.18
Benmore
voltage stabilisation modulation of the DC power for high-power transfer to the North Island to maintain stability following disturbances;
frequency stabilisation modulation to reduce severe frequency excursions and to stabilise the frequency on both islands;
spinning-reserve sharing to allow a reduction in the spinning-reserve
requirement on both islands through automatically adjusting the DCpower transfer to share the spinning-reserve generators;
a constant-frequency control, for use only when Haywards (and the
associated local area) is isolated or islanded from the rest of the North
Island AC grid. This is manually initiated following a disconnection
and controls the frequency in the Wellington region to 50 Hz. This
control feature has improved the reliability of supply in the Wellington
region by using the HVDC link without assistance from any North
Island generation plants;
runbacks in power transfer following the loss of critical elements in the
DC link or the connected AC systems, and for loss of communications;
a thermal image/overload characteristic control function which
continuously determines the maximum time duration allowable at
various overload levels, based on the predisturbance thermal loading
126
of the submarine cables. The power transfer onto the overloaded pole
is automatically reduced to the maximum continuous acceptable cable
current after the inherent overload capability has been utilised. This
assists the dispatch of spinning reserve plant on the AC grid and minimises AC-grid frequency excursions and load shedding following a
sudden forced-pole outage;
a fully automated reactive-power/AC-bus voltage controller at each
station, to control all the equipment which affects reactive power
supply. The control includes switching of AC filters and shunt reactors, generator and synchronous condenser outputs, DC-voltage level,
and interconnecting transformer tap changers. This ensures the
optimum co-ordination of equipment for any DC-power level and
system configuration;
sustained reduced voltage level operating provision, of 250 kV for the
350 kV pole, to cater for conditions such as serious insulation pollution
problems on the DC line. This is achieved by a combination of the tapchanger range on the converter transformers and some delay-angle
control. During reduced voltage operation the DC current is limited to
1200 A.
a comparator and a few simple gates. This logic is inserted between the
source of master current order and the telecommunication system, and
also supplies the output to the local pole controls. Its effect is to ensure
that the sequence of current-order updating is never such as to decrease
the effective current margin, even in the presence of errors in the telecommunication systems, and to freeze both current orders for a detected error
in either telecommunication channel.
Telecommunication technologies used in earlier HVDC schemes
included microwave radio, carrier on the power conductors of private
wire, rented wire and the use of the public telephone system.
All of these are liable to interference and even occasional failures.
Carrier systems, using an HVDC line or cable, are affected by a continuous
source of interference (i.e. the converters) which is difficult to filter
because of the high impedance of the smoothing reactors; the use of the
lowest possible bandwidth is thus recommended to reduce the effective
noise.
To avoid noise the analogue signals are converted to digital form and
transmitted with an error-checking signal.
Digital signals are normally sent in regular blocks of binary bits, at a
block rate which depends on the telecommunication medium and on the
desired rate of response. The main information includes the current order
and some logical signals such as the power-flow direction and fast shutdown orders.
A number of relatively slow signals, such as the interchange of manuallyset power orders or supervisory signals, can be sent by submultiplexing.
Recent schemes make extensive use of fibre-optic cables, which are
immune from interference. The New Zealand scheme, for instance,
contains a high-capacity fully-redundant communication link plus a physically-independent back-up link. It is used for control, protection, data,
status functions and speech facilities, between Haywards and Benmore.11
The high-capacity redundant link utilises fibre-optic ground and submarine wire as far as Islington near Christchurch, and finally a microwave link
to Benmore.
The fibre-optic ground wires, containing 12 fibres, were installed in
place of the original ground wires, and two 40 km 12 fibre submarine
cables were installed across Cook Strait at the same time as the 350 kV
submarine power cables were installed. This section of the main link
has a signal capacity of 565 megabits/s and the microwave section 8 megabits/s.
The main communications link transmits all the signals which are critical to the successful operation of the DC hybrid link. When operating on
the back-up link, which has a limited capacity of 256 kbits/s, the HVDC
control is limited to the constant-current mode which is reliant on some
operator manual intervention and does not include the use of any of the
modulation features.
128
5.8 References
1 TARNAWECKY, M.Z.: 'H.v.dx. transmission control schemes', Manitoba
power conference EHV-DC, Winnipeg, 1971, pp.699-741
2 HINGORANI, N.G., and CHADWICK, P.: 'A new constant extinction angle
control for a.c./d.c./a.c. static converters', Trans. IEEE, 1968, PAS-87, (3)
pp.866-72
3 AINSWORTH, J.D.: 'The phase-locked oscillator - a new control system for
controlled static convenors', Trans. IEEE, PAS-87, (3), 1968, pp.859-65
4 UHLMANN, E.: 'Power transmission by direct current' (Springer-Verlag,
Berlin/Heidelberg, 1975) p. 147
5 EKSTROM, A., and LISS, G.: 'A refined h.v.dx. control system', Trans. IEEE,
1970, PAS-89, (5/6)
6 RUMPF, E., and RANADE, S.: 'Comparison of suitable control systems for
h.v.d.c. stations connected to weak a.c. systems. Part I: New control systems.
Part II: Operational behaviour of the h.v.d.c. transmission', Trans. IEEE, 1972,
PAS-91, pp.549-64
7 JOTTEN, R., BOWLES, J.P., LISS, G., MARTIN, C.J.B., and RUMPF, E.:
'Control of h.v.d.c systems - The state of the art'. CIGRE, Paris, 1978, paper
14-10
8 CIGRE WG 14-07: 'Guide for planning DC links terminating at AC system
locations having low short-circuit capacities'. Part 1: AC-DC interaction
phenomena, 1992
9 BOWLES, J.B.: 'Control systems for h.v.d.c. transmission'. Report to CEAHVDC Subsection, Edmonton, 1975
10 CHAND, J., RASHWAN, M.M., and TISHINSKI, W.K.: 'Nelson River HVDC
system-operating experience'. IEE Conf., Publ. 205 on 'Thyristor and variable
static equipment for A.C. and D.C. transmission' (London, 1981), pp.223-26
11 O'BRIEN, M.T., FLETCHER, D.E., and GLEADOW, J.C.: 'Principal features
of the New Zealand DC hybrid link'. International colloquium on HVDC and
FACTS, Wellington, 1993, paper 1.3-1
12 AINSWORTH, J.D.: 'Telecommunication for h.v.d.c.'. IEE Conf. Publ. 205 on
'Thyristor and variable static equipment for A.C. and D.C. transmission'
(London, 1981) pp. 190-93
Chapter 6
6.1 Introduction
A DC link can be operated according to the basic control modes described
in Chapter 5, and thus remain passive to any special needs of the interconnected AC systems. Alternatively, the link can be provided with more
adaptive dynamic controls which respond to critical deviations from the
expected operating conditions in the AC or DC systems.
The exclusive use of the basic controls often gives rise to unwanted
interaction between the AC and DC systems, which is manifested in a
variety of voltage, harmonic and power instabilities. When full advantage
is taken of the fast and adaptable converter controllability, a more useful
interaction can be achieved which manifests itself in stable AC and DC
system operation.
AC-DC system interactions are concerned with voltage stability, overvoltages, resonances and recovery from disturbances:
130
Two important alternative definitions are the effective (ESCR) and critical
(CSCR) short-circuit ratios.
The ESCR allows for the presence of AC filters and shunt capacitors at
the converter terminals, as shown in Figure 6.1a, and is therefore defined
as
ZS
Id
-o
(a)
l=lp-jlt
Figure 6.1
impedance Zsti for the purpose of defining the strength of the AC system
as shown in Figure 6.1&.
Zst is the equivalent of Zs (source), Xsc (synchronous compensators), Xc
(filters and static compensation) and Z/ (local load) in parallel. Th^ equivalent Thevenin source voltage, Est, results from the vectorial addition of
Vc/yj3 (line to neutral) and LZst, as shown in Figure 6.2.
As the DC link is integrated into the AC-power system, it is convenient
to express the converter equations in the same per-unit system as for the
AC network.
A convenient factor in the per-unit notation is the converter rating, r,
defined as the ratio of converter MVA to DC power (P^), i.e.
(6.1)
and substituting eqn. 2.14
r=(3y/2/n)Vc/Vd
(6.2)
132
(a)
Figure 6.2
Voltage regulation
a Rectifier end
b Inverter end
If MVAp is the short-circuit level of the AC system at the converter terminal, the system impedance Zst can be expressed as
Zst=V2c/MVAF
(6.4)
(6.5)
Using the converter rating factor, r, the per-unit system impedance can be
expressed as
zst = rPd/MVAF = r/ESCR
(6.6)
134
ends. The maximum voltage regulation will occur if the disturbance takes
place when the phase angle of the converter (c|)) is equal to the phase angle
of the equivalent AC-system impedance (4>.^), and is calculated as follows2
(6.7)
Est=V+LZst
Dividing throughout by the base voltage
Est/Vc=V/Vc+ZJ/Vc
(6.8)
(6.9)
or
est=v+r/ESCR
(6.10)
est=l+0Ar
(6.12)
(6.14)
(6.15)
= (n/6)xc
(6.16)
In order that (|> = fyst (at a rectifier) under rated conditions, either the
phase angle of the system impedance needs to be of the order of 30, an
unusually low value, or the rectifier should operate at an unusually high
firing angle. Typical impedance angles of the order of 70-85 are found
in practice; the more resistive the AC system appears at the rectifier end,
the higher regulation overvoltages may be anticipated.
At the inverter, however, it can be seen (Figure 6.2 b) that under normal
operating conditions <fyst is considerably less than cj). Therefore, the more
reactive the AC system appears, the higher the regulation overvoltage.
With an impedance of 0.4 p.u., a maximum value of est - 1.29 p.u. can be
anticipated, thus causing a 29 % regulation, following full-load rejection;
however, the expected impedance angle in practice is of the order of 70.
The regulation (dynamic) overvoltages are therefore more significant at
the rectifier end. At both terminals the effective impedance angle is as
important in determining the overvoltages as is the magnitude of the
impedance. For links from hydro sources, the increase of frequency
following load rejection will produce even higher dynamic overvoltages.
This is an unacceptable situation for local consumers and must be allowed
for in the insulation co-ordination of the converter station.
In practice, transformers start to saturate at typically 1.2 to 1.25 p.u. AC
voltage and the fundamental-frequency overvoltage will therefore be a
little lower, with some distortion.
Single line-to-ground faults are also a source of dynamic overvoltage on
the other phases or pole. As a result of an AC phase-to-earth fault, the
mutual coupling between phases causes a voltage increase in the other
phases; for a network effectively earthed the overvoltage is limited to a
peak value of ^/2(0.8) of the line-to-line r.m.s.
On the other hand, following a voltage drop in the AC network, the
initial effect is a fall in power. The power controller of the DC link then
increases the current reference to try and restore the ordered power; the
extra current increases the reactive demand and tends to reduce the ACsystem voltage further. With very weak AC systems this could lead to
voltage collapse; however, power controllers always have built-in limits to
avoid excessive action.
By far the most important case is that of a nearby three-phase short
circuit, assuming that the converters are blocked permanently during the
fault, with all the capacitors left on. This condition produces full magnetising inrush current on all transformers after fault removal, which results in
substantial fundamental and harmonic overvoltages. Such overvoltages
constitute in practice the determining condition for most valve, surge
arrester and insulation voltage ratings.
Dynamic-compensation equipment is used to reduce the dynamicvoltage regulation, to help in the recovery of the AC system from faults
and to reduce the disturbances resulting from DC-load variation or from
the switching of filter banks.
136
137
If the angle between the machines increases steadily, the system is transiently unstable. If the machines fall out of step after a period of increasing
oscillations around the equilibrium point, the system is dynamically
unstable. Dynamic instability is rare in tightly connected systems, which
are usually well damped for their characteristic frequencies of electromechanical swing (between 1 and 2 Hz).
However, when large systems are connected by long relatively-weak
interties, low-frequency swing modes result. T h e response of the powersystem controls to the synchronising swings associated with these lowfrequency modes can produce sufficient negative damping to cancel the
natural positive damping of the system. When this happens, oscillations of
increasing amplitude occur.
An example of dynamic instability4 is the northern and southern parts
of the Western US power system, which are connected by the parallel
Pacific AC and DC Interties with ratings of 2500 and 1400 MW, respectively. The AC Intertie has a long history of negatively-damped 1/3 Hz
oscillations resulting from interactions between generators with automatic
voltage regulators and system loads. As a result of these oscillations, and
because the oscillatory tendency imposed a constraint on the amount of
surplus north west hydro power which could be transmitted to the south
west, a control system to modulate the Pacific DC Intertie was developed.
Damping in the Pacific Intertie is produced by small-signal modulation
of the DC power in proportion to the frequency difference across the AC
Intertie. This was accomplished by processing the AC lntertie power
measured at the northern end, to obtain a filtered signal proportional to
the derivative of AC: power at frequencies near 1/3 Hz. This signal is
applied, through a & 3 016 (+ 40 MW) limiter, to the current regulator at
the northern terminal of the DC Intertie; thus the current setting changes
are well within the current margin.
Figure 6.3 shows the results of field tests with and without modulation,
wherein series-capacitor compensation was First switched in and then
bypassed. It is also possible to use AC current, rather than power, as the
modulation (error) signal. Current is more linear with respect to large
swing angles, hence will be more effective when AC-system oscillations
approach stability limits.
Successful operation of DC modulation was a key factor permitting
uprating of the AC Pacific Intertie from 2100 MW to 2500 MW.
Detecting the effect of the modulating frequency he. the l/S Hz harmonic power in the case of the Pacific Intertie) is less effective than detecting
absolute phase change directly (a method used in the Nelson River
scheme); power measurement provides a signal which levels off near 90" of
the phase difference between the e.m.f.s 6.e. right where most response is
urgently needed to try and prevent pole slipping). In fact, in most
machine-swing problems, the net peak survival angle is about 130" and yet
above 90" the power-measurement method actually gives a reduced output.
138
1 25 MW
3 seconds
D.C. power
A.C. power
Without modulation
iA/v
T50MW
T5OMW
A.C. power
Figure 6.3
Frequency
detector
A/
0.2
Rate
limiter
Limiter
1.3
1 p.u y
-0.2
/so
_j0.2
ms
Digitizer/ limiter
Rectifier
(center terminal)
A/"
7-
0.05
16.7 ms
Inverter
(arrowhead
terminal)
Figure 6.4
Communication system
delay
1 p.uy
/50
Im
current margin
(0.1 p.u.)
ms
Rate
limiter
p.u. I
_j0.15
To current
Limiter
bance affecting the other system, and thus the system in difficulty loses an
essential infeed.
An HVDC link, on the other hand, even with the basic controls, shields
one system from disturbances on the other. Although the specified power
flow can continue, the option is available to vary the power setting to help
the system in difficulty to the extent which the healthy system can allow,
without putting itself in difficulty, and subject to the rating on the link.
Although the policy of providing controls which enable the HVDC link
to assist actively in the damping of disturbances should be encouraged, it
must be considered that the DC link contains negligible energy storage
and therefore any action to damp a disturbance at one end must naturally
produce some disturbance at the other. In some cases such assistance is
readily acceptable, for example when the local system has no directlyconnected consumers and it can be designed for greater than normal
frequency variations. In effect, this allows the inertia of the system to be
used to provide the energy for damping the distant system. Another
example is where one system is very small as compared with the other,
such as the case of an off-shore system where the total load is insignificant
compared with the size of the mainland network.
With appropriate control, a disturbance originating in either system can
be shared in a predetermined manner, and the resulting system oscillations
can be damped simultaneously. Unlike transient stability, where the DC
link must have the necessary overload capability to get through the first
140
142
A P.,
Modulation
controller
\Elt
AP,,
Band pass
f.lter
Figure 6.5
P,<
control
control
E,,
control
Band pass
filter
r-
144
DC side
146
orn=6p-2
Mmax = 1 + x cos (4>sn - na) + \x2 - x
+ xcos(</>m- na)+-\\
4 JJ
(6.18)
where
(6.19)
(b) orn=6p+2
Mmax = jl + x cos {(j)sn -m)+-\~/2
(6.20)
ib)
Figure 6.8 Model test on six-pulse converter with realistic AC system (short-circuit
ratio = 3) and conventional harmonic filter: constant-en control
system, a = 32; control-system-filter Qfactor = 2.5
a AC-line voltages
b DC-bridge voltage
It is, however, clear from the equations above that if Zn (in per unit) can
be guaranteed to be less than
0.5 for n = 2, 4, 6, 7 etc.
1.0 for n= 3, 9, 15 etc.
there is no danger of instability, although magnifications may still occur.
This can, in principle, be achieved by the addition of extra shunt filters to
the main circuit, but this is usually very expensive.
If a shunt filter is used for the normal harmonics, i.e. orders 5, 7, 11, 13
etc., partial resonance may occur between the AC system and the filter at
the abnormal harmonics; the requirement then virtually implies that the
conductance component of the AC-system harmonic admittance must be
greater than 2 p.u. or, expressed in another way, the AC harmonic impedance on a polar diagram must be within a circle of radius 0.25 p.u.
centred on (0.25, 0).
Except for the case of a relatively small converter connected to a large
AC system, this is found to be a somewhat stringent requirement, and in
certain typical cases the calculated maximum circle radius has been about
1-2 p.u., implying stable operation only up to 0.125-0.25 of rated current,
with the worst combination of a and system-impedance angle.
The main practical effects of large harmonic magnification or instability
are:
(a) Excessive harmonic voltages and currents in the AC and DC systems.
Instability owing to even one system resonance, in general, produces
distortion containing all harmonic orders, i.e. 2, 3, 4 etc. Usually, any
local overvoltage resulting from this is small but interference elsewhere may be unacceptable.
148
150
current, pu
1.10000.8800 0.6600 0.4400 0.2200
0.0000
0.0000
current, pu
1.39801.11840.83880.55920.27960.0000 0.0000
current, pu
1.3570-j
1.08560.81420.5428 0.27140.0000
0.0000
0.2000
Proportional
gain rad/kA
Integral time
constant
Composite resonance
damping factor
0.0714
0.9341
0.0093
0.0107
-5.1
+ 2.2
0.4000
0.6000
0.8000
1.0000
1.2000
1.4000
1.6000
1.8000 2.0000
time, s
1.2000
1.4000
1.6000
1.8000
1.2000
1.4000
1.6000
1.8000
Example 1
0.2000
0.4000
0.6000
0.8000
1.0000
Example 2
0.2000
0.4000
0.6000
0.8000
1.0000
Example 3
2.0000
time, s
2.0000
time, s
core saturation instability, at the Kingsnorth,15 Nelson River,16 Blackwater17 and Chateauguay18 schemes. Despite these incidences, there is
little information on the nature of the phenomenon and this may have led
to some incidences being misinterpreted as another type of harmonic
instability or resonance. The control solutions are very similar, typically
involving some sort of firing-angle modulation and in some cases the
installation of additional harmonic filters.
The mechanism of the converter transformer-core saturation instability
phenomenon can be demonstrated using the block diagram of Figure
6.10. If a small level of positive-sequence second-harmonic voltage distortion exists on the AC side of the converter, a fundamental-frequency
distortion will appear on the DC side. Through the DC-side impedance, a
fundamental-frequency current will flow, resulting in a positive-sequence
second-harmonic current and a negative-sequence DC flowing on the AC
side. The negative-sequence DC will begin to saturate the converter transformer, resulting in a multitude of harmonic currents being generated,
including a positive-sequence second-harmonic current. Associated with
this current will be an additional contribution to the positive-sequence
second-harmonic voltage distortion and in this way the feedback loop is
completed. The stability of the system is determined by the characteristics
of this feedback loop.
In Figure 6.10 the aforementioned instability feedback loop does not
involve the entirety of the negative-sequence DC produced by the converter. This is because, owing to the dynamics of the instability, the DC-side
distortion is never exactly at the fundamental frequency and, therefore,
the negative-sequence DC is not a true DC but is varying slowly. The level
AC side
DC side
f
AC side
^
second harmonic \
positive sequence
second harmonic
voltage distortion
\^ impedance J
ideal transformer
positive sequence
second harmonic current distortion
multitude of
distortions at
many frequencies
transformer
core
saturation
\
majority of negative
sequence DC current
distortion
Figure 6.10
converter
switching
action
converter
switching
action
-ideal transformer
fundamental
frequency voltage
distortion
DC side
fundamental
frequency
impedance
fundamental
frequency current
distortion
152
DC current
(a)
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
time, s
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
1.0
Figure 6.11
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
154
1.25-]
1.00
KA 0.750.500.250.00
0.5
(a)
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
time, s
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
2.0
Figure 6.12
2.5
time, s
EMTDC simulation results with the addition of an auxiliary highpass filter to the converter controller
a low and predominantly capacitive DC-side impedance at the fundamental frequency with the presence of a series resonance near to but
higher than the fundamental frequency;
a high and predominantly inductive AC-side second-harmonic impedance with the presence of a parallel resonance near to but higher
than the second-harmonic frequency;
a high AC-side resistance near 0 Hz.
for the instability to occur at either end. Moreover, the high resistance at
the unstable end will be reflected onto the DC side as additional damping
which tends to stabilise the opposite-end system. Therefore, for the backto-back scheme, it is necessary to consider the consequential impact on the
stability of the remote-end system when undertaking any modification at
the local end.
Besides the system impedances, the stability of the AC-DC system is
strongly dependent on the response of the converter controller. Considering the stringent reactive requirements for the instability to develop, the
onset of this harmonic instability almost certainly involves a destabilising
contribution from the converter controller. This suggests the possibility of
preventing the onset of the instability through proper tuning of the
converter controller.
156
6.8 References
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
158
16 CHAND, J., and TANG, D.: 'Experience with Resonances and Oscillations in
the Nelson River HVDC System'. HVDC system operating conference, Winnipeg,
Canada, 1987
17 STEMMLER, H.: 'HVDC Back-to-back Interties on Weak a.c. Systems, Second
Harmonic Problems, Analyses and Solutions'. CIGRE symposium 09-87,
Boston, 1987, paper no. 300-08, 1-5
18 HAMMAD, A.E.: 'Analysis of second harmonic instability for the Chateauguay
HVdc/SVC scheme', IEEE Trans. Power Deliv., 1992, 7 (1), pp.410-415
19 CHEN, S., WOOD, A.R., and ARRILLAGA, J.: 'HVDC Converter Transformer Core Saturation Instability: A Frequency Domain Analysis'. IEE Proc,
Gener. Transm. Distrib., 1996 143 (1), pp.75-81
20 YACAMINI, R., and de Oliveira, J.C.: 'Instability
'Instat
in HVDC Schemes at Low
Integer Harmonics'. IEE Proc. C, 1980, 127 (3), pp.179-188
21 BURTON, R.S.: 'Report on Harmonic Effects on HVDC Control and Performance'. CEA 337 T 750, prepared by Manitoba HVDC Research Centre, 1994
Chapter 7
7.1 Introduction
A typical design sequence for an HVDC transmission scheme should
include the following steps:
(a) Identify the main operational objectives to be met, i.e. energy considerations, MW loading requirements and maintenance.
(b) Identify any technical constraints which may have to be accepted, e.g.
the maximum voltage and current ratings of submarine cables, limitations of earth return etc.
(c) Adopt voltage and current ratings.
(d) Decide the overall control requirements, e.g. constant-power control,
short-term overload, damping characteristics, constant extinction-angle
control, constant ideal (noload) direct voltage, etc.
(e) Develop converter-station arrangements.
if) Design the transmission line.
(g) Assess the capital equipment cost, the operating costs and the cost of
losses.
Steps (a) to (/) must be critically reviewed to assess the effect of any
permissible parameter variation on (g).
Although the basic principles of rectification and inversion apply
equally to the mercury-arc and thyristor technologies, the design layout of
the converter plant is greatly influenced by the switching-device technology.
As there are still several schemes using mercury valves, this Chapter
starts with a brief exposition of their components and layout. Most of the
Chapter, however, is devoted to thyristor-converter technology.
160
162
saturating
reactor
firing databack
optical fibres
Figure 7.2
connection of thyristors requires additional passive components to distribute the OFF state voltage uniformly between them and to protect the
individual thyristors from overvoltage, excessive rate-of-rise of voltage (dv/
dt) and rate-of-rise of inrush current (di/di). The thyristor, together with its
local voltage-grading and thyristor-triggering circuits, known as a thyristor
level, is the building block of the valve architecture. The circuit of a typical
thyristor level, shown in Figure 7.2, contains the following components:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
164
(iv)
Normally, the thyristors are triggered into conduction at a particular pointon-wave determined by the control system. The command to fire the valve
is sent via optical fibres from a valve-base electronics cubicle at earth
potential to every thyristor in the valve. The optical signals are decoded by
a gate-electronics unit located adjacent to each thyristor, which then generates a pulse of current to trigger the thyristor. The gate-electronics unit
derives the necessary power for its operation from the RC grading circuit
during the OFF state interval.
Thyristors can be damaged by excessive forward voltage or forward rate
of change of voltage (dv/dt), especially at the higher junction temperatures
which may occur during faults. They are particularly vulnerable during
the recovery period following turn off, when even a modest forward
voltage may cause uncontrolled conduction. However, they can be
protected by arranging for the gate electronics to trigger the thyristor into
conduction independently of the central control system.
In marginal cases, some thyristors may block forward voltage but others
do not. In the limit, this could result in the whole of the valve-winding
voltage being applied to a single thyristor, so that the thyristor would be
destroyed if it were not protected. A back-up triggering system, based on a
breakover diode (BOD) is used for this purpose; it comprises a series string
of small overvoltage-triggered thyristors, connected from the anode to the
gate of the main thyristor via a current-limiting resistor. When the
forward voltage across the main thyristor threatens to exceed the
maximum safe value, the semiconductor elements of the BOD conduct,
and pass a heavy pulse of current to the gate of the main thyristor, rapidly
triggering it into conduction. If the thyristor-level components are suitably
rated, the BOD can operate repetitively in the event of a failure of the
gate electronics, thereby preventing consequential failure of the thyristor.
By connecting a suitable number of thyristor levels in series, a valve of
the necessary voltage rating can be constructed.
Modern DC schemes are designed exclusively for 12-pulse operation. A
simplified diagram of the 12-pulse converter group is shown in Figure 7.3.
Besides the extensive protective measures incorporated at the individual
thyristor level, it is also necessary to provide overall valve protection
against reverse overvoltage. Figure 7.3 shows that this is accomplished by
WEST
400/93 kV
single-phase
three-winding
transtorrners
r----------___
.*-
2415 A. 205 kV DC
_____
400/93 kV
4W kV AC
switchyard
7.3.2Mechanical considerations
T h e power thyristors used in the valves are constructed from monocrystalline silicon wafers of typically 100 mm nominal diameter. Thyristors of
this type require a very high clamping pressure to maintain adequate
thermal and electrical contact between the silicon and the electrical connections and heatsinks; a 100 mm thyristor requires a clamping force of 80
kN (eight tonnes). T o provide this clamping force in a compact and lowcost manner without losing the capability to replace a thyristor in the event
of its failure, the elastic properties of a very advanced composite material
are used. T h e banded-pair assembly, shown in Figure 7.4, consists of thick
bands of filament-wound void-free glass-reinforced polymer, which apply
the necessary clamping force to a series-connected pair of thyristors and
the associated heatsinks. Removal of a thyristor is accomplished by using a
hydraulic tool to separate the two heatsinks which are in contact with the
SIDE ELEVATION
nt.:
UC.
onc
valve
A i:
AC
I)
c
DC
tier
assemb Iy
AT,
AT:
DC
7.3.3 Valve-coolingsystem
T h e thyristors produce considerable heat loss, typically 30 to 40 W/cm2 (or
over 1 MW for a typical quadruple valve), and an efficient cooling system
is thus essential. Each thyristor unit is normally provided with a double
heat sink and the heat is taken away from the sinks by circulating water.
High-purity water combines superb cooling with high dielectric strength.
168
The purity of the water must be very high to remove all ionic components,
which would otherwise cause the coolant to bypass the electrical insulation
of the valve. Thus, the conductivity of the pure-water coolant is monitored
continuously and is controlled to less than 0.5 jiS/cm by the use of ionexchange resins. The heat generated by the thyristor valves is rejected to
air by evaporating coolers.
The liquid coolant is distributed to every thyristor level in the valve
through electrically-insulating polyethylene hoses. Water-cooling systems,
however, require careful design to prevent leakage (which would have
disastrous consequences) and corrosion. A water-cooling system is normally
placed in the basement under the valve hall, as illustrated in Figure 7.8.
Figure 7.8
170
Thyristor level
(Local firing
control and
protection)
Valve
(Current
K H * measurement
-triplicated)
Control room
(Main valve
firing control
and protection
-triplicated)
3 Fibre optics
(Valve current
data)
Valve firing
command
(duplicated)
Ground level
at valve base
(Signal interface)
'Start' 'Stop'
(From central control system)
Figure 7.9
The auxiliary power needed for the thyristor firing is obtained from the
voltage across the thyristor.
The location and basic functions of the Cross-Channel4 valves are shown
in Figure 7.9; they are divided into a number of thyristor levels or
modules acting independently. As a result, marginal differences in protective settings, or tolerances in valve components, can cause the protective
circuits at some levels to operate. This may lead to cascade turn on, with
the last level to fire experiencing a greater duty than that occurring under
normal turn-on conditions. The valve-circuit components are rated to withstand such duty.
In the absence of cascade turn on, the levels that have been protectively
fired will conduct the valve grading current. If the disturbance causing a
protective level to operate were now to reverse the valve voltage to a value
approaching the protective level of the valve-surge arrester, then those
13.5
Valve tests5
172
connection tests: to check that the connections within the thyristor level
are correct;
voltage-grading circuit test: to monitor tolerances on grading-circuit
components against given ranges;
hydraulic-pressure test: to check leakage detection and thyristor clamping
pressure;
current cycling: to determine maximum temperature swing;
on-state voltage-drop test: measurement of on-state voltage drop at
nominal current;
partial-discharge test;
short-circuit test: to check the satisfactory operation of the thyristor and
its monitoring circuits during short-circuit conditions;
impedance test: to check for short or open circuit in the voltage divider
circuit;
firing test: to check thyristor turn on in response to firing signal;
protective-firing test: to check the protective-firing level against specified
tolerance and the co-ordination of this protection with the thyristor
forward-voltage withstand capability;
recovery protection test: to check the recovery protection level at two separate instants against specified tolerances, and the co-ordination of the
protection with the thyristor-withstand capability;
reverse-blocking test: to check the thyristor reverse-blocking voltage withstand at the test voltage.
173
a temperature-rise test to verify the thermal design of all critical heatproducing components of the valve module and its components;
a periodic-firing and extinction test to demonstrate correct behaviour
of the valve when subjected to periodic voltage and current stresses.
The last two tests above are not included in IEC 7005 but are being recommended for inclusion in a future revision of the standard.6
Additional tests
Each scheme has specific nonstandard requirements and a supplementary
test programme results from detailed discussions between the purchaser
and the supplier. For instance, in the case of the New Zealand upgrade,
extra tests were carried out on a representative section of a valve to verify
the valve fire withstand capability. Snap-back tests on the quadrivalve unit
(including the associated arresters) were also performed to demonstrate its
dynamic response and verify seismic requirements.7
174
Figure 7.10
Cutaway view of the valve hall showing the locations of the major
components
10
Figure 7.11
176
the low-voltage side of the valve protects the reactor. Pole and electrode
arresters supplement the overvoltage protection.
The measuring equipment, i.e. a voltage divider, current measuring
transductors and current transformers, provide the necessary input signals
for the control and protection circuits.
The switching components (i.e. isolators and circuit breakers), are of
conventional design on the AC side of the converters. Several switches are
also used on the DC side. Conventional oil-minimum circuit breakers are
used to interrupt small currents for the switching of the neutral bus load
and for the changeover from single-pole metallic return to bipolar operation.
Also, an HVDC circuit breaker is used to achieve ground-to-metallic
return transfer; this breaker is designed to interrupt 1500 A and to absorb
an energy of 2 MJ.
The area of the modern thyristor station is only a fraction of that
needed for earlier mercury-arc converter stations.
Figure 7.12 shows a typical layout for a 1000 MW bipolar HVDC
station9 and gives a clear indication of the relative space taken up by the
various plant components. The major proportion of the space is taken by
external plant, particularly the capacitors used in the form of harmonic
filters and for voltage support.
The layout of the valve hall, which apart from the valves contains surge
arresters, phase reactors and the line reactor, is better explained with
reference to the sketch in Figure 7.13. The transformers (on the right of
the picture) and the smoothing reactor (on the left) are placed close to
the hall walls with their bushings passing through the wall. The location
of the equipment inside the hall is designed to combine a low probability
of internal flashovers with the best possible utilisation of the space available.
The floor area of the valve, service and control rooms is only a small
fraction of the total station area. The auxiliary power equipment used for
cooling and air conditioning is placed immediately under the valve hall.
The building normally contains a steel structure designed to act as a
Faraday cage to reduce electromagnetic radiation from the valve hall
which might cause radio interference.
Next Page
11
Figure 7.12
Chapter 8
8.1 Introduction
DC converter stations form an integral part with the AC-power system, and
their basic protection philosophy is thus greatly influenced by AC-system
protection principles.
There are, however, two technical reasons which influence some departure from the conventional protection philosophy, i.e. the limitations of
DC circuit breakers and the speed of controllability of HVDC converters.
Furthermore, the series connection of converter equipment also presents
some special problems not normally encountered in AC substations.
As with AC protective systems, DC safety margins should be based on
statistical risk evaluations, distinguishing between independent disturbances and the possible cascading of faults. For a given disturbance, the
protective system must also be capable of disconnecting only the lowest
necessary level and for the minimum time interval.
The characteristics of internal (within the converter) and external faults
are quite different and are considered separately.
(c) Short circuits within the converter station. Although these faults are
rare, they must be taken into consideration in converter design.
202
G HI
Figure 8.1
S3
S5
Y
*x.
B
/
. P6
,
(a)
' .' 1
'
'(PS)
'
' . Fl
SI
.(.PIT
1Cl
. 1 C6 '
1
1
'
S4
'
C4\
..
J-C2
1 1
A''
|
If
If
(b)
Cl
06
C5
C5
C3\
"
b
RY
h
I Id
(0
M n
V f
I^
RB
1 I
C1
RY
RB
11
i
i
l
1
!
i
'
Cl
VB
VR
V
I
l'4
1
ih)
CA
Figure 8.2
(Of
~"V
if
1
. '
C p / l l C i i
C D E F G
'
'6
C 2 ,
H
C5
\ ^
, C 3 |
I
J
C4
C 5 ,
i
1
1
06
KL
o,f;
/
'5
>/|
A B
(Of
"V
'3
(g)
(Of
IV
ci
Cl
(Of
204
CA
AB
Figure 8.3
206
bances (in per cent). Another parameter of interest in this respect is the
number of commutation-failure starts (CFS). A CFS is the initiation of a
distinct and separate commutation-failure event.
Table 8.1 shows reported cases of TR and CFS in 1994 in 24 different
schemes. The high recovery level (one hundred per cent in most cases) is a
clear indication of the progress made in the reliability of recent HVDC
schemes. Another interesting piece of information extracted from the
Table is the low probability of commutation failure (in the New Zealand
scheme only one CF for every 20 x 106 successful ones!).
Table 8.1
System
Skagerrak 1 and 2
Skagerrak 3
Vancouver Pole 2
Square Butte
Shin-Shinano 1
Shin-Shinano 2
Nelson River BP2
Hokkaido-Honshu
CU
Durnrohr
Gotland II
Miles City
Highgate
Cross-Channel 1 and 22
IPP4
Virginia Smith
Konti-Skan 2
Vindhyachal
Fennoskan
Rihand-Delhi
SACOI 25
New Zealand Pole 2
Wein Sudost
Sakuma
Number
Transient
reliability %
Total no.
of CFS1
8
8
21
68
0
3
3
4
13
69
1
237
37
103
22
8
NR
11
NR
48
NR
55
16
0
100.0
100.0
95.2
98.5
100.0
66.7
100.0
100.0
98.6
100.0
100.0
100,0
100.03
95.5
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
97.9
NR
100.0
100.0
6
40
2
21
0
3
19
4
49
53
1
97
28
60
NR
NR
27
0
6
47
28
35
NR
4
8.2.3 Backfire
Although backfires, or conduction in the reverse direction, can occur (and
have occurred) on thyristors, both as external flashover and as failure of
all thyristors in a valve, this fault is only discussed with reference to
mercury-arc valves and is caused by the combined effect of:
The reverse voltage is higher during rectification (refer to Figure 2.3) and
therefore the backfire probability is much higher on this mode of operation.
Having lost its unidirectional conduction property, the backfiring valve,
together with the forward-conducting valve on the same side of the bridge,
provides a path for uncontrolled phase-to-phase short circuit in the converter transformer. Self recovery is not normally possible with backfires and
total blocking is ordered upon detection of a single fault. However, blocking is not always possible and back-up AC breaker action is often needed
to clear the fault.
The current in the forward-conducting valve during this condition
reaches typical peak values of 10 p.u.3 The combination of a high-voltage
jump following current extinction in the forward-conducting valve, and
the large current magnitude shortly before extinction (i.e. the ionisation
level met by the recovery voltage), often produces what is called a consequential backfire in this valve. This constitutes a most serious condition in
mercury-arc rectifiers, as the converter valves and transformers have to be
rated to withstand large overcurrents prior to fault clearance by the AC
circuit breaker.
208
.4
3!i
Figure 8.5
Bridge using a bypass pair (1-4), two series switches and a bypass
switch
210
The criterion for this selection, after a repetitive failure, is that none of
the valves of the selected bypass pair should have been involved in the
fault.
Although this will be satisfied only by one bypass pair, there are various
alternatives according to the selected blocking instant. Ideally, bypass
action should be carried out immediately after the fault, using the valve
which was the last to conduct and its opposite; e.g. if at the instant of the
blocking signal, valve 4 is commutating to 6, then the bypass pair to be
used should be 3, 6.
The selection of the bypass pair and the blocking sequences is thus
simple, with the exception of double successive commutation failure; with
this fault, two of the valves involved in the fault form a bypass pair, and
each one of the remaining two valves belongs to either of the two remaining bypass pairs; the simple criterion used to select the bypass pair for a
single commutation failure cannot be applied in this case. Generally,
however, not all the four valves will be faulty or directly responsible for
the occurrence of the fault, and there will be at least one bypass pair
through which blocking will be possible.
The selection of the most suitable bypass pair for blocking depends on
the cause of the fault. If the fault detectors do not provide sufficient
discrimination of the initial cause of the fault and its subsequent development, the selection of the bypass pair and final blocking will be slower.
Resumption of normal operation simply demands the restoration of
firing pulses with suppression of the blocking pulses. Inverter deblocking
by these means is much simpler than in the case when a conventional
bypass valve is used, since momentary rectifier action by advancing the
firing angle, /?, is not required.
made extensive use of scaled-down physical models with detailed representation of the controls. However, the losses in physical models cannot be
scaled down in proportion to the power and, as a result, all the oscillations
are subjected to excessive damping; the valve voltage drop is often
reduced by means of electronic compensation in the models. Moreover,
the so-called physical models are also restricted in the number of converter
groups and AC-system components.
It has been the feeling among some manufacturers in the past that
mathematical simulation and computer models could not be trusted to
represent the converter behaviour during disturbances. Such reservations,
however, were based on lack of data and the need for large computer
requirements. The tendency has been to keep the mathematics simple,
while increasing the complexity of the experimental simulators.
More recently, the computer requirements, i.e. memory and calculation
times, have become less important and the modelling of the AC-DC
system behaviour more realistic.5 Real-time digital simulators (RTDS)6 are
now becoming used widely, either by themselves or combined with scaleddown physical converter models via digital-to-analogue conversion and
signal amplification. It appears, therefore, that the main restriction is the
availability of reliable data, a restriction which affects equally the physical
simulator.
Some existing AC-DC models, whether physical or mathematical, tend to
concentrate on the representation of the DC-link components, and the
dynamic behaviour of the AC-system plant, and particularly the generators,
is oversimplified. Other mathematical models put the emphasis on the ACnetwork behaviour and use a simplified equivalent for the DC system. Yet
it should be obvious that one without the other will lead to inaccurate
prediction of the complete fault development, including recovery.
This point is illustrated with reference to the recovery transient following a three-phase short circuit at the inverter end, when the faulted AC
system is represented as a time-invariant equivalent circuit; the results, illustrated in Figure 8.6a, show recovery voltages much in excess of the steadystate values. When the dynamic behaviour of the generators in the fault
system is represented in detail, i.e. the equivalent AC system during and
subsequent to the fault is made time variant, the results, illustrated in
Figure 8.66, show that the recovery voltages are well below the nominal
voltage levels.
I
3
9.0
10.
11.0
Time (cycles)
Figure 8.6a
214
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
Time (cycles)
216
100 mA
50 V
Ud
Figure 8.8
Because of the lack of symmetry, pronounced double-frequency modulation is introduced on the DC side^ which, in the presence of a weak AC
system, will produce heavy oscillations. In extreme cases, such as a line-toline ungrounded fault, it may be advisable to interrupt operation while the
fault persists.
Figure 8.9 shows the response to a staged 60 ms single phase-to-ground
fault placed on a 220 kV line near Haywards in the New Zealand system
with the bipole transmitting 600 MW south.
1000-
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.1
3.4
3.5
3.2
3.3
3.6
time, s
2000-.
1000Q
CO
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
time, s
2000-1
2.6
time, s
100
2.6
Figure 8.9
Staged AC fault
The rectifier, on the other hand, will increase its firing delay and maintain its own current setting.
Thus normal converter control is not adequate to reduce the fault
current to zero; however, by suitable control action, the current can be
reduced to zero very rapidly as compared with AC protection. In practice,
this is achieved by driving the two terminals temporarily into inversion
218
and thus clearing the energy stored in the DC circuit faster. This action
requires a reversal of the rectifier voltage, following fault detection. The
inverter already has the correct polarity, but it must be prevented from
going into rectification by setting a limit to its firing-angle advance, ft.
which is directly related to the travelling waves initiated by the fault and
contains information from which fault type and location can be determined. In a bipolar DC line each pole will require this type of detection.
Although the above considerations have been made in relation to the
rectifier end, the inverter end should be equipped with a similar detection
scheme (but with different settings) to ensure fast arc extinction.
The sensitivity of the settings of the wave-front detectors has to be
assessed by means of actual line tests. For instance, in the case of the
Nelson River Bipole 2,12 and for faults at the remote end of the DC line,
the steepness values obtained from an early simulation were rather different from those encountered in the actual tests, i.e. 0.3 kV//is on an HVDC
simulator, 0.7 kV/fis from digital computer simulation and 3.7 kV/fis for
the actual plant tests. The digital mode has since been improved and
provides more accurate simulation.
DC cable faults are generally permanent and fast detection is not
normally used; it is, however, important to provide a very reliable faultdetection and location scheme.
220
250
kV
225
kV
HUB!! ll!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1800 A
1800 A
! liillliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii ifiliiii
1800 A
IIIIIIIIIIIIIH!!!!!!!!"!!!!!!!!!
1800
180"
Inverter a-order
120*
180*
83 ms
Figure 8.10
180
422 MW
222 kV
1900 A
1900 A
250 kV
1900 A
1900 A
Rectifier a-order
180
Figure 8.11
I
I
0.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
Time (cycles)
Figure 8.12a
12.0
Figure 8.12b
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
Time (cycles)
224
1\
Valve capability
100
Internal faults
Figure 8.13
Disturbances
in normal operation
J
'
Figure 8.14
226
8,7 References
1 CIGRE WG 14.02.: "Commutation failure in HVDC transmission systems due to
AC system faults'. Electro, December 1996, (169), pp.59-85
2 CHRISTOFERSEN, D.J., ELAHI, H., and BENNETT, M.G.: 'A survey of the
reliability of HVDC systems throughout the world during 1993-1994'. Paris
1996, CIGRE, paper 14-101
3 ARRILLAGA, J., and GIESNER, D.B.: 'Recovery of mercury-arc h.v.d.c. interconnectors from backfire faults'. Proc. IEE, 1972, 119 (11), pp.1611-15
4 MORALES, M.: 'Sequential arrangements for the elimination of bypass valves
in high voltage direct current converters'. PhD thesis, Manchester University,
UK, 1965
5 ARRILLAGA, J., ARNOLD, C.P., and HARKER, B J.: 'Computer modelling of
electrical power systems' (John Wiley, UK, 1983)
6 RTDS Technologies Inc.: 'Real-time digital simulator users manuals'. Rev.
February 1996
7 HEFFERNAN, M.D.: 'Analysis of a.c.-d.c. system disturbances'. PhD thesis,
University of Canterbury, New Zealand, 1980
8 KAUFHOLD, W., and POVH, D.: 'Recovery of the h.v.d.c. transmission after
Chapter 9
9.1 Introduction
There are some fundamental differences between the types of overvoltage
experienced in AC and DC transmission schemes, the main differences
resulting from:
(a) The commutation phenomena between the converter devices which,
even during normal operating conditions, result in complex voltage
waveforms as shown in Figure 9.1.
(b) The combination of direct and alternating (or transient) voltage.
The bridge units of multigroup converters are normally connected in
series on the DC side and in general they are symmetrically placed with
respect to earth, as shown in Figure 9.2. The number of energy-storing
elements increases in proportion to the number of bridges on the same
side of earth and this results in growing voltage-to-earth stresses on the
bridge valves as their separation with respect to earth increases; the stress
across each valve is the same, however.
According to their source of origin converter overvoltages can be
divided into:
These are first considered separately and their effect is taken into account
in the insulation co-ordination of the converter station.
Figure 9.1
P
Figure 9.2
(ii)
When a short circuit occurs in one pole of an HVDC bipolar transmission system, a transient overvoltage is induced on the healthy
pole. However, the level of overvoltage will be limited to under two
per unit by control action and does not constitute a decisive factor
for the insulation coordination.
The re-energisation or deblocking of converter bridges can be a
cause of large transient overvoltage. Figure 9.3 shows the overvoltage which can develop on the DC line when the rectifier is
deblocked with full rectifier voltage, against an open inverter end.1
230
Figure 9.3
(iii)
U(kV)
>
600-
500
s U'i(a)
400-
A7'A /
300200100-
0
-100-
.2 0 4 0.6 0.8 1
t/julS
-200-
Figure 9.4
1.0 |
0.5 I
|
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
Figure 9.5 Harmonic voltage distortion following an AC fault
232
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
Figure 9.6
1.0
75
80
85
VWW'wx,
Figure 9.7
234
1500
1000
500
Microseconds
Figure 9.8 Lightning surge IQ- 5 kA propagating into the converter station
a Main-circuit scheme
h Surge-capacitor voltage
parameter T:risetime of the lightning surge on the DC line before
the surge is influenced by the surge capacitor
surge capacitor C() = 0.1 fiF
surge capacitor connections LQ = 100 fxH
stray capacitance across the smoothing reactor C\\ = 1000 pF
DC-line wave impedance ZQ
236
Group 3
Group 2
Group 1
Figure 9.9
2 p.u.
p*W
1.7
1-5 "
50
Microseconds
Figure 9.10
Capacitive and inductive voltage transformation through the converter, transformer of a lightning surge with the amplitude 2 p.u.
superimposed on the operating voltage on one phase
parameter Ct: capacitive coupling between the valve and line windings of the transformer
transformer ratio 1:1
238
240
40
600
Figure 9.12
a
b
c
d
e
incident surge
operating states and the diversity which exists in those properties between
the individual thyristors of the valve structure. These characteristics interact in a complex manner with other converter components such as the
saturating inductors, transformers, damping and grading circuits, stray
capacitances and inductances of the valves, busbars, transformer windings
etc.
Computer simulation12 is used to assess the internal distribution of transient voltage stresses and other related information such as cascade turn
on, overvoltage limitation, protection and co-ordination, valve recovery at
turn off, voltage unbalance along a series-connected string of thyristors
and transient overvoltage disturbances.
If, in a valve equipped with independent overvoltage firing at each
voltage level, a component failure causes one level in the valve to rely on
this protection for triggering, abnormal voltage excursion and inrush
current in excess of the normal will be imposed on the afflicted level.
Since this operating regime can persist repetitively until the next scheduled
maintenance, it is of crucial importance to valve-component ratings.
Thyristor valve
Simplified
external circuit
Figure 9,13
242
When the levels in a valve fire noncoherently, the voltage across the last
level to turn on will rise at a relatively fast rate. The overvoltage protection
gates the thyristor when its switching-threshold level is exceeded. However,
because of the turn-on delay of the thyristor, a finite time passes before a
thyristor impedance falls sufficiently to establish a safe conduction path.
The simulation programme is then used to ensure that during this interval
the thyristor and other components are not overstressed owing to excessive
current, voltage or rate of rise of voltage, and that all components are
adequately rated.
A simplified equivalent circuit used to study the cascade firing is shown
in Figure 9.13 for a valve employing n levels with saturating inductance
Cascade firing
O)
Time (\xs)
(a) Thyristor voltage waveforms.
Cascade firing
CD
Time (us)
{b) Thyristor current waveforms.
Figure 9.14
244
Typically, a ZnO disc can carry thousands of amps at twice the nominal
voltage and thus permit the elimination of series-connected spark gaps.
The zinc-oxide arrester voltage characteristic has a very definite knee
and is extremely flat; hence, the arrester will not permit the voltage to rise
without shunting a substantial current to ground. Furthermore, in the case
of a switching surge, all arresters connected to a busbar share the discharge
duty; they draw an increased current out of the overvoltage source and
hence contribute to the damping effect.
With gapless metal-oxide arresters, the arrester elements are continuously subjected to the normal operating voltage of the AC-DC system. The
number of series-connected elements are selected so that only a very low
current flows under normal applied voltage.
An important advantage of the metal-oxide arresters is their ability to
parallel units to achieve the needed energy capability. However, metaloxide arresters have a given physical ratio between the maximum DC
operating voltage and the protective level at internal overvoltages. This
ratio is about 1.9 p.u. at the present state of the art. For arresters with
this protective level only moderate energy capability is required even at
high internal overvoltages. A parallel gap can, if necessary, be added
across part of the metal-oxide arrester in order to limit overvoltages to
lower values.14 The idea is to reduce the arrester current at the operating
voltage by a larger number of elements. However, when an overvoltage
occurs, part of the series-connected elements is bridged over by the parallel gap to reduce the protective level. The use of this arrester needs
careful co-ordination to consider at which conditions the gap should
operate and ensure that it reseals after the operation. It is also possible to
trigger the gap using a signal from the voltage-measuring devices or from
DC control.
An overvoltage limiter can also be designed using antiparallel-connected
thyristor valves in series with the metal-oxide arrester, or using other material such as a metallic resistance. The limiter can be triggered depending
on overvoltage conditions or by DC control. With such equipment even
lower protective levels can be achieved.
246
825
575
(825)
O
rr^
D.C. arrester
A.C. arrester
(BID BIL to ground
[BIL] BIL across device
To remote
ground electrode
Figure 9.15
20 kA
910 kV
400 kV
Switchyard
60 kA
430 kV
All voltages in kV
Withstands given at 1.2/50 us and 250/2500 \xs
Figure 9.16
stored in the filter capacitors; this in turn reduces the energy absorption
duty imposed on other surge arresters.
Regarding the filter components, during transient conditions the
prospective voltage across these components may be even higher than the
phase-to-earth voltage. The insulation level of the resistors and reactors
can thus be substantially reduced by using a surge arrester in parallel with
these components.
The surge arresters of the DC-converter equipment are illustrated in
Figure 9.17. The arrester across the thyristor valve is determined mainly
by considerations of maximum continuous operating voltage. For an
economic valve design the protection level of the valve arresters should be
kept as low as possible. In addition to the discharge energy present in the
DC system, valve arresters may be exposed to severe discharge duty during
fault recovery in the AC system; as a result, the arresters incorporate
several parallel columns of zinc-oxide blocks.
The DC-cable arrester is mainly determined by considerations of
required protection level. In the absence of overhead lines, fast transient
248
Figure 9.17
cally illustrates the valve insulation co-ordination and clearly indicates that
the thyristor characteristics are far in excess of the arrester characteristics.
The central column quantities are in per unit (referred to the rate DC
voltage).
The commutation transient peak at 90 firing delay must be less than
the minimum sparkover of the arrester; moreover, sufficient margin must
be allowed for the commutation transient during normally expected overvoltages. Excessive reduction of the commutation transient by damping
resistor-capacitor circuits is avoided (considering the increased losses) by
introducing an inverse-time overvoltage protection scheme which inhibits
operation at near 90 firing delay during excessive AC-system overvoltage.
4.0
3.5
5 microsecond test
(negative only)
(475))
Switching surge test
3.0
(356)
(347^
(237)
2.5
lir
J240)
1.5
168)
Scale: per unit of 140/kV
(crest volts)
1.0
B.C. Hydro
Figure 9.18
(140)
250
420 kV
Figure 9.19
2.8
6.8
10.0
7.2
17.4
25.6
*extrapolated values
9.10 References
1 UHLMANN, E., and FLISBERG, G.: 'H.v.d.c. insulation co-ordination, Part 1:
Generation of overvoltages', Direct Curr. Power Electron., 1971, 2, (1), pp.8-14
252
2 HEISE, W., BURGER, U., KAUFERLE, J., and POVH, D.: 'The Cahora-Bassa
D.C. transmission system: overvoltage protection and insulation co-ordination'.
IEEE PES winter meeting, paper T74 050-1, New York, 1974
3 BOWLES, J.P.: 'Overvoltages in h.v.d.c. transmission systems caused by transformer magnetising inrush currents', IEEE Trans., 1974, PAS-93, pp.487-93
4 GIESNER, D.B., and ARRILLAGA, J.: 'Behaviour of HVDC links under unbalanced AC fault conditions', Proc. IEE, 1972, 119, (2), pp.209-15
5 RAYNHAM, E.F., and GOOSEN, P.V.: 'Anollo inverter station h.v.d.c. operating experience'. Presented to CIGRE committee 14, Rio de Janeiro, 1981
6 UHLMANN, E., and FLISBERG, G.: 'H.v.d.c. insulation co-ordination - Part 2:
Distribution of overvoltages', Direct Curr. Power Electron., 1971, 2, (3), pp. 104-11
7 CLERICI, A.: 'Transient overvoltages caused by earth fault on bipolar dx.
lines'. IEE Conf. Publ. 107 on 'High voltage D.C. and/or A.C. power transmission',
Chapter 10
DC versus AC transmission
254
(a)
Figure 10.1
(a)
(b)
(c)
(b)
well established in spite of the relatively high cost of the dual conversion
required.
In less obvious decisions, the accounting procedures used in the
economic comparison must include the cost of lines, terminals, any special
apparatus needed for voltage support (see Figure 10.2), short-circuit
limitation, etc. The energy lost and the plant needed to supply it must also
be capitalised.
200 . . . 250 km
2 0 0 . . . 250 km
200 . . . 250 km
SC
-#-
rr
-X-
(c)
Figure 10.2
(b)
(c)
(b)
svs
(a)
However, the basic costs alone are not decisive and allowance must be
made for other considerations such as:
256
\ 1U. 1 /
"
(\c\9\
DC insulation level
(iQ 3)
. v
(10.4)
2IdVd
3/ 2 L #
2I2dR
(10.5)
Id=(yfi/y/2)lL
(10.6)
or
Equating powers
3EpI^ = 2IdVd
(10.7)
Vd=(j3/j2)Ep
(10.8)
or
(10.9)
For the values of k, k\ and k recommended above, the above ratio is equal
to 1.2 for overhead lines and 2.4 for cables.
Pa = 6EpI^
(10.10)
Pd = 6 VdId
(10.11)
(10.12)
Vd-{kkx/k^)Ep
(10.13)
(10.14)
Ep
and since the actual losses are the same, the percentage power-loss ratio
will be the inverse of eqn. 10.14. Thus, for the same values of k, k\ and k^
as in a above, the power transmitted by overhead lines can be increased to
147 %, with the percentage line losses reduced to 68 %; corresponding
figures for cables are 294 % and 34 %, respectively.
258
Load
Figure 103
Load
the converter station, partly by the capacitance of the AC filters and often
by additional shunt capacitors. With weak AC systems, the AC-voltage
regulation with varying load conditions may demand the use of synchronous condensers or static compensators.
With DC no stability problems occur because the AC systems are
decoupled and the power flow can be freely and rapidly adjusted by
converter control. For a given conductor size the power-carrying capability
of the DC line in principle is only limited by thermal considerations and,
therefore, should the extra current be justified (in terms of ohmic loss),
the DC conductors can carry substantially higher power levels.
On the other hand, overloading is more restricted in DC transmission.
The silicon-controlled rectifier has a very small thermal capacity and thus
the modern converter valve is only designed to handle temporary overcurrents under fault conditions or to damp AC-system oscillations. If longterm overload capability is desired, this can be achieved by appropriate
overrating of the thyristors and permitting higher temperatures at the
converter plant.
Cable transmission: High-voltage transmission by cable is rarely used because
of the higher cost and longer repair times; it is normally restricted to
underwater crossings and infeed to urban centres.
The high-voltage cables have a low series inductance and large shunt
capacitance. Moreover, their loading, owing to the lower surge impedance
and thermal limitations, is usually below 0.3 times the surge-impedance
level. Therefore, high charging reactive powers are required, which
considerably limit the length of AC-cable transmission. For instance, at
50 Hz the charging current varies typically from 5.5 A/km for a 132 kV
cable to about 15 A/km for a 380 kV cable. With a 4.52 cm2, 380 kV cable
of 600 A thermal limit, the charging current for a 40 km length equals the
thermal limit and no useful load can therefore be carried. Similarly, a
2.58 cm2, 450 A, 132 kV cable has a critical length of about 80 km.
These critical lengths may be extended by inserting shunt reactors. Even
with a one hundred per cent compensation by means of two reactors, one
at each end, the power transmission capacity is only 86.6 % at critical
length and reduces to zero at twice the critical length. With two intermediate reactors, each providing 100 % compensation, dividing the line in
three equal parts, the critical length will increase to three times. Moreover,
intermediate compensation is impractical in the case of underwater links.
260
2000
CD
1500
1a
s
x
1000
500
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
Figure 10A
alternative produced the lowest capital cost for low values of the losses.
However, the two-line 765 kV scheme became cheaper when losses were
evaluated at about $6.4 x 1(T3 per kWh. It should be pointed out that this
situation occurs because of the lower DC-voltage level used (i.e. 600 kV).
With a 765 kV DC line the relative cost of the DC alternative would
reduce as the value of losses increased.
Some allowance is made in the economic analysis for the difference
between cost of money and inflation. In the above example, such a difference was considered equivalent to a discount rate of three per cent. The
effect of varying the discount rate is illustrated in Figure 10.5.
Earth return capability
If the circumstances are right, earth may be used as one of the conductors,
making it possible to transmit power by one conductor only, with substantial saving in capital cost. For example the Gotland scheme in Sweden
consists of only one submarine cable at negative polarity, sea being used as
the other conductor. Use of earth, which is a substantially low-resistance
path, also results in a considerable reduction of transmission losses. No use
can ever be made of earth with AC systems, because of the associated
inductive effects, excepting when it is absolutely necessary to use the rails
262
i
"
CO
1500
X
\V
- 2 x 1159 kV
\v
1000
2 x 765k\T
\A
2 x yutr
0)
500
3 x 765
10
Figure 10.5
264
r-1 -i
network j
100 j
Dist
J I
i
L-
(a)
1
I D1
!
!
Jr"
|
i
|
Distribution
network
200
]
i
!
I
(b)
$218/kW+
$157/kW+
100
1000
500
1500
2000
105100
200
300
400
500
600
700
266
link that results in a break-even distance of 360 miles. The other case is
particularly interesting because of the very low power involved, i.e. only
10 MW. With 35 kV AC, plus reactive compensation, the scheme may cost
some $40 000 per mile (i.e. $4000 per MW-mile). The cost of the two DC
converters will be of the order of $4 million ($400 per kW for two converters). Assuming that the cost of AC substations and reactive compensation
is about $1 million, the additional DC-converter cost for break even is $3
million. If the 30 to 50 kV bipolar DC line costs $25 000 per mile, then
this line saves $15,000 per mile which represents a break-ev^n distance of
200 miles.
A representative curve of break-even distances as a function of power
can be expected to be within the shaded region of Figure \0.1b.
The subject of light-power HVDC transmission is considered further in
Chapter 11 with reference to self-commutated schemes.
E
>
bipolar
15
10
-60
-30
0
distance, m
Figure 10.8
earth electrode
Figure 10.9
under the overhead conductor, both with monopolar and bipolar transmissions, and is approximately 21 kV/m for a 450 kV overhead-power transmission line (see Figure 10.8). Moreover, the electric field may be
strengthened further by external factors such as the weather, seasonal
variations and relative humidity.
The electric-field problem is less severe in DC because of the lack of
steady-state displacement current; thus HVDC lines require much less
right-of-way (ROW) than the horizontal AC configuration and less height
than the AC delta configuration of HVAC lines of comparable rating.
Land electrodes create potential differences on the earth's surface,
termed step voltages, which can cause shock currents (Figure 10.9). Assuming a typical human-body resistance of 1000 Q, a limit value of 5 mA is
recommended as the maximum safe current that can flow through the
body. If a higher electric-field strength is anticipated, then there will be a
proportionately higher shock current in the vicinity of the electrode. In
that case the area is deemed to be hazardous and may have to be fenced
off.
268
10
100
1k
10k
100k
1M
AC-harm
i
50
100M
1G
PLC
i
2.5
telephone
interference
Figure 10.10
10M
100
2.5
400
30
Rl
400
corona
400
400
method of controlling radio-interference radiation is the use of electromagnetic shielding of the valve hall. The converter station is built with
reinforced concrete thus providing an inherent shielding, and the shielding effectiveness can be improved by additional wire meshes or liner
panels on the walls and ceiling of the hall.
Figure 10.11 shows the shielding effectiveness against frequency for a
typical valve hall with an additional wire mesh on the inner walls of the
hall.8 These levels are of little concern to radio or television interference.
Corona on the surface of the high-voltage overhead-power transmission
line is the principal source of radiated noise. The conductor corona
process depends on the magnitude of the electric-field strength, the
diameter of the line, its surface characteristics and weather conditions.
60
1/
40
^ 1
1.00
10.00
100.00
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 10.11
270
500 kV DC
route width: 50m
800 kV AC
85m
2 x 500 kV AC
100m
Figure 10.12
Typical tower structures and rights-of-way for alternative transmission systems (2000 MW)
Local generation
and compensation
800 MW, high
security load
Local generation
and compensation
1100 MW high
security load
ttt
(*
ttt
(0
(b)
(a)
Local generation
and compensation
2200 MW high
security load
t
T-
HI
M l
4^
220 kV ac
M MM
I 220 kV
330 kV ac
330 kV ac
f- 330 kV
220 kV ac
210 km
T
tif
98 km
2 x 350 m m 2
ACSR conds
123 km
330 kV ac
r>-330 kVac
- r 330 kV
Hydro generation
Hydro generation
Figure 10.13
Power-transmission reinforcements
a Existing 330 kV AC system
b One AC circuit converted for DC
c Two AC circuits converted for DC
Hydro generation
274
180170-
"natural" trend in a
conveniently large market
110100
400
600
800
1000
kV
1200
1200
kV
|LOSSE:S2000$/kW
1000
5000 MV
4000 MV f
/
_ _
_1
800
400
,_'
1000
2000
3000
'
1000 MV
4000
km
I
(LOSSES * 1000 $/kW
1000
5000 MV^
800
2000 MV
_'
600
3000 MW
kV
___^~*
600
400
4000 MVf
3000MVf
2000 MVr
1000MVf
1000
2000
3000
4000
km
Figure 10.15 Optimum voltage against line length with different capitalised cost
of losses
HVDC
OHTL
AC
power
RE
transmission of gas
length
GAS
field
gas duct
SE
Figure 10.16
RE
The supply options to countries over which a transmission-line interconnection passes but which are not directly connected must also be
addressed. This becomes a technical issue, especially if the load required
to be fed is very small compared to the main interconnection. Some possible solutions to this problem are discussed in Chapter 11.
The main competition to HVDC for the power ratings and distances
considered appears to be from bulk gas transmission, with the electricity
generation needed for consumption in locations far from the gas field.
The two alternatives are shown in Figure 10.16.
Considering that the costs of DC terminals and of combined-cycle plants
are not affected by the transmission length, the transmission of electricity
is more attractive than gas transmission for:
longer distances;
higher cost areas for transmission lines and gas ducts;
lower prices for gas at the gas field;
smaller powers.
For a distance of 5000 km and power in the range from 1000 to 5000 MW,
the cost of kWh with gas transmission is from 1.9 times to 1.2 times higher
than for electricity transmission. The range covers differences in the gas
price (i.e. two or five c$/m3) and high or low transmission costs (as applying in Europe and Africa, respectively).
276
Transmission
Power plant
Total
Gas Gm3/year
975
1819
2793
2292
1500
3792
5.7
4.8
For 3000 km and 3000 MW and low price for both overhead transmission and gas ducts, the cost of the two alternatives (G-gas and ^-electricity)
are shown in Table 10.1.
In any case, up to powers around 5000-8000 MW, electricity transmission is the preferred option.
10.10 References
1 ADAMSON, C, and HINGORANI, N.G.: 'High voltage direct current power
transmission' (Garraway Ltd, London, 1960), Chap. 1
2 HARDY, J.E., TURNER, F.P.P., and ZIMMERMAN, L.A.: 'A.c. or d.c, one
utility's approach'. IEE Conf. Publ. 205 on Thyristor and variable equipment
for A.C. and D.C. transmission' London 1981, pp.241-46
3 EHMKE, B., and HARDERS, C.F.: 'Planning aspects of h.v.d.c. power transmission into metropolitan load centres'. Symposium sponsored by the Division of
Electric Energy Systems USDOE, Phoenix, Arizona, 1980, pp.63-75
4 HINGORANI, N.G.: 'Dc technology for rural transmission'. CIGRE international colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Johannesburg 1997, paper 3.1
5 LAFOREST, J.J., LINDH, C.B., and STAMBACH, M.R.: Techniques for
determining overhead line cost data for comparison of a.c. and d.c. transmission alternatives'. Symposium sponsored by the Division of Electric Energy
Systems USDOE, Phoenix, Arizona, 1980, pp. 143-61
6 SCHMIDT, G., FIEGL, B., and KOLBECK, S.: 'HVDC transmission and the
environment'. Power Eng. /., October 1996, pp.204-10
7 EPRI Research Project 1467-1: 'HVDC ground electrode design'. Electric Power
Research Institute, August 1981
8 JACKEL, B.W.: 'Investigations on radio interference and power line carrier
interference of a back-to-back converter'. IEE Conf. Publ. 423 on 'A.C. and D.C.
power transmission', London 1996, pp.58-63
9 REIPLINGER, E.: 'Lasta bhangige transformatorengerausche', Sonderdruck aus
Elektrotechnischer Zeitschrift (etz), 3, 1989
10 COAD, J.N.O.: 'Audible noise design and testing for the DC hybrid link
project'. International Colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Wellington, 1993,
paper 2.2-1
11 JONES, K.M., and KENNEDY, M.W.: 'Existing AC transmission facilities
converted for use with dc'. IEE Conf Publ. 107 on 'High voltage DC and/or AC
power transmission', London 1973, pp.253-60
12 ASPLUND, G., et al: 'A novel approach on UHVDC 800 kV station and equipment design'. International Colloquium on HVDC and FACTS, Wellington,
1993, paper 7-3
13 CLERICI, A., LONGHI, A., and TELLINI, B.: 'Long distance transmission: the
Chapter 11
11.1 Introduction
HVDC technology took a big step forward around 20 years ago when thyristor valves succeeded the mercury-arc valves previously used. The converter-station concept introduced at that time, however, has remained
practically unchanged since then, even though great improvements in
equipment and subsystems have taken place. At the same time there have
been substantial advances in conventional AC technology and, particularly,
in the application of power electronics to make power transmission more
flexible and economical. Such competition is now exciting a continuous
stream of new HVDC concepts and techniques with the aim of improving
performance and reducing costs and delivery times. The main advances
are discussed in this Chapter.
presently used at each thyristor level for converting the turn-on light
signals into electrical pulses. Direct light triggering of the devices using
optical fibres requires powerful light sources at ground level; Japanese
manufacturers have developed light-emitting diodes for that purpose.
However, the elimination of the protecting circuit at each thyristor level
requires higher overvoltage margins for the light-triggered thyristors; a
thyristor self turn on, when voltage or rate of rise of voltage is too high, is
now under development in Europe.
280
Figure 11.1
HVDC2000
Figure 11.2
capital
cost
capitalised
operational
cost
total
lifetime
cost
21
40
17
18
14
13
11
15
6
5
32
55
23
23
14
14
negligible
1
282
VJ
tube-shaped core
Figure 11.3
284
thyristorand
reactor
modules
rs v
, , ,-V;-,r-r-^
,.>--....*.<
bushing
valve
housing
communication
channel
valve base
electronics
air-cooled
liquid coolers
rv~
COOLERS
GAS INSULATED
3 4 5 kV AC BUS
GAS INSULATED
3 4 5 kV AC BUS
SMOOTHING
REACTOR
BASEMENT PARKING
AND STORAGE
286
series filter
rectifier
Therefore, instead of using the present thyristor configuration (a currentsource converter), the preferred option seems to be the voltage-source
converter. A GTO voltage-sourced inverter (VSI) can deliver power to a
weak AC system and even to a system totally devoid of power generation,
as shown in Figure 11.6.
system A
system B *
288
system
converter
transformer
Item
Specification
rating capacity
300MW-100MVar
(316 MVA)
AC 275 kV
total < 1 %
each order < 0.5 %
rating voltage
voltage distortion
converter type
power device
insulation
cooling
control
configuration
voltage-source type
GTO
air insulated
pure water cooling
nine-pulse.PWM control
four-stage (or 8 stage)
configuration
direct step up
power flow
terminal A
terminal B
system A
system B
AEdp
PWMh
|DC-AVR|(J-Edp
operating
' point
. DC volt,
ref. B
voltage
margin
I
j
terminal B
lower limit
terminal A
lower limit
power flow
Figure 11.9
290
XLPE insulation has so far been developed for use in commercial installations up to 150 kV DC (Gotland Island DC link) and research and development work for use at higher voltages is continuing.
PPLP (polypropylene laminated-paper insulation) has been under investigation for some years, primarily for use in very high-voltage AC oil-filled
cables where it has particular advantages arising from the ability of the
insulating material to withstand higher stress levels. Reduced insulation
thickness and lower dielectric losses result. AC cables are being produced
using PPLP insulation for voltages up to 800 kV. The relatively hightemperature coefficient of expansion, and the swelling characteristics of
PPLP when impregnated with oil compounds, currently pose difficulties
for use in DC cables. Research is continuing, but so far no commercial
project has been installed.
Pole 2
i
Figure 11.10
Electrode
Pole 2
Figure 11.11
inates the generator transformer and the AC busbar. The generators are
directly connected to the converter transformers and the harmonic
currents produced by the 12-pulse unit-connected scheme are absorbed by
the generator so that the need for AC filters is eliminated. Moreover,
voltage control can be exercised entirely by the generator excitation and
transformer on-load tap changers are no longer needed.
The direct-connected scheme is considered an attractive proposition for
electrical generation from remote sources of power, such as hydro and
low-grade coal fields, when a new development supplies little or no local
load. Its potential for variable-speed operation can be used to optimise the
efficiency of hydro sets under different load conditions and under varying
water heads. This property can also be useful in pump-storage and windpower applications. Two interesting variations of the basic direct connection of Figure 11.11 are the group connection and the uncontrolled rectifier.1 In the group connection, illustrated in Figure 11.12, the matching
of generator and converter ratings is no longer required, the flexibility of
operation and of maintenance is enhanced, and although variable-speed
operation is still allowed, the group of synchronised generators will
require some form of joint speed control.
Direct connection with uncontrolled (diode) rectifiers leads to the
highest degree of simplification of the sending end, and brings in additional savings on firing-control gear and on the valves themselves, as
diodes are less expensive and have reduced losses. However, the acceptability of diode rectification is subject to its ability to clear and recover
from DC faults and receiving-end commutation failures without greatly
increased delays.
292
Electrode
Pole 2
Some approximate cost benefits suggested by the working group are given
in Table 11.3 and recent tests carried out at the Benmore end of the New
Zealand link15 have shown the capability of standard generators to cope
with the harmonic content in the absence of filters.
Table 11.3
Generator
Generator transformers
Generator breakers
Generator's transfer bus
AC switchgear, capacitors
and AC filter banks
Converter transformers and
smoothing reactors
Converter valves
Valve control and auxiliaries
Valve cooling
DC filters, electrodes and electrode lines
DC-line breakers
Subtotal
HVDC station site development, land,
civil work, labour, engineering and
supervision
Total
8.0 %
2.0 %
Unit,
Fig. 11.11
thyristors
Group,
Fig. 11.12
thyristors
Unit,
Fig. 11.11
diodes
1.0 %
1.0 %
1.0 %
3.0 %
1.5 %
2.0 %
20.0 %
15.0 %
14.0 %
14.0
14.0 %
15.0 %
6.0 %
2.0 %
4.0 %
72.0 %
15.0 %
5.0 %
2.0 %
4.0 %
15.0 %
5.0 %
2.0 %
4.0 %
41.0 %
45.5 %
12.0 %
1.0 %
2.0%
4.0 %
1.5 %
37.5 %
28.0 %
20.0 %
22.0 %
18.0 %
100.0%
61.0 %
67.5 %
55.5 %
Comments
294
I"
tapping station
converter 1
Figure 11.13
converter_2__
/<#
'd3
converter 3
However, the conventional technique, with line-commutated currentsource converters in parallel on the DC side, is too expensive for this application, as the converter has to be designed for the full-line voltage. Moreover, the local AC network is usually very weak in such cases, thus
requiring the installation of expensive synchronous compensators.
The connection of small tapping stations in series on the DC side offers
certain advantages in such cases, with regard to both costs and performance. Also, the availability of new semiconductor devices with turn-off
capability will make it possible to use choppers or forced-commutating
converters.
A series-connected tapping station with forced-commutated converters is
illustrated in Figure 11.13. 8 The power is supplied to the local AC
network through a voltage-source forced-commutated converter (shown as
a simple six-pulse converter). In a real installation it is foreseen that a
higher pulse number will have to be used to reduce the harmonic content.
Electromagnetic transient simulations have shown that disturbances in
the series tap have little effect on the main converters. However, the cost
for such stations is still expected to be fairly high.
11,9 References
1 HINGORANI, N.G.: 'High voltage DC transmission: a power electronics workhorse', IEEE Spectr., April 1996, pp.63-72
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Tokyo, 1995
HOLMGREN, T., et al: 'A test installation of a self-tuned AC filter in the
Konti-Skan 2 HVDC link'. IEEE/KTH Stockholm conference on Power tech.,
paper SPT PE 02-06-0367, Sweden, 1995
ASPLUND, G., et al: 'Outdoor thyristor valve for HVDC IEEE/KTH Stockholm conference on Power Tech., paper SPT PE 02-05-0365, Sweden 1995
FLAIRTY, C, HINGORANI, N.G., LEBOW, M., and WILSSON, S.: 'EPRI's
compact, gas-insulated DC converter stations'. USDOE symposium on Incorporating HVDC power transmission into system planning, Phoenix, 1980, pp.507-18
LEBOW, M., et al: 'A study of a + 500 kV, 2400 MW compact converter
station'. IEE Conf. Publ. 345, London, 1991, pp. 165-70
HORIUCHI, S., et al: 'Control system for high performance self-commutated
power converter'. CIGRE, Paris, 1996, paper 14-304
ASPLUND, G., ERIKSSON, K., and SVENSSON, K.: 'DC transmission based
on voltage source converters'. CIGRE SC-14 colloquium, South Africa, 1997,
paper 5.7
KRISHNAYYA, P.C.S.: 'Block and double-block connections of HVDC power
stations infeed'. IEEE EHV/UHV conference, Vancouver, Canada, 1973
CIGRE JWG 11/14-09: 'Direct connection of generators to hvdc converters:
main characteristics and comparative advantages', Electra, 1993, (149), pp.18-
INDEX
Index Terms
Links
A
AC-DC system interaction
70
123
140
143
177
193
254
195
269
129
80
3
13
160
161
11
Asynchronous interconnection
89
97
264
Anode reactor
255
93
26
B
Backfire
consequential
Bipolar link
Blocking of valves
200
207
221
84
182
209
224
Break-even distance
221
264
Bridge converter
13
Bridge inverter
27
210
Index Terms
Links
Bridge rectifier
13
Bridges in parallel
18
24
Bridges in series
174
228
Bypass switch
161
208
Bypass valve
160
208
Bypassing of bridges
208
C
Cables
184
198
259
13
160
289
Capacitor commutated converter
Cathode
280
3
259
Commutating voltage
18
101
13
18
101
110
117
148
155
201
224
18
20
34
115
134
Commutation transients
229
248
285
Complementary resonance
148
Composite resonance
148
154
Computer modelling
79
210
267
Commutation angle, see Overlap angle
Commutation failure
Commutation reactance
241
238
Index Terms
Links
104
111
113
112
113
149
Constant current transmission
111
103
148
Control
characteristics
112
117
equidistant
103
106
filters
103
148
87
120
individual phase-control
101
145
148
instability of
145
87
119
120
103
107
39
42
47
84
154
181
192
214
249
86
88
160
238
21
22
frequency
power
predictive
145
287
bridge circuit
compact
mercury-arc
multibridge
13
285
186
Index Terms
Links
Converter (Cont.)
phase-shift
19
35
57
42
50
160
pulse number
33
56
rating factor
132
134
six-pulse
25
34
twelve-pulse
21
38
42
50
108
143
Cross-modulation
39
42
145
Current extinction
232
235
Current margin
114
127
Current setting
112
D
DC line, fault
216
DC link
bipolar
construction in stages
85
122
194
11
26
79
176
181
197
235
286
161
197
257
265
28
45
263
DC switches
DC transmission, advantages
270
Deblocking
229
219
14
103
Index Terms
Links
30
133
135
E
Earth return
261
Economics
AC versus DC
254
Electric field
266
Electrode, earth
190
EMTDC
143
Environmental effects
266
270
77
Extinction angle
28
39
155
204
118
F
FACTS
Filter
admittance of
71
cost of
73
damped
60
73
237
second-order
74
third-order
74
type-C
74
76
Index Terms
Links
Filter (Cont.)
DC
77
double-tuned
71
196
64
protection of
226
quality of
58
71
74
133
77
reactive power of
58
73
self-tuned
72
282
sharpness of tuning
58
single-tuned
70
size
58
tuned
70
74
Filter design
57
69
Firethrough
201
294
27
33
120
Frequency conversion
87
93
Frequency deviation
71
138
G
Gate control
14
290
290
Grading electrode
Grid control
76
Index Terms
GTO
Links
7
279
H
Harmonic distortion
210
58
59
148
Harmonic instability
129
144
150
Harmonics
AC characteristic
33
33
43
at no overlap
34
37
at overlap
39
direct-voltage
34
even
144
149
magnification of
110
144
noncharacteristic
39
43
46
80
144
62
70
145
resonance
232
147
sequence components
45
63
triplen
75
144
I
IGBT
135
164
243
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
229
Index Terms
Links
42
Inversion
27
48
L
Light guides
90
169
225
233
135
231
171
Lightning surges
216
238
Load rejection
133
281
M
Margin angle, see Extinction angle
Master power controller
122
32
32
Mercury-arc valve
123
160
Microcomputers
124
169
Misfire
201
Monopolar link
84
182
263
MOSFET
Multigroup converters
Multiterminal DC
series connection
7
229
84
91
85
294
238
190
Index Terms
Links
N
Network harmonic impedance
effect on filter design
62
62
Noise
72
179
184
30
111
112
141
163
42
O
On-load tap-changing
180
Oscillations
50
Overhead lines
182
Overlap angle
28
34
Overvoltages
147
229
internal
189
232
P
Per unit quantities
134
Phase-locked oscillator
103
Physical models
211
255
Power control
119
Power instability
129
107
28
142
Power/frequency control
87
121
Power losses
75
257
Power modulation
137
141
Power reversal
116
143
Index Terms
Links
Protection
differential
224
filter
226
overcurrent
221
valve group
224
43
Pulse number
33
43
224
42
Q
Q, see Filter, quality of and Sharpness
of tuning
R
Radio interference
Reactive power
Rectifier (see also Converter)
176
268
11
28
114
133
141
281
24
Re-energisation of DC line
219
Reliability
121
255
259
Resonance
50
62
68
136
147
231
12
RTDS
211
S
Sea return, see Earth return
Self-saturated reactor
136
Index Terms
Links
Short-circuit faults
200
207
211
214
unsymmetrical
111
135
214
Short-circuit ratio
129
136
145
124
259
244
259
Subsynchronous resonance
140
Surge arrester
165
175
Surge capacitor
161
233
Surge diverter
160
Switching surges
198
197
Silicon controlled rectifier, see Thyristoi
Smoothing reactor, see DC reactor
Stability, of AC transmission
244
235
237
20
63
133
197
244
259
30
115
Telecommunications
126
245
Synchronous compensator
58
70
Telephone interference
57
77
190
Tests
171
Thyristor
180
converter
162
light triggered
278
module
167
station layout
174
240
172
184
Index Terms
Links
Thyristor (Cont.)
valve
143
162
176
192
283
cooling
167
286
quadruple
tests
89
171
Thyristor-controlled reactor
136
Thyristor-switched capacitors
136
Transformer connections
for increased pulse number
Transformer, converter
leakage
saturation effects
167
36
57
36
174
178
196
150
182
18
135
231
tertiary winding
21
Transient overvoltages
190
231
Transient stability
139
142
143
228
233
238
49
54
63
117
156
247
Triple harmonics
150
U
Unbalanced AC voltage
V
Valve, see Mercury-arc and Thyristor
VDCOL
Index Terms
Links
Voltage distortion
49
Voltage regulation
134
286
Voltage stability
135
58
W
Weak AC systems
135
216
69