THEISRAELLOBBYANDU.S.

FOREIGNPOLICY

JohnJ.Mearsheimer
DepartmentofPoliticalScience
UniversityofChicago

StephenM.Walt
JohnF.KennedySchoolofGovernment
HarvardUniversity

March2006
RWP06011

ThetwoauthorsofthisWorkingPaperaresolelyresponsiblefortheviews
expressedinit.Asacademicinstitutions,HarvardUniversityandthe
UniversityofChicagodonottakepositionsonthescholarshipofindividual
faculty,andthisarticleshouldnotbeinterpretedorportrayedasreflectingthe
officialpositionofeitherinstitution.

AneditedandreworkedversionofthispaperwaspublishedintheLondonReviewof
BooksVol.28,No.6(March23,2006),andisavailableonlineatwww.lrb.co.uk

THEISRAELLOBBYANDU.S.FOREIGNPOLICY

U.S.foreignpolicyshapeseventsineverycorneroftheglobe.Nowhereisthis
truerthanintheMiddleEast,aregionofrecurringinstabilityandenormous
strategicimportance.Mostrecently,theBushAdministrationsattemptto
transformtheregionintoacommunityofdemocracieshashelpedproducea
resilientinsurgencyinIraq,asharpriseinworldoilprices,andterrorist
bombingsinMadrid,London,andAmman.Withsomuchatstakeforsomany,
allcountriesneedtounderstandtheforcesthatdriveU.S.MiddleEastpolicy.

TheU.S.nationalinterestshouldbetheprimaryobjectofAmericanforeign
policy.Forthepastseveraldecades,however,andespeciallysincetheSixDay
Warin1967,thecenterpieceofU.S.MiddleEastpolicyhasbeenitsrelationship
withIsrael.ThecombinationofunwaveringU.S.supportforIsraelandthe
relatedefforttospreaddemocracythroughouttheregionhasinflamedAraband
IslamicopinionandjeopardizedU.S.security.

ThissituationhasnoequalinAmericanpoliticalhistory.WhyhastheUnited
Statesbeenwillingtosetasideitsownsecurityinordertoadvancetheinterests
ofanotherstate?Onemightassumethatthebondbetweenthetwocountriesis
basedonsharedstrategicinterestsorcompellingmoralimperatives.Aswe
showbelow,however,neitherofthoseexplanationscanaccountforthe
remarkablelevelofmaterialanddiplomaticsupportthattheUnitedStates
providestoIsrael.

Instead,theoverallthrustofU.S.policyintheregionisduealmostentirelyto
U.S.domesticpolitics,andespeciallytotheactivitiesoftheIsraelLobby.Other
specialinterestgroupshavemanagedtoskewU.S.foreignpolicyindirections
theyfavored,butnolobbyhasmanagedtodivertU.S.foreignpolicyasfarfrom
whattheAmericannationalinterestwouldotherwisesuggest,while
simultaneouslyconvincingAmericansthatU.S.andIsraeliinterestsare
essentiallyidentical.1

Inthepagesthatfollow,wedescribehowtheLobbyhasaccomplishedthisfeat,
andhowitsactivitieshaveshapedAmericasactionsinthiscriticalregion.
GiventhestrategicimportanceoftheMiddleEastanditspotentialimpacton

others,bothAmericansandnonAmericansneedtounderstandandaddressthe
LobbysinfluenceonU.S.policy.

Somereaderswillfindthisanalysisdisturbing,butthefactsrecountedhereare
notinseriousdisputeamongscholars.Indeed,ouraccountreliesheavilyonthe
workofIsraelischolarsandjournalists,whodeservegreatcreditforshedding
lightontheseissues.WealsorelyonevidenceprovidedbyrespectedIsraeliand
internationalhumanrightsorganizations.Similarly,ourclaimsaboutthe
LobbysimpactrelyontestimonyfromtheLobbysownmembers,aswellas
testimonyfrompoliticianswhohaveworkedwiththem.Readersmayrejectour
conclusions,ofcourse,buttheevidenceonwhichtheyrestisnotcontroversial.

THEGREATBENEFACTOR

SincetheOctoberWarin1973,WashingtonhasprovidedIsraelwithalevelof
supportdwarfingtheamountsprovidedtoanyotherstate.Ithasbeenthe
largestannualrecipientofdirectU.S.economicandmilitaryassistancesince1976
andthelargesttotalrecipientsinceWorldWarII.TotaldirectU.S.aidtoIsrael
amountstowellover$140billionin2003dollars.2Israelreceivesabout$3billion
indirectforeignassistanceeachyear,whichisroughlyonefifthofAmericas
foreignaidbudget.Inpercapitaterms,theUnitedStatesgiveseachIsraelia
directsubsidyworthabout$500peryear.3Thislargesseisespeciallystriking
whenonerealizesthatIsraelisnowawealthyindustrialstatewithapercapita
incomeroughlyequaltoSouthKoreaorSpain.4

IsraelalsogetsotherspecialdealsfromWashington.5Otheraidrecipientsget
theirmoneyinquarterlyinstallments,butIsraelreceivesitsentireappropriation
atthebeginningofeachfiscalyearandthusearnsextrainterest.Mostrecipients
ofAmericanmilitaryassistancearerequiredtospendallofitintheUnited
States,butIsraelcanuseroughlytwentyfivepercentofitsaidallotmentto
subsidizeitsowndefenseindustry.Israelistheonlyrecipientthatdoesnothave
toaccountforhowtheaidisspent,anexemptionthatmakesitvirtually
impossibletopreventthemoneyfrombeingusedforpurposestheUnitedStates
opposes,likebuildingsettlementsintheWestBank.

Moreover,theUnitedStateshasprovidedIsraelwithnearly$3billiontodevelop
weaponssystemsliketheLaviaircraftthatthePentagondidnotwantorneed,
whilegivingIsraelaccesstotopdrawerU.S.weaponrylikeBlackhawk
helicoptersandF16jets.Finally,theUnitedStatesgivesIsraelaccessto

intelligencethatitdeniesitsNATOalliesandhasturnedablindeyetowards
Israelsacquisitionofnuclearweapons.6

Inaddition,WashingtonprovidesIsraelwithconsistentdiplomaticsupport.
Since1982,theUnitedStateshasvetoed32UnitedNationsSecurityCouncil
resolutionsthatwerecriticalofIsrael,anumbergreaterthanthecombinedtotal
ofvetoescastbyalltheotherSecurityCouncilmembers.7ItalsoblocksArab
stateseffortstoputIsraelsnucleararsenalontheInternationalAtomicEnergy
Agencysagenda.8

TheUnitedStatesalsocomestoIsraelsrescueinwartimeandtakesitsside
whennegotiatingpeace.TheNixonAdministrationresuppliedIsraelduringthe
OctoberWarandprotectedIsraelfromthethreatofSovietintervention.
Washingtonwasdeeplyinvolvedinthenegotiationsthatendedthatwaraswell
asthelengthystepbystepprocessthatfollowed,justasitplayedakeyrolein
thenegotiationsthatprecededandfollowedthe1993OsloAccords.9Therewere
occasionalfrictionsbetweenU.S.andIsraeliofficialsinbothcases,buttheUnited
StatescoordinateditspositionscloselywithIsraelandconsistentlybackedthe
Israeliapproachtothenegotiations.Indeed,oneAmericanparticipantatCamp
David(2000)latersaid,fartoooften,wefunctioned...asIsraelslawyer.10

Asdiscussedbelow,WashingtonhasgivenIsraelwidelatitudeindealingwith
theoccupiedterritories(theWestBankandGazaStrip),evenwhenitsactions
wereatoddswithstatedU.S.policy.Moreover,theBushAdministrations
ambitiousstrategytotransformtheMiddleEastbeginningwiththeinvasionof
IraqisatleastpartlyintendedtoimproveIsraelsstrategicsituation.Apart
fromwartimealliances,itishardtothinkofanotherinstancewhereonecountry
hasprovidedanotherwithasimilarlevelofmaterialanddiplomaticsupportfor
suchanextendedperiod.AmericassupportforIsraelis,inshort,unique.

ThisextraordinarygenerositymightbeunderstandableifIsraelwereavital
strategicassetoriftherewereacompellingmoralcaseforsustainedU.S.
backing.Butneitherrationaleisconvincing.

ASTRATEGICLIABILITY

AccordingtotheAmericanIsraelPublicAffairsCommittees(AIPAC)website,
theUnitedStatesandIsraelhaveformedauniquepartnershiptomeetthe
growingstrategicthreatsintheMiddleEast....Thiscooperativeeffortprovides
significantbenefitsforboththeUnitedStatesandIsrael.11Thisclaimisan
3

articleoffaithamongIsraelssupportersandisroutinelyinvokedbyIsraeli
politiciansandproIsraelAmericans.

IsraelmayhavebeenastrategicassetduringtheColdWar.12Byservingas
AmericasproxyaftertheSixDayWar(1967),IsraelhelpedcontainSoviet
expansionintheregionandinflictedhumiliatingdefeatsonSovietclientslike
EgyptandSyria.IsraeloccasionallyhelpedprotectotherU.S.allies(likeJordans
KingHussein)anditsmilitaryprowessforcedMoscowtospendmorebacking
itslosingclients.IsraelalsogavetheUnitedStatesusefulintelligenceabout
Sovietcapabilities.

Israelsstrategicvalueduringthisperiodshouldnotbeoverstated,however.13
BackingIsraelwasnotcheap,anditcomplicatedAmericasrelationswiththe
Arabworld.Forexample,theU.S.decisiontogiveIsrael$2.2billionin
emergencymilitaryaidduringtheOctoberWartriggeredanOPECoilembargo
thatinflictedconsiderabledamageonWesterneconomies.Moreover,Israels
militarycouldnotprotectU.S.interestsintheregion.Forexample,theUnited
StatescouldnotrelyonIsraelwhentheIranianRevolutionin1979raised
concernsaboutthesecurityofPersianGulfoilsupplies,andhadtocreateitsown
RapidDeploymentForceinstead.

EvenifIsraelwasastrategicassetduringtheColdWar,thefirstGulfWar(1990
91)revealedthatIsraelwasbecomingastrategicburden.TheUnitedStates
couldnotuseIsraelibasesduringthewarwithoutrupturingtheantiIraq
coalition,andithadtodivertresources(e.g.,Patriotmissilebatteries)tokeepTel
AvivfromdoinganythingthatmightfracturetheallianceagainstSaddam.
Historyrepeateditselfin2003:althoughIsraelwaseagerfortheUnitedStatesto
attackSaddam,PresidentBushcouldnotaskittohelpwithouttriggeringArab
opposition.SoIsraelstayedonthesidelinesagain.14

Beginninginthe1990s,andespeciallyafter9/11,U.S.supportforIsraelhasbeen
justifiedbytheclaimthatbothstatesarethreatenedbyterroristgroups
originatingintheAraborMuslimworld,andbyasetofroguestatesthatback
thesegroupsandseekWMD.ThisrationaleimpliesthatWashingtonshould
giveIsraelafreehandindealingwiththePalestiniansandnotpressIsraelto
makeconcessionsuntilallPalestinianterroristsareimprisonedordead.Italso
impliesthattheUnitedStatesshouldgoaftercountriesliketheIslamicRepublic
ofIran,SaddamHusseinsIraq,andBasharalAssadsSyria.Israelisthusseen
asacrucialallyinthewaronterror,becauseitsenemiesareAmericasenemies.

Thisnewrationaleseemspersuasive,butIsraelisinfactaliabilityinthewaron
terrorandthebroaderefforttodealwithroguestates.

Tobeginwith,terrorismisatacticemployedbyawidearrayofpolitical
groups;itisnotasingleunifiedadversary.Theterroristorganizationsthat
threatenIsrael(e.g.,HamasorHezbollah)donotthreatentheUnitedStates,
exceptwhenitintervenesagainstthem(asinLebanonin1982).Moreover,
PalestinianterrorismisnotrandomviolencedirectedagainstIsraelorthe
West;itislargelyaresponsetoIsraelsprolongedcampaigntocolonizethe
WestBankandGazaStrip.

Moreimportantly,sayingthatIsraelandtheUnitedStatesareunitedbyashared
terroristthreathasthecausalrelationshipbackwards:rather,theUnitedStates
hasaterrorismproblemingoodpartbecauseitissocloselyalliedwithIsrael,
nottheotherwayaround.U.S.supportforIsraelisnottheonlysourceofanti
Americanterrorism,butitisanimportantone,anditmakeswinningthewaron
terrormoredifficult.15Thereisnoquestion,forexample,thatmanyalQaeda
leaders,includingbinLaden,aremotivatedbyIsraelspresenceinJerusalemand
theplightofthePalestinians.AccordingtotheU.S.9/11Commission,binLaden
explicitlysoughttopunishtheUnitedStatesforitspoliciesintheMiddleEast,
includingitssupportforIsrael,andheeventriedtotimetheattackstohighlight
thisissue.16

Equallyimportant,unconditionalU.S.supportforIsraelmakesiteasierfor
extremistslikebinLadentorallypopularsupportandtoattractrecruits.Public
opinionpollsconfirmthatArabpopulationsaredeeplyhostiletoAmerican
supportforIsrael,andtheU.S.StateDepartmentsAdvisoryGrouponPublic
DiplomacyfortheArabandMuslimworldfoundthatcitizensinthese
countriesaregenuinelydistressedattheplightofthePalestiniansandattherole
theyperceivetheUnitedStatestobeplaying.17

AsforsocalledroguestatesintheMiddleEast,theyarenotadirethreattovital
U.S.interests,apartfromtheU.S.commitmenttoIsraelitself.Althoughthe
UnitedStatesdoeshaveanumberofdisagreementswiththeseregimes,
WashingtonwouldnotbenearlyasworriedaboutIran,BathistIraq,orSyria
wereitnotsocloselytiedtoIsrael.Evenifthesestatesacquirenuclear
weaponswhichisobviouslynotdesirableitwouldnotbeastrategicdisaster
fortheUnitedStates.NeitherAmericanorIsraelcouldbeblackmailedbya
nucleararmedrogue,becausetheblackmailercouldnotcarryoutthethreat
withoutreceivingoverwhelmingretaliation.Thedangerofanuclearhandoff
5

toterroristsisequallyremote,becausearoguestatecouldnotbesurethe
transferwouldbeundetectedorthatitwouldnotbeblamedandpunished
afterwards.

Furthermore,theU.S.relationshipwithIsraelactuallymakesithardertodeal
withthesestates.Israelsnucleararsenalisonereasonwhysomeofits
neighborswantnuclearweapons,andthreateningthesestateswithregime
changemerelyincreasesthatdesire.YetIsraelisnotmuchofanassetwhenthe
UnitedStatescontemplatesusingforceagainsttheseregimes,becauseitcannot
participateinthefight.

Inshort,treatingIsraelasAmericasmostimportantallyinthecampaignagainst
terrorismandassortedMiddleEastdictatorshipsbothexaggeratesIsraelsability
tohelpontheseissuesandignoresthewaysthatIsraelspoliciesmakeU.S.
effortsmoredifficult.

UnquestionedsupportforIsraelalsoweakenstheU.S.positionoutsidethe
MiddleEast.ForeignelitesconsistentlyviewtheUnitedStatesastoosupportive
ofIsrael,andthinkitstoleranceofIsraelirepressionintheoccupiedterritoriesis
morallyobtuseandahandicapinthewaronterrorism.18InApril2004,for
example,52formerBritishdiplomatssentPrimeMinisterTonyBlairaletter
sayingthattheIsraelPalestineconflicthadpoisonedrelationsbetweentheWest
andtheArabandIslamicworlds,andwarningthatthepoliciesofBushand
PrimeMinisterArielSharonwereonesidedandillegal.19

AfinalreasontoquestionIsraelsstrategicvalueisthatitdoesnotactlikealoyal
ally.IsraeliofficialsfrequentlyignoreU.S.requestsandrenegeonpromises
madetotopU.S.leaders(includingpastpledgestohaltsettlementconstruction
andtorefrainfromtargetedassassinationsofPalestinianleaders).20Moreover,
IsraelhasprovidedsensitiveU.S.militarytechnologytopotentialU.S.rivalslike
China,inwhattheU.S.StateDepartmentInspectorGeneralcalledasystematic
andgrowingpatternofunauthorizedtransfers.21AccordingtotheU.S.General
AccountingOffice,Israelalsoconductsthemostaggressiveespionage
operationsagainsttheU.S.ofanyally.22InadditiontothecaseofJonathan
Pollard,whogaveIsraellargequantitiesofclassifiedmaterialintheearly1980s
(whichIsraelreportedlypassedontotheSovietUniontogainmoreexitvisasfor
SovietJews),anewcontroversyeruptedin2004whenitwasrevealedthatakey
Pentagonofficial(LarryFranklin)hadpassedclassifiedinformationtoanIsraeli
diplomat,allegedlyaidedbytwoAIPACofficials.23Israelishardlytheonly

countrythatspiesontheUnitedStates,butitswillingnesstospyonitsprincipal
patroncastsfurtherdoubtonitsstrategicvalue.

ADWINDLINGMORALCASE

Apartfromitsallegedstrategicvalue,Israelsbackersalsoarguethatitdeserves
unqualifiedU.S.supportbecause1)itisweakandsurroundedbyenemies,2)it
isademocracy,whichisamorallypreferableformofgovernment;3)theJewish
peoplehavesufferedfrompastcrimesandthereforedeservespecialtreatment,
and4)Israelsconducthasbeenmorallysuperiortoitsadversariesbehavior.

Oncloseinspection,however,eachoftheseargumentsisunpersuasive.Thereis
astrongmoralcaseforsupportingIsraelsexistence,butthatisnotinjeopardy.
Viewedobjectively,Israelspastandpresentconductoffersnomoralbasisfor
privilegingitoverthePalestinians.

BackingtheUnderdog?

Israelisoftenportrayedasweakandbesieged,aJewishDavidsurroundedbya
hostileArabGoliath.ThisimagehasbeencarefullynurturedbyIsraelileaders
andsympatheticwriters,buttheoppositeimageisclosertothetruth.Contrary
topopularbelief,theZionistshadlarger,betterequipped,andbetterledforces
duringthe194749WarofIndependenceandtheIsraelDefenseForces(IDF)won
quickandeasyvictoriesagainstEgyptin1956andagainstEgypt,Jordan,and
Syriain1967beforelargescaleU.S.aidbeganflowingtoIsrael.24Thesevictories
offereloquentevidenceofIsraelipatriotism,organizationalability,andmilitary
prowess,buttheyalsorevealthatIsraelwasfarfromhelplesseveninitsearliest
years.

Today,IsraelisthestrongestmilitarypowerintheMiddleEast.Itsconventional
forcesarefarsuperiortoitsneighborsanditistheonlystateintheregionwith
nuclearweapons.EgyptandJordansignedpeacetreatieswithIsraelandSaudi
Arabiahasofferedtodosoaswell.SyriahaslostitsSovietpatron,Iraqhasbeen
decimatedbythreedisastrouswars,andIranishundredsofmilesaway.The
Palestiniansbarelyhaveeffectivepolice,letaloneamilitarythatcouldthreaten
Israel.Accordingtoa2005assessmentbyTelAvivUniversitysprestigious
JaffeeCenterforStrategicStudies,thestrategicbalancedecidedlyfavorsIsrael,
whichhascontinuedtowidenthequalitativegapbetweenitsownmilitary
capabilityanddeterrencepowersandthoseofitsneighbors.25Ifbackingthe
underdogwereacompellingrationale,theUnitedStateswouldbesupporting
Israelsopponents.

AidingaFellowDemocracy?

AmericanbackingisoftenjustifiedbytheclaimthatIsraelisafellowdemocracy
surroundedbyhostiledictatorships.Thisrationalesoundsconvincing,butit
cannotaccountforthecurrentlevelofU.S.support.Afterall,therearemany
democraciesaroundtheworld,butnonereceivesthelavishsupportthatIsrael
does.TheUnitedStateshasoverthrowndemocraticgovernmentsinthepastand
supporteddictatorswhenthiswasthoughttoadvanceU.S.interests,andithas
goodrelationswithanumberofdictatorshipstoday.Thus,beingdemocratic
neitherjustifiesnorexplainsAmericassupportforIsrael.

TheshareddemocracyrationaleisalsoweakenedbyaspectsofIsraeli
democracythatareatoddswithcoreAmericanvalues.TheUnitedStatesisa
liberaldemocracywherepeopleofanyrace,religion,orethnicityaresupposed
toenjoyequalrights.Bycontrast,IsraelwasexplicitlyfoundedasaJewishstate
andcitizenshipisbasedontheprincipleofbloodkinship.26Giventhis
conceptionofcitizenship,itisnotsurprisingthatIsraels1.3millionArabsare
treatedassecondclasscitizens,orthatarecentIsraeligovernmentcommission
foundthatIsraelbehavesinaneglectfulanddiscriminatorymannertowards
them.27

Similarly,IsraeldoesnotpermitPalestinianswhomarryIsraelicitizensto
becomecitizensthemselves,anddoesnotgivethesespousestherighttolivein
Israel.TheIsraelihumanrightsorganizationBtselemcalledthisrestrictiona
racistlawthatdetermineswhocanlivehereaccordingtoracistcriteria.28Such
lawsmaybeunderstandablegivenIsraelsfoundingprinciples,buttheyarenot
consistentwithAmericasimageofdemocracy.

Israelsdemocraticstatusisalsounderminedbyitsrefusaltograntthe
Palestiniansaviablestateoftheirown.Israelcontrolsthelivesofabout3.8
millionPalestiniansinGazaandtheWestBank,whilecolonizinglandsonwhich
thePalestinianshavelongdwelt.Israelisformallydemocratic,butthemillions
ofPalestiniansthatitcontrolsaredeniedfullpoliticalrightsandtheshared
democracyrationaleiscorrespondinglyweakened.

CompensationforPastCrimes

AthirdmoraljustificationisthehistoryofJewishsufferingintheChristianWest,
especiallythetragicepisodeoftheHolocaust.BecauseJewswerepersecutedfor

centuriesandcanonlybesafeinaJewishhomeland,manybelievethatIsrael
deservesspecialtreatmentfromtheUnitedStates.

ThereisnoquestionthatJewssufferedgreatlyfromthedespicablelegacyofanti
Semitism,andthatIsraelscreationwasanappropriateresponsetoalongrecord
ofcrimes.Thishistory,asnoted,providesastrongmoralcaseforsupporting
Israelsexistence.ButthecreationofIsraelinvolvedadditionalcrimesagainsta
largelyinnocentthirdparty:thePalestinians.

Thehistoryoftheseeventsiswellunderstood.WhenpoliticalZionismbeganin
earnestinthelate19thcentury,therewereonlyabout15,000JewsinPalestine.29
In1893,forexample,theArabscomprisedroughly95percentofthepopulation,
andthoughunderOttomancontrol,theyhadbeenincontinuouspossessionof
thisterritoryfor1300years.30EvenwhenIsraelwasfounded,Jewswereonly
about35percentofPalestinespopulationandowned7percentoftheland.31

ThemainstreamZionistleadershipwasnotinterestedinestablishingabi
nationalstateoracceptingapermanentpartitionofPalestine.TheZionist
leadershipwassometimeswillingtoacceptpartitionasafirststep,butthiswasa
tacticalmaneuverandnottheirrealobjective.AsDavidBenGurionputitinthe
late1930s,Aftertheformationofalargearmyinthewakeoftheestablishment
ofthestate,weshallabolishpartitionandexpandtothewholeofPalestine.32

Toachievethisgoal,theZionistshadtoexpellargenumbersofArabsfromthe
territorythatwouldeventuallybecomeIsrael.Therewassimplynootherwayto
accomplishtheirobjective.BenGurionsawtheproblemclearly,writingin1941
thatitisimpossibletoimaginegeneralevacuation[oftheArabpopulation]
withoutcompulsion,andbrutalcompulsion.33OrasIsraelihistorianBenny
Morrisputsit,theideaoftransferisasoldasmodernZionismandhas
accompanieditsevolutionandpraxisduringthepastcentury.34

Thisopportunitycamein194748,whenJewishforcesdroveupto700,000
Palestiniansintoexile.35IsraeliofficialshavelongclaimedthattheArabsfled
becausetheirleaderstoldthemto,butcarefulscholarship(muchofitbyIsraeli
historianslikeMorris)havedemolishedthismyth.Infact,mostArableaders
urgedthePalestinianpopulationtostayhome,butfearofviolentdeathatthe
handsofZionistforcesledmostofthemtoflee.36Afterthewar,Israelbarredthe
returnofthePalestinianexiles.

10

ThefactthatthecreationofIsraelentailedamoralcrimeagainstthePalestinian
peoplewaswellunderstoodbyIsraelsleaders.AsBenGuriontoldNahum
Goldmann,presidentoftheWorldJewishCongress,IfIwereanArableaderI
wouldnevermaketermswithIsrael.Thatisnatural:wehavetakentheir
country....WecomefromIsrael,buttwothousandyearsago,andwhatisthat
tothem?TherehasbeenantiSemitism,theNazis,Hitler,Auschwitz,butwas
thattheirfault?Theyonlyseeonething:wehavecomehereandstolentheir
country.Whyshouldtheyacceptthat?37

Sincethen,IsraelileadershaverepeatedlysoughttodenythePalestinians
nationalambitions.38PrimeMinisterGoldaMeirfamouslyremarkedthatthere
wasnosuchthingasaPalestinian,andevenPrimeMinisterYitzhakRabin,who
signedthe1993OsloAccords,nonethelessopposedcreatingafullfledged
Palestinianstate.39PressurefromextremistviolenceandthegrowingPalestinian
populationhasforcedsubsequentIsraelileaderstodisengagefromsomeofthe
occupiedterritoriesandtoexploreterritorialcompromise,butnoIsraeli
governmenthasbeenwillingtoofferthePalestiniansaviablestateoftheirown.
EvenPrimeMinisterEhudBarakspurportedlygenerousofferatCampDavidin
July2000wouldonlyhavegiventhePalestiniansadisarmedanddismembered
setofBantustansunderdefactoIsraelicontrol.40

EuropescrimesagainsttheJewsprovideaclearmoraljustificationforIsraels
righttoexist.ButIsraelssurvivalisnotindoubtevenifsomeIslamic
extremistsmakeoutrageousandunrealisticreferencestowipingitoffthe
mapandthetragichistoryoftheJewishpeopledoesnotobligatetheUnited
StatestohelpIsraelnomatterwhatitdoestoday.

VirtuousIsraelisversusEvilArabs

ThefinalmoralargumentportraysIsraelasacountrythathassoughtpeaceat
everyturnandshowedgreatrestraintevenwhenprovoked.TheArabs,by
contrast,aresaidtohaveactedwithgreatwickedness.Thisnarrativewhichis
endlesslyrepeatedbyIsraelileadersandAmericanapologistssuchasAlan
Dershowitzisyetanothermyth.41Intermsofactualbehavior,Israelsconduct
isnotmorallydistinguishablefromtheactionsofitsopponents.

IsraelischolarshipshowsthattheearlyZionistswerefarfrombenevolent
towardsthePalestinianArabs.42TheArabinhabitantsdidresisttheZionists
encroachments,whichishardlysurprisinggiventhattheZionistsweretryingto
createtheirownstateonArablands.TheZionistsrespondedvigorously,and
11

neithersideownsthemoralhighgroundduringthisperiod.Thissame
scholarshipalsorevealsthatthecreationofIsraelin194748involvedexplicit
actsofethniccleansing,includingexecutions,massacres,andrapesbyJews.43

Furthermore,IsraelssubsequentconducttowardsitsArabadversariesandits
Palestiniansubjectshasoftenbeenbrutal,belyinganyclaimtomorallysuperior
conduct.Between1949and1956,forexample,Israelisecurityforceskilled
between2,700and5000Arabinfiltrators,theoverwhelmingmajorityofthem
unarmed.44TheIDFconductednumerouscrossborderraidsagainstits
neighborsintheearly1950s,andthoughtheseactionswereportrayedas
defensiveresponses,theywereactuallypartofabroaderefforttoexpandIsraels
borders.IsraelsexpansionistambitionsalsoledittojoinBritainandFrancein
attackingEgyptin1956,andIsraelwithdrewfromthelandsithadconquered
onlyinthefaceofintenseU.S.pressure.45

TheIDFalsomurderedhundredsofEgyptianprisonersofwarinboththe1956
and1967wars.46In1967,itexpelledbetween100,000and260,000Palestinians
fromthenewlyconqueredWestBank,anddrove80,000SyriansfromtheGolan
Heights.47Itwasalsocomplicitinthemassacreof700innocentPalestiniansat
theSabraandShatilarefugeecampsfollowingitsinvasionofLebanonin1982,
andanIsraeliinvestigatorycommissionfoundthenDefenceMinisterSharon
personallyresponsiblefortheseatrocities.48

IsraelipersonnelhavetorturednumerousPalestinianprisoners,systematically
humiliatedandinconveniencedPalestiniancivilians,andusedforce
indiscriminatelyagainstthemonnumerousoccasions.DuringtheFirstIntifida
(19871991),forexample,theIDFdistributedtruncheonstoitstroopsand
encouragedthemtobreakthebonesofPalestinianprotestors.TheSwedish
SavetheChildrenorganizationestimatedthat23,600to29,900children
requiredmedicaltreatmentfortheirbeatinginjuriesinthefirsttwoyearsofthe
intifida,withnearlyonethirdsustainingbrokenbones.Nearlyonethirdofthe
beatenchildrenwereagedtenandunder.49

IsraelsresponsetotheSecondIntifida(20002005)hasbeenevenmoreviolent,
leadingHaaretztodeclarethattheIDFisturningintoakillingmachine
whoseefficiencyisaweinspiring,yetshocking.50TheIDFfiredonemillion
bulletsinthefirstdaysoftheuprising,whichisfarfromameasuredresponse.51
Sincethen,Israelhaskilled3.4PalestiniansforeveryIsraelilost,themajorityof
whomhavebeeninnocentbystanders;theratioofPalestiniantoIsraelichildren
killedisevenhigher(5.7to1).52Israeliforceshavealsokilledseveralforeign
12

peaceactivists,includinga23yearoldAmericanwomancrushedbyanIsraeli
bulldozerinMarch2003.53

ThesefactsaboutIsraelsconducthavebeenamplydocumentedbynumerous
humanrightsorganizationsincludingprominentIsraeligroupsandarenot
disputedbyfairmindedobservers.AndthatiswhyfourformerofficialsofShin
Bet(theIsraelidomesticsecurityorganization)condemnedIsraelsconduct
duringtheSecondIntifadainNovember2003.Oneofthemdeclaredweare
behavingdisgracefully,andanothertermedIsraelsconductpatently
immoral.54

ButisntIsraelentitledtodowhateverittakestoprotectitscitizens?Doesntthe
uniqueevilofterrorismjustifycontinuedU.S.support,evenifIsraeloften
respondsharshly?

Infact,thisargumentisnotacompellingmoraljustificationeither.Palestinians
haveusedterrorismagainsttheirIsraelioccupiers,andtheirwillingnesstoattack
innocentciviliansiswrong.Thisbehaviorisnotsurprising,however,because
thePalestiniansbelievetheyhavenootherwaytoforceIsraeliconcessions.As
formerPrimeMinisterBarakonceadmitted,hadhebeenbornaPalestinian,he
wouldhavejoinedaterroristorganization.55

Finally,weshouldnotforgetthattheZionistsusedterrorismwhentheywerein
asimilarlyweakpositionandtryingtoobtaintheirownstate.Between1944and
1947,severalZionistorganizationsusedterroristbombingstodrivetheBritish
fromPalestine,andtookthelivesofmanyinnocentciviliansalongtheway.56
IsraeliterroristsalsomurderedU.N.mediatorCountFolkeBernadottein1948,
becausetheyopposedhisproposaltointernationalizeJerusalem.57Norwerethe
perpetratorsoftheseactsisolatedextremists:theleadersofthemurderplotwere
eventuallygrantedamnestybytheIsraeligovernmentandoneofthemwas
electedtotheKnesset.Anotherterroristleader,whoapprovedthemurderbut
wasnottried,wasfuturePrimeMinisterYitzhakShamir.Indeed,Shamiropenly
arguedthatneitherJewishethicsnorJewishtraditioncandisqualifyterrorism
asameansofcombat.Rather,terrorismhadagreatparttoplayinourwar
againsttheoccupier[Britain].58IfthePalestiniansuseofterrorismismorally
reprehensibletoday,sowasIsraelsrelianceuponitinthepast,andthusone
cannotjustifyU.S.supportforIsraelonthegroundsthatitspastconductwas
morallysuperior.59

13

Israelmaynothaveactedworsethanmanyothercountries,butitclearlyhasnot
actedanybetter.Andifneitherstrategicnormoralargumentscanaccountfor
AmericassupportforIsrael,howarewetoexplainit?

THEISRAELLOBBY

TheexplanationliesintheunmatchedpoweroftheIsraelLobby.Wereitnotfor
theLobbysabilitytomanipulatetheAmericanpoliticalsystem,therelationship
betweenIsraelandtheUnitedStateswouldbefarlessintimatethanitistoday.

WhatIsTheLobby?

WeusetheLobbyasaconvenientshorthandtermfortheloosecoalitionof
individualsandorganizationswhoactivelyworktoshapeU.S.foreignpolicyin
aproIsraeldirection.Ouruseofthistermisnotmeanttosuggestthatthe
Lobbyisaunifiedmovementwithacentralleadership,orthatindividuals
withinitdonotdisagreeoncertainissues

ThecoreoftheLobbyiscomprisedofAmericanJewswhomakeasignificant
effortintheirdailylivestobendU.S.foreignpolicysothatitadvancesIsraels
interests.Theiractivitiesgobeyondmerelyvotingforcandidateswhoarepro
Israeltoincludeletterwriting,financialcontributions,andsupportingproIsrael
organizations.ButnotallJewishAmericansarepartoftheLobby,because
Israelisnotasalientissueformanyofthem.Ina2004survey,forexample,
roughly36percentofJewishAmericanssaidtheywereeithernotveryornot
atallemotionallyattachedtoIsrael.60

JewishAmericansalsodifferonspecificIsraelipolicies.Manyofthekey
organizationsintheLobby,likeAIPACandtheConferenceofPresidentsof
MajorJewishOrganizations(CPMJO),arerunbyhardlinerswhogenerally
supportedtheexpansionistpoliciesofIsraelsLikudParty,includingitshostility
totheOsloPeaceProcess.ThebulkofU.S.Jewry,ontheotherhand,ismore
favorablydisposedtomakingconcessionstothePalestinians,andafew
groupssuchasJewishVoiceforPeacestronglyadvocatesuchsteps.61Despite
thesedifferences,moderatesandhardlinersbothsupportsteadfastU.S.support
forIsrael.

Notsurprisingly,AmericanJewishleadersoftenconsultwithIsraeliofficials,so
thattheformercanmaximizetheirinfluenceintheUnitedStates.Asoneactivist
withamajorJewishorganizationwrote,itisroutineforustosay:Thisisour
14

policyonacertainissue,butwemustcheckwhattheIsraelisthink.Weasa
communitydoitallthetime.62Thereisalsoastrongnormagainstcriticizing
Israelipolicy,andJewishAmericanleadersrarelysupportputtingpressureon
Israel.Thus,EdgarBronfmanSr.,thepresidentoftheWorldJewishCongress,
wasaccusedofperfidywhenhewrotealettertoPresidentBushinmid2003
urgingBushtopressureIsraeltocurbconstructionofitscontroversialsecurity
fence.63Criticsdeclaredthat,Itwouldbeobsceneatanytimeforthepresident
oftheWorldJewishCongresstolobbythepresidentoftheUnitedStatestoresist
policiesbeingpromotedbythegovernmentofIsrael.

Similarly,whenIsraelPolicyForumpresidentSeymourReichadvisedSecretary
ofStateCondoleezzaRicetopressureIsraeltoreopenacriticalbordercrossingin
theGazaStripinNovember2005,criticsdenouncedhisactionasirresponsible
behavior,anddeclaredthat,ThereisabsolutelynoroomintheJewish
mainstreamforactivelycanvassingagainstthesecurityrelatedpolicies...of
Israel.64Recoilingfromtheseattacks,Reichproclaimedthatthewordpressure
isnotinmyvocabularywhenitcomestoIsrael.

JewishAmericanshaveformedanimpressivearrayoforganizationstoinfluence
Americanforeignpolicy,ofwhichAIPACisthemostpowerfulandwellknown.
In1997,FortunemagazineaskedmembersofCongressandtheirstaffstolistthe
mostpowerfullobbiesinWashington.65AIPACwasrankedsecondbehindthe
AmericanAssociationofRetiredPeople(AARP),butaheadofheavyweight
lobbiesliketheAFLCIOandtheNationalRifleAssociation.ANationalJournal
studyinMarch2005reachedasimilarconclusion,placingAIPACinsecond
place(tiedwithAARP)intheWashingtonsmusclerankings.66

TheLobbyalsoincludesprominentChristianevangelicalslikeGaryBauer,Jerry
Falwell,RalphReed,andPatRobertson,aswellasDickArmeyandTomDeLay,
formermajorityleadersintheHouseofRepresentatives.TheybelieveIsraels
rebirthispartofBiblicalprophecy,supportitsexpansionistagenda,andthink
pressuringIsraeliscontrarytoGodswill.67Inaddition,theLobbys
membershipincludesneoconservativegentilessuchasJohnBolton,thelateWall
StreetJournaleditorRobertBartley,formerSecretaryofEducationWilliam
Bennett,formerU.N.AmbassadorJeanneKirkpatrick,andcolumnistGeorge
Will.

15


SourcesofPower

TheUnitedStateshasadividedgovernmentthatoffersmanywaystoinfluence
thepolicyprocess.Asaresult,interestgroupscanshapepolicyinmany
differentwaysbylobbyingelectedrepresentativesandmembersofthe
executivebranch,makingcampaigncontributions,votinginelections,molding
publicopinion,etc.

Furthermore,specialinterestgroupsenjoydisproportionatepowerwhenthey
arecommittedtoaparticularissueandthebulkofthepopulationisindifferent.
Policymakerswilltendtoaccommodatethosewhocareabouttheissuein
question,eveniftheirnumbersaresmall,confidentthattherestofthe
populationwillnotpenalizethem.

TheIsraelLobbyspowerflowsfromitsunmatchedabilitytoplaythisgameof
interestgrouppolitics.Initsbasicoperations,itisnodifferentfrominterest
groupsliketheFarmLobby,steelandtextileworkers,andotherethniclobbies.
WhatsetstheIsraelLobbyapartisitsextraordinaryeffectiveness.Butthereis
nothingimproperaboutAmericanJewsandtheirChristianalliesattemptingto
swayU.S.policytowardsIsrael.TheLobbysactivitiesarenotthesortof
conspiracydepictedinantiSemitictractsliketheProtocolsoftheEldersofZion.
Forthemostpart,theindividualsandgroupsthatcomprisetheLobbyaredoing
whatotherspecialinterestgroupsdo,justmuchbetter.Moreover,proArab
interestgroupsareweaktononexistent,whichmakestheLobbystaskeven
easier.68

StrategiesforSuccess

TheLobbypursuestwobroadstrategiestopromoteU.S.supportforIsrael.First,
itwieldssignificantinfluenceinWashington,pressuringbothCongressandthe
ExecutivebranchtosupportIsraeldowntheline.Whateveranindividual
lawmakerorpolicymakersownviews,theLobbytriestomakesupportingIsrael
thesmartpoliticalchoice.

Second,theLobbystrivestoensurethatpublicdiscourseaboutIsraelportraysit
inapositivelight,byrepeatingmythsaboutIsraelanditsfoundingandby
publicizingIsraelssideinthepolicydebatesoftheday.Thegoalistoprevent
criticalcommentaryaboutIsraelfromgettingafairhearinginthepoliticalarena.
ControllingthedebateisessentialtoguaranteeingU.S.support,becausea
16

candiddiscussionofU.S.IsraelirelationsmightleadAmericanstofavora
differentpolicy.

InfluencingCongress

AkeypillaroftheLobbyseffectivenessisitsinfluenceintheU.S.Congress,
whereIsraelisvirtuallyimmunefromcriticism.Thisisinitselfaremarkable
situation,becauseCongressalmostnevershiesawayfromcontentiousissues.
Whethertheissueisabortion,affirmativeaction,healthcare,orwelfare,thereis
certaintobealivelydebateonCapitolHill.WhereIsraelisconcerned,however,
potentialcriticsfallsilentandthereishardlyanydebateatall.

OnereasonfortheLobbyssuccesswithCongressisthatsomekeymembersare
ChristianZionistslikeDickArmey,whosaidinSeptember2002thatMyNo.1
priorityinforeignpolicyistoprotectIsrael.69Onewouldthinkthatthenumber
1priorityforanycongressmanwouldbetoprotectAmerica,butthatisnot
whatArmeysaid.TherearealsoJewishsenatorsandcongressmenwhoworkto
makeU.S.foreignpolicysupportIsraelsinterests.

ProIsraelcongressionalstaffersareanothersourceoftheLobbyspower.As
MorrisAmitay,aformerheadofAIPAC,onceadmitted,Therearealotofguys
attheworkingleveluphere[onCapitolHill]whohappentobeJewish,who
arewillingtolookatcertainissuesintermsoftheirJewishness.Theseare
allguyswhoareinapositiontomakethedecisionintheseareasforthose
senators.Youcangetanawfullotdonejustatthestafflevel.70

ItisAIPACitself,however,thatformsthecoreoftheLobbysinfluencein
Congress.AIPACssuccessisduetoitsabilitytorewardlegislatorsand
congressionalcandidateswhosupportitsagenda,andtopunishthosewho
challengeit.MoneyiscriticaltoU.S.elections(astherecentscandalover
lobbyistJackAbramoffsvariousshadydealingsremindsus),andAIPACmakes
surethatitsfriendsgetstrongfinancialsupportfromthemyriadproIsrael
politicalactioncommittees.ThoseseenashostiletoIsrael,ontheotherhand,
canbesurethatAIPACwilldirectcampaigncontributionstotheirpolitical
opponents.AIPACalsoorganizesletterwritingcampaignsandencourages
newspapereditorstoendorseproIsraelcandidates.

Thereisnodoubtaboutthepotencyofthesetactics.Totakebutoneexample,in
1984AIPAChelpeddefeatSenatorCharlesPercyfromIllinois,who,accordingto
oneprominentLobbyfigure,haddisplayedinsensitivityandevenhostilityto
17

ourconcerns.ThomasDine,theheadofAIPACatthetime,explainedwhat
happened:AlltheJewsinAmerica,fromcoasttocoast,gatheredtooustPercy.
AndtheAmericanpoliticiansthosewhoholdpublicpositionsnow,andthose
whoaspiregotthemessage.71AIPACprizesitsreputationasaformidable
adversary,ofcourse,becauseitdiscouragesanyonefromquestioningitsagenda.

AIPACsinfluenceonCapitolHillgoesevenfurther,however.Accordingto
DouglasBloomfield,aformerAIPACstaffmember,Itiscommonformembers
ofCongressandtheirstaffstoturntoAIPACfirstwhentheyneedinformation,
beforecallingtheLibraryofCongress,theCongressionalResearchService,
committeestafforadministrationexperts.72Moreimportantly,henotesthat
AIPACisoftencalledupontodraftspeeches,workonlegislation,adviseon
tactics,performresearch,collectcosponsorsandmarshalvotes.

ThebottomlineisthatAIPAC,whichisadefactoagentforaforeigngovernment,
hasastrangleholdontheU.S.Congress.73OpendebateaboutU.S.policy
towardsIsraeldoesnotoccurthere,eventhoughthatpolicyhasimportant
consequencesfortheentireworld.Thus,oneofthethreemainbranchesofthe
U.S.governmentisfirmlycommittedtosupportingIsrael.AsformerSenator
ErnestHollings(DSC)notedashewasleavingoffice,YoucanthaveanIsraeli
policyotherthanwhatAIPACgivesyouaroundhere.74Smallwonderthat
IsraeliPrimeMinisterArielSharononcetoldanAmericanaudience.When
peopleaskmehowtheycanhelpIsrael,ItellthemHelpAIPAC.75

InfluencingtheExecutive

TheLobbyalsohassignificantleverageovertheExecutivebranch.Thatpower
derivesinpartfromtheinfluenceJewishvotershaveonpresidentialelections.
Despitetheirsmallnumbersinthepopulation(lessthan3percent),theymake
largecampaigndonationstocandidatesfrombothparties.TheWashingtonPost
onceestimatedthatDemocraticpresidentialcandidatesdependonJewish
supporterstosupplyasmuchas60percentofthemoney.76Furthermore,
Jewishvotershavehighturnoutratesandareconcentratedinkeystateslike
California,Florida,Illinois,NewYork,andPennsylvania.Becausetheymatterin
closeelections,Presidentialcandidatesgotogreatlengthsnottoantagonize
Jewishvoters.

KeyorganizationsintheLobbyalsodirectlytargettheadministrationinpower.
Forexample,proIsraelforcesmakesurethatcriticsoftheJewishstatedonotget
importantforeignpolicyappointments.JimmyCarterwantedtomakeGeorge
18

Ballhisfirstsecretaryofstate,butheknewthatBallwasperceivedascriticalof
IsraelandthattheLobbywouldopposetheappointment.77Thislitmustest
forcesanyaspiringpolicymakertobecomeanovertsupporterofIsrael,whichis
whypubliccriticsofIsraelipolicyhavebecomeanendangeredspeciesinthe
U.S.foreignpolicyestablishment.

Theseconstraintsstilloperatetoday.When2004presidentialcandidateHoward
DeancalledfortheUnitedStatestotakeamoreevenhandedroleintheArab
Israeliconflict,SenatorJosephLiebermanaccusedhimofsellingIsraeldownthe
riverandsaidhisstatementwasirresponsible.78Virtuallyallofthetop
DemocratsintheHousesignedahardhittinglettertoDeancriticizinghis
comments,andtheChicagoJewishStarreportedthatanonymousattackersare
cloggingtheemailinboxesofJewishleadersaroundthecountry,warning
withoutmuchevidencethatDeanwouldsomehowbebadforIsrael.79

Thisworrywasabsurd,however,becauseDeanisinfactquitehawkishon
Israel.80HiscampaigncochairwasaformerAIPACpresident,andDeansaid
hisownviewsontheMiddleEastmorecloselyreflectedthoseofAIPACthanthe
moremoderateAmericansforPeaceNow.Deanhadmerelysuggestedthatto
bringthesidestogether,Washingtonshouldactasanhonestbroker.Thisis
hardlyaradicalidea,butitisanathematotheLobby,whichdoesnottoleratethe
ideaofevenhandednesswhenitcomestotheArabIsraeliconflict.

TheLobbysgoalsarealsoservedwhenproIsraelindividualsoccupyimportant
positionsintheexecutivebranch.DuringtheClintonAdministration,for
example,MiddleEastpolicywaslargelyshapedbyofficialswithclosetiesto
IsraelortoprominentproIsraelorganizationsincludingMartinIndyk,the
formerdeputydirectorofresearchatAIPACandcofounderoftheproIsrael
WashingtonInstituteforNearEastPolicy(WINEP);DennisRoss,whojoined
WINEPafterleavinggovernmentin2001;andAaronMiller,whohaslivedin
Israelandoftenvisitsthere.81

ThesemenwereamongPresidentClintonsclosestadvisorsattheCampDavid
summitinJuly2000.AlthoughallthreesupportedtheOslopeaceprocessand
favoredcreationofaPalestinianstate,theydidsoonlywithinthelimitsofwhat
wouldbeacceptabletoIsrael.82Inparticular,theAmericandelegationtookits
cuesfromIsraeliPrimeMinisterEhudBarak,coordinatednegotiatingpositions
inadvance,anddidnotofferitsownindependentproposalsforsettlingthe
conflict.Notsurprisingly,Palestiniannegotiatorscomplainedthattheywere

19

negotiatingwithtwoIsraeliteamsonedisplayinganIsraeliflag,andonean
Americanflag.83

ThesituationisevenmorepronouncedintheBushAdministration,whoseranks
includeferventlyproIsraelindividualslikeElliotAbrams,JohnBolton,Douglas
Feith,I.Lewis(Scooter)Libby,RichardPerle,PaulWolfowitz,andDavid
Wurmser.Asweshallsee,theseofficialsconsistentlypushedforpolicies
favoredbyIsraelandbackedbyorganizationsintheLobby.

ManipulatingtheMedia

Inadditiontoinfluencinggovernmentpolicydirectly,theLobbystrivestoshape
publicperceptionsaboutIsraelandtheMiddleEast.Itdoesnotwantanopen
debateonissuesinvolvingIsrael,becauseanopendebatemightcauseAmericans
toquestionthelevelofsupportthattheycurrentlyprovide.Accordingly,pro
Israelorganizationsworkhardtoinfluencethemedia,thinktanks,and
academia,becausetheseinstitutionsarecriticalinshapingpopularopinion.

TheLobbysperspectiveonIsraeliswidelyreflectedinthemainstreammediain
goodpartbecausemostAmericancommentatorsareproIsrael.Thedebate
amongMiddleEastpundits,journalistEricAltermanwrites,isdominatedby
peoplewhocannotimaginecriticizingIsrael.84Helists61columnistsand
commentatorswhocanbecountedupontosupportIsraelreflexivelyand
withoutqualification.Conversely,Altermanfoundjustfivepunditswho
consistentlycriticizeIsraelibehaviororendorseproArabpositions.
NewspapersoccasionallypublishguestopedschallengingIsraelipolicy,butthe
balanceofopinionclearlyfavorstheotherside.

ThisproIsraelbiasisreflectedintheeditorialsofmajornewspapers.Robert
Bartley,thelateeditoroftheWallStreetJournal,onceremarkedthat,Shamir,
Sharon,Bibiwhateverthoseguyswantisprettymuchfinebyme.85Not
surprisingly,theJournal,alongwithotherprominentnewspaperslikeTheChicago
SunTimesandTheWashingtonTimesregularlyruneditorialsthatarestrongly
proIsrael.MagazineslikeCommentary,theNewRepublic,andtheWeekly
StandardalsozealouslydefendIsraelateveryturn.

EditorialbiasisalsofoundinpapersliketheNewYorkTimes.TheTimes
occasionallycriticizesIsraelipoliciesandsometimesconcedesthatthe
Palestinianshavelegitimategrievances,butitisnotevenhanded.Inhis
memoirs,forexample,formerTimesexecutiveeditorMaxFrankelacknowledged
20

theimpacthisownproIsraelattitudehadonhiseditorialchoices.Inhiswords:
IwasmuchmoredeeplydevotedtoIsraelthanIdaredtoassert.Hegoeson:
FortifiedbymyknowledgeofIsraelandmyfriendshipsthere,Imyselfwrote
mostofourMiddleEastcommentaries.AsmoreArabthanJewishreaders
recognized,IwrotethemfromaproIsraelperspective.86

ThemediasreportingofnewseventsinvolvingIsraelissomewhatmoreeven
handedthaneditorialcommentaryis,inpartbecausereportersstrivetobe
objective,butalsobecauseitisdifficulttocovereventsintheoccupiedterritories
withoutacknowledgingIsraelsactualbehavior.Todiscourageunfavorable
reportingonIsrael,theLobbyorganizesletterwritingcampaigns,
demonstrations,andboycottsagainstnewsoutletswhosecontentitconsiders
antiIsrael.OneCNNexecutivehassaidthathesometimesgets6,000email
messagesinasingledaycomplainingthatastoryisantiIsrael.87Similarly,the
proIsraelCommitteeforAccurateMiddleEastReportinginAmerica
(CAMERA)organizeddemonstrationsoutsideNationalPublicRadiostationsin
33citiesinMay2003,anditalsotriedtoconvincecontributorstowithhold
supportfromNPRuntilitsMiddleEastcoveragebecamemoresympatheticto
Israel.88BostonsNPRstation,WBUR,reportedlylostmorethan$1millionin
contributionsasaresultoftheseefforts.PressureonNPRhasalsocomefrom
IsraelsfriendsinCongress,whohaveaskedNPRforaninternalauditaswellas
moreoversightofitsMiddleEastcoverage.

ThesefactorshelpexplainwhytheAmericanmediacontainsfewcriticismsof
Israelipolicy,rarelyquestionsWashingtonsrelationshipwithIsrael,andonly
occasionallydiscussestheLobbysprofoundinfluenceonU.S.policy.

ThinkTanksThatThinkOneWay

ProIsraelforcespredominateinU.S.thinktanks,whichplayanimportantrole
inshapingpublicdebateaswellasactualpolicy.TheLobbycreateditsown
thinktankin1985,whenMartinIndykhelpedfoundWINEP.89Although
WINEPplaysdownitslinkstoIsraelandclaimsinsteadthatitprovidesa
balancedandrealisticperspectiveonMiddleEastissues,thisisnotthecase.90
Infact,WINEPisfundedandrunbyindividualswhoaredeeplycommittedto
advancingIsraelsagenda.

TheLobbysinfluenceinthethinktankworldextendswellbeyondWINEP.
Overthepast25years,proIsraelforceshaveestablishedacommanding
presenceattheAmericanEnterpriseInstitute,theBrookingsInstitution,the
21

CenterforSecurityPolicy,theForeignPolicyResearchInstitute,theHeritage
Foundation,theHudsonInstitute,theInstituteforForeignPolicyAnalysis,and
theJewishInstituteforNationalSecurityAffairs(JINSA).Thesethinktanksare
decidedlyproIsrael,andincludefew,ifany,criticsofU.S.supportfortheJewish
state.

AgoodindicatoroftheLobbysinfluenceinthethinktankworldistheevolution
oftheBrookingsInstitution.Formanyyears,itsseniorexpertonMiddleEast
issueswasWilliamB.Quandt,adistinguishedacademicandformerNSCofficial
withawelldeservedreputationforevenhandednessregardingtheArabIsraeli
conflict.Today,however,Brookingssworkontheseissuesisconducted
throughitsSabanCenterforMiddleEastStudies,whichisfinancedbyHaim
Saban,awealthyIsraeliAmericanbusinessmanandardentZionist.91The
directoroftheSabanCenteristheubiquitousMartinIndyk.Thus,whatwas
onceanonpartisanpolicyinstituteonMiddleEastmattersisnowpartofthe
chorusoflargelyproIsraelthinktanks.

PolicingAcademia

TheLobbyhashadthemostdifficultystiflingdebateaboutIsraeloncollege
campuses,becauseacademicfreedomisacorevalueandbecausetenured
professorsarehardtothreatenorsilence.Evenso,therewasonlymildcriticism
ofIsraelinthe1990s,whentheOslopeaceprocesswasunderway.Criticismrose
afterthatprocesscollapsedandArielSharoncametopowerinearly2001,andit
becameespeciallyintensewhentheIDFreoccupiedtheWestBankinspring
2002andemployedmassiveforceagainsttheSecondIntifada.

TheLobbymovedaggressivelytotakebackthecampuses.Newgroups
sprangup,liketheCaravanforDemocracy,whichbroughtIsraelispeakersto
U.S.colleges.92EstablishedgroupsliketheJewishCouncilforPublicAffairsand
Hilleljumpedintothefray,andanewgrouptheIsraelonCampusCoalition
wasformedtocoordinatethemanygroupsthatnowsoughttomakeIsraelscase
oncampus.Finally,AIPACmorethantripleditsspendingforprogramsto
monitoruniversityactivitiesandtotrainyoungadvocatesforIsrael,inorderto
vastlyexpandthenumberofstudentsinvolvedoncampus...inthenational
proIsraeleffort.93

TheLobbyalsomonitorswhatprofessorswriteandteach.InSeptember2002,
forexample,MartinKramerandDanielPipes,twopassionatelyproIsrael
neoconservatives,establishedawebsite(CampusWatch)thatposteddossierson
22

suspectacademicsandencouragedstudentstoreportcommentsorbehaviorthat
mightbeconsideredhostiletoIsrael.94Thistransparentattempttoblacklistand
intimidatescholarspromptedaharshreactionandPipesandKramerlater
removedthedossiers,butthewebsitestillinvitesstudentstoreportallegedanti
IsraelbehavioratU.S.colleges.

GroupsintheLobbyalsodirecttheirfireatparticularprofessorsandthe
universitiesthathirethem.ColumbiaUniversity,whichhadthelatePalestinian
scholarEdwardSaidonitsfaculty,hasbeenafrequenttargetofproIsraelforces.
JonathanCole,theformerColumbiaprovost,reportedthat,Onecanbesure
thatanypublicstatementinsupportofthePalestinianpeoplebythepreeminent
literarycriticEdwardSaidwillelicithundredsofemails,letters,andjournalistic
accountsthatcallonustodenounceSaidandtoeithersanctionorfirehim.95
WhenColumbiarecruitedhistorianRashidKhalidifromtheUniversityof
Chicago,Colesaysthatthecomplaintsstartedflowinginfrompeoplewho
disagreedwiththecontentofhispoliticalviews.Princetonfacedthesame
problemafewyearslaterwhenitconsideredwooingKhalidiawayfrom
Columbia.96

Aclassicillustrationoftheefforttopoliceacademiaoccurredinlate2004,when
theDavidProjectproducedapropagandafilmallegingthatfacultyin
ColumbiaUniversitysMiddleEaststudiesprogramwereantiSemiticandwere
intimidatingJewishstudentswhodefendedIsrael.97Columbiawasrakedover
thecoalsinproIsraelcircles,butafacultycommitteeassignedtoinvestigatethe
chargesfoundnoevidenceofantiSemitismandtheonlyincidentworthnoting
wasthepossibilitythatoneprofessorhadrespondedheatedlytoastudents
question.98Thecommitteealsodiscoveredthattheaccusedprofessorshadbeen
thetargetofanovertintimidationcampaign.

Perhapsthemostdisturbingaspectofthiscampaigntoeliminatecriticismof
IsraelfromcollegecampusesistheeffortbyJewishgroupstopushCongressto
establishmechanismsthatmonitorwhatprofessorssayaboutIsrael.99Schools
judgedtohaveanantiIsraelbiaswouldbedeniedFederalfunding.Thiseffort
togettheU.S.governmenttopolicecampuseshavenotyetsucceeded,butthe
attemptillustratestheimportanceproIsraelgroupsplaceoncontrollingdebate
ontheseissues.

Finally,anumberofJewishphilanthropistshaveestablishedIsraelstudies
programs(inadditiontotheroughly130JewishStudiesprogramsthatalready
exist)soastoincreasethenumberofIsraelfriendlyscholarsoncampus.100NYU
23

announcedtheestablishmentoftheTaubCenterforIsraelStudiesonMay1,
2003,andsimilarprogramshavebeenestablishedatotherschoolslikeBerkeley,
Brandeis,andEmory.Academicadministratorsemphasizethepedagogical
valueoftheseprograms,butthetruthisthattheyareintendedingoodpartto
promoteIsraelsimageoncampus.FredLaffer,theheadoftheTaub
Foundation,makesclearthathisfoundationfundedtheNYUcentertohelp
countertheArabic[sic]pointofviewthathethinksisprevalentinNYUs
MiddleEastprograms.101

Insum,theLobbyhasgonetoconsiderablelengthstoinsulateIsraelfrom
criticismoncollegecampuses.Ithasnotbeenassuccessfulinacademiaasithas
beenonCapitolHill,butithasworkedhardtostiflecriticismofIsraelby
professorsandstudentsandthereismuchlessofitoncampusestoday.102

TheGreatSilencer

NodiscussionofhowtheLobbyoperateswouldbecompletewithoutexamining
oneofitsmostpowerfulweapons:thechargeofantiSemitism.Anyonewho
criticizesIsraeliactionsorsaysthatproIsraelgroupshavesignificantinfluence
overU.S.MiddleEastpolicyaninfluencethatAIPACcelebratesstandsa
goodchanceofgettinglabeledanantiSemite.Infact,anyonewhosaysthat
thereisanIsraelLobbyrunstheriskofbeingchargedwithantiSemitism,even
thoughtheIsraelimediathemselvesrefertoAmericasJewishLobby.Ineffect,
theLobbyboastsofitsownpowerandthenattacksanyonewhocallsattentionto
it.Thistacticisveryeffective,becauseantiSemitismisloathsomeandno
responsiblepersonwantstobeaccusedofit.

EuropeanshavebeenmorewillingthanAmericanstocriticizeIsraelipolicyin
recentyears,whichsomeattributetoaresurgenceofantiSemitisminEurope.
Wearegettingtoapoint,theU.S.AmbassadortotheEuropeanUnionsaidin
early2004,whereitisasbadasitwasinthe1930s.103MeasuringantiSemitism
isacomplicatedmatter,buttheweightofevidencepointsintheopposite
direction.Forexample,inthespringof2004,whenaccusationsofEuropeananti
SemitismfilledtheairinAmerica,separatesurveysofEuropeanpublicopinion
conductedbytheAntiDefamationLeagueandthePewResearchCenterforthe
PeopleandthePressshowedthatitwasactuallydeclining.104

ConsiderFrance,whichproIsraelforcesoftenportrayasthemostantiSemitic
stateinEurope.ApollofFrenchcitizensin2002foundthat:89percentcould
envisagelivingwithaJew;97percentbelievemakingantiSemiticgraffitiisa
24

seriouscrime;87percentthinkattacksonFrenchsynagoguesarescandalous;
and85percentofpracticingFrenchCatholicsrejectthechargethatJewshavetoo
muchinfluenceinbusinessandfinance.105Itisunsurprisingthattheheadofthe
FrenchJewishcommunitydeclaredinthesummerof2003thatFranceisnot
moreantiSemiticthanAmerica.106AccordingtoarecentarticleinHaaretz,the
FrenchpolicereportthatantiSemiticincidentsinFrancedeclinedbyalmost50
percentin2005;andthisdespitethefactthatFrancehasthelargestMuslim
populationofanycountryinEurope.107

Finally,whenaFrenchJewwasbrutallymurderedlastmonthbyaMuslimgang,
tensofthousandsofFrenchdemonstratorspouredintothestreetstocondemn
antiSemitism.Moreover,PresidentJacquesChiracandPrimeMinister
DominiquedeVillepinbothattendedthevictimsmemorialserviceinapublic
showofsolidaritywithFrenchJewry.108Itisalsoworthnotingthatin2002more
JewsimmigratedtoGermanythanIsrael,makingitthefastestgrowingJewish
communityintheworld,accordingtoanarticleintheJewishnewspaper
Forward.109IfEuropewerereallyheadingbacktothe1930s,itishardtoimagine
thatJewswouldbemovingthereinlargenumbers.

Werecognize,however,thatEuropeisnotfreeofthescourgeofantiSemitism.
NoonewoulddenythattherearestillsomevirulentautochthonousantiSemites
inEurope(asthereareintheUnitedStates)buttheirnumbersaresmallandtheir
extremeviewsarerejectedbythevastmajorityofEuropeans.Norwouldone
denythatthereisantiSemitismamongEuropeanMuslims,someofitprovoked
byIsraelsbehaviortowardsthePalestiniansandsomeofitstraightforwardly
racist.110Thisproblemisworrisome,butitishardlyoutofcontrol.Muslims
constitutelessthanfivepercentofEuropestotalpopulation,andEuropean
governmentsareworkinghardtocombattheproblem.Why?Becausemost
Europeansrejectsuchhatefulviews.111Inshort,whenitcomestoantiSemitism,
EuropetodaybearshardlyanyresemblancetoEuropeinthe1930s.

ThisiswhyproIsraelforces,whenpressedtogobeyondassertion,claimthat
thereisanewantiSemitism,whichtheyequatewithcriticismofIsrael.112In
otherwordscriticizeIsraelipolicyandyouarebydefinitionanantiSemite.
WhenthesynodoftheChurchofEnglandrecentlyvotedtodivestfrom
CaterpillarInconthegroundsthatCaterpillarmanufacturesthebulldozersused
todemolishPalestinianhomes,theChiefRabbicomplainedthatitwouldhave
themostadverserepercussionson...JewishChristianrelationsinBritain,while
RabbiTonyBayfield,theheadoftheReformmovement,said:Thereisaclear
problemofantiZionistvergingonantiSemiticattitudesemerginginthegrass
25

roots,andeveninthemiddleranksoftheChurch.113However,theChurchwas
neitherguiltyofantiZionismnorantiSemitism;itwasmerelyprotestingIsraeli
policy.114

CriticsarealsoaccusedofholdingIsraeltoanunfairstandardorquestioningits
righttoexist.Buttheseareboguschargestoo.WesterncriticsofIsraelhardly
everquestionitsrighttoexist.Instead,theyquestionitsbehaviortowardsthe
Palestinians,whichisalegitimatecriticism:Israelisquestionitthemselves.Noris
Israelbeingjudgedunfairly.Rather,IsraelitreatmentofthePalestinianselicits
criticismbecauseitiscontrarytowidelyacceptedhumanrightsnormsand
internationallaw,aswellastheprincipleofnationalselfdetermination.Anditis
hardlytheonlystatethathasfacedsharpcriticismonthesegrounds.

Insum,otherethniclobbiescanonlydreamofhavingthepoliticalmusclethat
proIsraelorganizationspossess.Thequestion,therefore,iswhateffectdoesthe
LobbyhaveonU.S.foreignpolicy?

THETAILWAGGINGTHEDOG

IftheLobbysimpactwereconfinedtoU.S.economicaidtoIsrael,itsinfluence
mightnotbethatworrisome.Foreignaidisvaluable,butnotasusefulashaving
theworldsonlysuperpowerbringitsvastcapabilitiestobearonIsraelsbehalf.
Accordingly,theLobbyhasalsosoughttoshapethecoreelementsofU.S.
MiddleEastpolicy.Inparticular,ithasworkedsuccessfullytoconvince
AmericanleaderstobackIsraelscontinuedrepressionofthePalestiniansandto
takeaimatIsraelsprimaryregionaladversaries:Iran,Iraq,andSyria.

DemonizingthePalestinians

Itisnowlargelyforgotten,butinthefallof2001,andespeciallyinthespringof
2002,theBushAdministrationtriedtoreduceantiAmericansentimentinthe
ArabworldandunderminesupportforterroristgroupslikealQaeda,byhalting
Israelsexpansionistpoliciesintheoccupiedterritoriesandadvocatingthe
creationofaPalestinianstate.

Bushhadenormouspotentialleverageathisdisposal.Hecouldhavethreatened
toreduceU.S.economicanddiplomaticsupportforIsrael,andtheAmerican
peoplewouldalmostcertainlyhavesupportedhim.AMay2003pollreported
thatover60percentofAmericanswerewillingtowithholdaidtoIsraelifit
resistedU.S.pressuretosettletheconflict,andthatnumberroseto70percent
26

amongpoliticallyactiveAmericans.115Indeed,73percentsaidthatUnited
Statesshouldnotfavoreitherside.

YettheBushAdministrationfailedtochangeIsraelspolicies,andWashington
endedupbackingIsraelshardlineapproachinstead.Overtime,the
AdministrationalsoadoptedIsraelsjustificationsforthisapproach,sothatU.S.
andIsraelirhetoricbecamesimilar.ByFebruary2003,aWashingtonPost
headlinesummarizedthesituation:BushandSharonNearlyIdenticalon
MideastPolicy.116ThemainreasonforthisswitchistheLobby.

ThestorybeginsinlateSeptember2001whenPresidentBushbeganpressuring
IsraeliPrimeMinisterSharontoshowrestraintintheoccupiedterritories.He
alsopressedSharontoallowIsraeliforeignministerShimonPerestomeetwith
PalestinianleaderYasserArafat,eventhoughBushwashighlycriticalofArafats
leadership.117BushalsosaidpubliclythathesupportedaPalestinianstate.118
Alarmedbythesedevelopments,SharonaccusedBushoftryingtoappeasethe
Arabsatourexpense,warningthatIsraelwillnotbeCzechoslovakia.119

BushwasreportedlyfuriousatSharonslikeninghimtoNevilleChamberlain,
andWhiteHousepresssecretaryAriFleischercalledSharonsremarks
unacceptable.120TheIsraeliprimeministerofferedaproformaapology,buthe
quicklyjoinedforceswiththeLobbytoconvincetheBushadministrationandthe
AmericanpeoplethattheUnitedStatesandIsraelfacedacommonthreatfrom
terrorism.121IsraeliofficialsandLobbyrepresentativesrepeatedlyemphasized
thattherewasnorealdifferencebetweenArafatandOsamabinLaden,and
insistedthattheUnitedStatesandIsraelshouldisolatethePalestinianselected
leaderandhavenothingtodowithhim.122

TheLobbyalsowenttoworkinCongress.OnNovember16,89senatorssent
BushaletterpraisinghimforrefusingtomeetwithArafat,butalsodemanding
thattheUnitedStatesnotrestrainIsraelfromretaliatingagainstthePalestinians
andinsistingthattheadministrationstatepubliclythatitstoodsteadfastly
behindIsrael.AccordingtotheNewYorkTimes,theletterstemmedfroma
meetingtwoweeksagobetweenleadersoftheAmericanJewishcommunityand
keysenators,addingthatAIPACwasparticularlyactiveinprovidingadvice
ontheletter.123

BylateNovember,relationsbetweenTelAvivandWashingtonhadimproved
considerably.ThiswasdueinparttotheLobbyseffortstobendU.S.policyin
Israelsdirection,butalsotoAmericasinitialvictoryinAfghanistan,which
27

reducedtheperceivedneedforArabsupportindealingwithalQaeda.Sharon
visitedtheWhiteHouseinearlyDecemberandhadafriendlymeetingwith
Bush.124

ButtroubleeruptedagaininApril2002,aftertheIDFlaunchedOperation
DefensiveShieldandresumedcontrolofvirtuallyallofthemajorPalestinian
areasontheWestBank.125BushknewthatIsraelsactionwoulddamage
AmericasimageintheArabandIslamicworldandunderminethewaron
terrorism,sohedemandedonApril4thatSharonhalttheincursionsandbegin
withdrawal.Heunderscoredthismessagetwodayslater,sayingthismeant
withdrawalwithoutdelay.OnApril7,Bushsnationalsecurityadvisor,
CondoleezzaRice,toldreportersthat,withoutdelaymeanswithoutdelay.It
meansnow.ThatsamedaySecretaryofStateColinPowellsetoutforthe
MiddleEasttopressureallsidestostopfightingandstartnegotiating.126

IsraelandtheLobbyswungintoaction.AkeytargetwasPowell,whobegan
feelingintenseheatfromproIsraelofficialsinVicePresidentCheneysofficeand
thePentagon,aswellasfromneoconservativepunditslikeRobertKaganand
WilliamKristol,whoaccusedhimofhavingvirtuallyobliteratedthedistinction
betweenterroristsandthosefightingterrorists.127AsecondtargetwasBush
himself,whowasbeingpressedbyJewishleadersandChristianevangelicals,the
latterakeycomponentofhispoliticalbase.TomDeLayandDickArmeywere
especiallyoutspokenabouttheneedtosupportIsrael,andDeLayandSenate
MinorityLeaderTrentLottvisitedtheWhiteHouseandpersonallywarnedBush
tobackoff.128

ThefirstsignthatBushwascavingcameonApril11onlyoneweekafterhe
toldSharontowithdrawhisforceswhenAriFleischersaidthePresident
believesSharonisamanofpeace.129Bushrepeatedthisstatementpublicly
uponPowellsreturnfromhisabortivemission,andhetoldreportersthat
Sharonhadrespondedsatisfactorilytohiscallforafullandimmediate
withdrawal.130Sharonhaddonenosuchthing,butthePresidentoftheUnited
Stateswasnolongerwillingtomakeanissueofit.

Meanwhile,CongresswasalsomovingtobackSharon.OnMay2,itoverrode
theAdministrationsobjectionsandpassedtworesolutionsreaffirmingsupport
forIsrael.(TheSenatevotewas94to2;theHouseversionpassed35221).Both
resolutionsemphasizedthattheUnitedStatesstandsinsolidaritywithIsrael
andthatthetwocountriesare,toquotetheHouseresolution,nowengagedina
commonstruggleagainstterrorism.TheHouseversionalsocondemnedthe
28

ongoingsupportofterrorbyYasirArafat,whowasportrayedasacentral
elementoftheterrorismproblem.131Afewdayslater,abipartisancongressional
delegationonafactfindingmissioninIsraelpubliclyproclaimedthatSharon
shouldresistU.S.pressuretonegotiatewithArafat.132OnMay9,aHouse
appropriationssubcommitteemettoconsidergivingIsraelanextra$200million
tofightterrorism.SecretaryofStatePowellopposedthepackage,buttheLobby
backedit,justasithadhelpedauthorthetwocongressionalresolutions.133
Powelllost.

Inshort,SharonandtheLobbytookonthePresidentoftheUnitedStatesand
triumphed.HemiShalev,ajournalistfortheIsraelnewspaperMaariv,reported
thatSharonsaidescouldnothidetheirsatisfactioninviewofPowellsfailure.
SharonsawthewhiteinPresidentBushseyes,theybragged,andthePresident
blinkedfirst.134ButitwastheproIsraelforcesintheUnitedStates,notSharon
orIsrael,thatplayedthekeyroleindefeatingBush.

Thesituationhaschangedlittlesincethen.TheBushAdministrationrefusedto
dealfurtherwithArafat,whoeventuallydiedinNovember2004.Ithas
subsequentlyembracedthenewPalestinianleader,MahmoudAbbas,buthas
donelittletohelphimgainaviablestate.Sharoncontinuedtodevelophisplans
forunilateraldisengagementfromthePalestinians,basedonwithdrawalfrom
GazacoupledwithcontinuedexpansionontheWestBank,whichentails
buildingthesocalledsecurityfence,seizingPalestinianownedland,and
expandingsettlementblocsandroadnetworks.Byrefusingtonegotiatewith
Abbas(whofavorsanegotiatedsettlement)andmakingitimpossibleforhimto
delivertangiblebenefitstothePalestinianpeople,Sharonsstrategycontributed
directlytoHamasrecentelectoralvictory.135WithHamasinpower,however,
Israelhasanotherexcusenottonegotiate.Theadministrationhassupported
Sharonsactions(andthoseofhissuccessor,EhudOlmert),andBushhaseven
endorsedunilateralIsraeliannexationsintheOccupiedTerritories,reversingthe
statedpolicyofeverypresidentsinceLyndonJohnson.136

U.S.officialshaveofferedmildcriticismsofafewIsraeliactions,buthavedone
littletohelpcreateaviablePalestinianstate.Formernationalsecurityadvisor
BrentScowcroftevendeclaredinOctober2004thatSharonhasPresidentBush
wrappedaroundhislittlefinger.137IfBushtriestodistancetheUnitedStates
fromIsrael,orevencriticizesIsraeliactionsintheoccupiedterritories,heis
certaintofacethewrathoftheLobbyanditssupportersinCongress.
DemocraticPartypresidentialcandidatesunderstandthesefactsoflifetoo,

29

whichiswhyJohnKerrywenttogreatlengthstodisplayhisunalloyedsupport
forIsraelin2004andwhyHillaryClintonisdoingthesamethingtoday.138

MaintainingU.S.supportforIsraelspoliciesagainstthePalestiniansisacore
goaloftheLobby,butitsambitionsdonotstopthere.ItalsowantsAmericato
helpIsraelremainthedominantregionalpower.Notsurprisingly,theIsraeli
governmentandproIsraelgroupsintheUnitedStatesworkedtogethertoshape
theBushAdministrationspolicytowardsIraq,Syria,andIran,aswellasits
grandschemeforreorderingtheMiddleEast.

IsraelandtheIraqWar

PressurefromIsraelandtheLobbywasnottheonlyfactorbehindtheU.S.
decisiontoattackIraqinMarch2003,butitwasacriticalelement.Some
Americansbelievethatthiswasawarforoil,butthereishardlyanydirect
evidencetosupportthisclaim.Instead,thewarwasmotivatedingoodpartbya
desiretomakeIsraelmoresecure.AccordingtoPhilipZelikow,amemberofthe
PresidentsForeignIntelligenceAdvisoryBoard(20012003),executivedirector
ofthe9/11Commission,andnowCounselortoSecretaryofStateCondoleezza
Rice,therealthreatfromIraqwasnotathreattotheUnitedStates.139The
unstatedthreatwasthethreatagainstIsrael,ZelikowtoldaUniversityof
VirginiaaudienceinSeptember2002,notingfurtherthattheAmerican
governmentdoesntwanttoleantoohardonitrhetorically,becauseitisnota
popularsell.

OnAugust16,2002,elevendaysbeforeVicePresidentCheneykickedoffthe
campaignforwarwithahardlinespeechtotheVeteransofForeignWars,the
WashingtonPostreportedthatIsraelisurgingU.S.officialsnottodelaya
militarystrikeagainstIraqsSaddamHussein.140Bythispoint,accordingto
Sharon,strategiccoordinationbetweenIsraelandtheU.S.hadreached
unprecedenteddimensions,andIsraeliintelligenceofficialshadgiven
WashingtonavarietyofalarmingreportsaboutIraqsWMDprograms.141As
oneretiredIsraeligenerallaterputit,Israeliintelligencewasafullpartnerto
thepicturepresentedbyAmericanandBritishintelligenceregardingIraqsnon
conventionalcapabilities.142

IsraelileadersweredeeplydistressedwhenPresidentBushdecidedtoseekU.N.
SecurityCouncilauthorizationforwarinSeptember,andevenmoreworried
whenSaddamagreedtoletU.N.inspectorsbackintoIraq,becausethese
developmentsseemedtoreducethelikelihoodofwar.ForeignMinisterShimon
30

PerestoldreportersinSeptember2002thatthecampaignagainstSaddam
Husseinisamust.Inspectionsandinspectorsaregoodfordecentpeople,but
dishonestpeoplecanovercomeeasilyinspectionsandinspectors.143

Atthesametime,formerPrimeMinisterEhudBarakwroteaNewYorkTimesop
edwarningthatthegreatestrisknowliesininaction.144Hispredecessor,
BenjaminNetanyahu,publishedasimilarpieceintheWallStreetJournalentitled
TheCaseforTopplingSaddam.145Netanyahudeclared,Todaynothingless
thandismantlinghisregimewilldo,addingthatIbelieveIspeakforthe
overwhelmingmajorityofIsraelisinsupportingapreemptivestrikeagainst
Saddamsregime.OrasHaaretzreportedinFebruary2003:The[Israeli]
militaryandpoliticalleadershipyearnsforwarinIraq.146

ButasNetanyahusuggests,thedesireforwarwasnotconfinedtoIsraels
leaders.ApartfromKuwait,whichSaddamconqueredin1990,Israelwasthe
onlycountryintheworldwhereboththepoliticiansandthepublic
enthusiasticallyfavoredwar.147AsjournalistGideonLevyobservedatthetime,
IsraelistheonlycountryintheWestwhoseleaderssupportthewar
unreservedlyandwherenoalternativeopinionisvoiced.148Infact,Israeliswere
sogunghoforwarthattheiralliesinAmericatoldthemtodampdowntheir
hawkishrhetoric,lestitlooklikethewarwasforIsrael.149

TheLobbyandtheIraqWar

WithintheUnitedStates,themaindrivingforcebehindtheIraqwarwasasmall
bandofneoconservatives,manywithclosetiestoIsraelsLikudParty.150In
addition,keyleadersoftheLobbysmajororganizationslenttheirvoicestothe
campaignforwar.151AccordingtotheForward,AsPresidentBushattemptedto
sellthe...warinIraq,AmericasmostimportantJewishorganizationsralliedas
onetohisdefense.Instatementafterstatementcommunityleadersstressedthe
needtoridtheworldofSaddamHusseinandhisweaponsofmass
destruction.152TheeditorialgoesontosaythatconcernforIsraelssafety
rightfullyfactoredintothedeliberationsofthemainJewishgroups.

AlthoughneoconservativesandotherLobbyleaderswereeagertoinvadeIraq,
thebroaderAmericanJewishcommunitywasnot.153Infact,SamuelFreedman
reportedjustafterthewarstartedthatacompilationofnationwideopinion
pollsbythePewResearchCentershowsthatJewsarelesssupportiveoftheIraq
warthanthepopulationatlarge,52%to62%.154Thus,itwouldbewrongto

31

blamethewarinIraqonJewishinfluence.Rather,thewarwasdueinlarge
parttotheLobbysinfluence,especiallytheneoconservativeswithinit.
TheneoconservativeswerealreadydeterminedtotoppleSaddambeforeBush
becamePresident.155Theycausedastirinearly1998bypublishingtwoopen
letterstoPresidentClintoncallingforSaddamsremovalfrompower.156The
signatories,manyofwhomhadclosetiestoproIsraelgroupslikeJINSAor
WINEP,andwhoseranksincludedElliotAbrams,JohnBolton,DouglasFeith,
WilliamKristol,BernardLewis,DonaldRumsfeld,RichardPerleandPaul
Wolfowitz,hadlittletroubleconvincingtheClintonAdministrationtoadoptthe
generalgoalofoustingSaddam.157Buttheneoconservativeswereunabletosella
wartoachievethatobjective.Norweretheyabletogeneratemuchenthusiasm
forinvadingIraqintheearlymonthsoftheBushAdministration.158As
importantastheneoconservativeswereformakingtheIraqwarhappen,they
neededhelptoachievetheiraim.

Thathelparrivedwith9/11.Specifically,theeventsofthatfatefuldayledBush
andCheneytoreversecourseandbecomestrongproponentsofapreventivewar
totoppleSaddam.NeoconservativesintheLobbymostnotablyScooterLibby,
PaulWolfowitz,andPrincetonhistorianBernardLewisplayedespecially
criticalrolesinpersuadingthePresidentandVicePresidenttofavorwar.

Fortheneoconservatives,9/11wasagoldenopportunitytomakethecasefor
warwithIraq.AtakeymeetingwithBushatCampDavidonSeptember15,
WolfowitzadvocatedattackingIraqbeforeAfghanistan,eventhoughtherewas
noevidencethatSaddamwasinvolvedintheattacksontheUnitedStatesand
binLadenwasknowntobeinAfghanistan.159Bushrejectedthisadviceand
chosetogoafterAfghanistaninstead,butwarwithIraqwasnowregardedasa
seriouspossibilityandthePresidenttaskedU.S.militaryplannersonNovember
21,2001withdevelopingconcreteplansforaninvasion.160

Meanwhile,otherneoconservativeswereatworkwithinthecorridorsofpower.
Wedonothavethefullstoryyet,butscholarslikeLewisandFouadAjamiof
JohnHopkinsUniversityreportedlyplayedkeyrolesinconvincingVice
PresidentCheneytofavorthewar.161Cheneysviewswerealsoheavily
influencedbytheneoconservativesonhisstaff,especiallyEricEdelman,John
Hannah,andchiefofstaffLibby,oneofthemostpowerfulindividualsinthe
Administration.162TheVicePresidentsinfluencehelpedconvincePresident
Bushbyearly2002.WithBushandCheneyonboard,thedieforwarwascast.

32

Outsidetheadministration,neoconservativepunditslostnotimemakingthe
casethatinvadingIraqwasessentialtowinningthewaronterrorism.Their
effortswerepartlyaimedatkeepingpressureonBushandpartlyintendedto
overcomeoppositiontothewarinsideandoutsideofthegovernment.On
September20,agroupofprominentneoconservativesandtheiralliespublished
anotheropenletter,tellingthePresidentthatevenifevidencedoesnotlinkIraq
directlytothe[9/11]attack,anystrategyaimingattheeradicationofterrorism
anditssponsorsmustincludeadeterminedefforttoremoveSaddamHussein
frompowerinIraq.163TheletteralsoremindedBushthat,Israelhasbeenand
remainsAmericasstaunchestallyagainstinternationalterrorism.Inthe
October1issueoftheWeeklyStandard,RobertKaganandWilliamKristolcalled
forregimechangeinIraqimmediatelyaftertheTalibanwasdefeated.Thatsame
day,CharlesKrauthammerarguedintheWashingtonPostthatafterwewere
donewithAfghanistan,Syriashouldbenext,followedbyIranandIraq.The
waronterrorism,heargued,willconcludeinBaghdad,whenwefinishoff
themostdangerousterroristregimeintheworld.164

Thesesalvoeswerethebeginningofanunrelentingpublicrelationscampaignto
winsupportforinvadingIraq.165Akeypartofthiscampaignwasthe
manipulationofintelligenceinformation,soastomakeSaddamlooklikean
imminentthreat.Forexample,LibbyvisitedtheCIAseveraltimestopressure
analyststofindevidencethatwouldmakethecaseforwar,andhehelped
prepareadetailedbriefingontheIraqthreatinearly2003thatwaspushedon
ColinPowell,thenpreparinghisinfamousbriefingtotheU.N.SecurityCouncil
ontheIraqithreat.166AccordingtoBobWoodward,Powellwasappalledat
whatheconsideredoverreachingandhyperbole.Libbywasdrawingonlythe
worstconclusionsfromfragmentsandsilkythreads.167AlthoughPowell
discardedLibbysmostoutrageousclaims,hisU.N.presentationwasstillriddled
witherrors,asPowellnowacknowledges.

Thecampaigntomanipulateintelligencealsoinvolvedtwoorganizationsthat
werecreatedafter9/11andreporteddirectlytoUndersecretaryofDefense
DouglasFeith.168ThePolicyCounterterrorismEvaluationGroupwastaskedto
findlinksbetweenalQaedaandIraqthattheintelligencecommunity
supposedlymissed.ItstwokeymemberswereWurmser,ahardcore
neoconservative,andMichaelMaloof,aLebaneseAmericanwhohadcloseties
withPerle.TheOfficeofSpecialPlanswastaskedwithfindingevidencethat
couldbeusedtosellwarwithIraq.ItwasheadedbyAbramShulsky,a
neoconservativewithlongstandingtiestoWolfowitz,anditsranksincluded
recruitsfromproIsraelthinktanks.169
33


Likevirtuallyalltheneoconservatives,FeithisdeeplycommittedtoIsrael.He
alsohaslongstandingtiestotheLikudParty.Hewrotearticlesinthe1990s
supportingthesettlementsandarguingthatIsraelshouldretaintheoccupied
territories.170Moreimportantly,alongwithPerleandWurmser,hewrotethe
famousCleanBreakreportinJune1996fortheincomingIsraeliPrime
Minister,BenjaminNetanyahu.171Amongotherthings,itrecommendedthat
NetanyahufocusonremovingSaddamHusseinfrompowerinIraqan
importantIsraelistrategicobjectiveinitsownright.ItalsocalledforIsraelto
takestepstoreordertheentireMiddleEast.Netanyahudidnotimplementtheir
advice,butFeith,PerleandWurmserweresoonadvocatingthattheBush
Administrationpursuethosesamegoals.ThissituationpromptedHaaretz
columnistAkivaEldartowarnthatFeithandPerlearewalkingafineline
betweentheirloyaltytoAmericangovernmentsandIsraeliinterests.172

WolfowitzisequallycommittedtoIsrael.TheForwardoncedescribedhimas
themosthawkishlyproIsraelvoiceintheAdministration,andselectedhimin
2002asthefirstamongfiftynotableswhohaveconsciouslypursuedJewish
activism.173Ataboutthesametime,JINSAgaveWolfowitzitsHenryM.
JacksonDistinguishedServiceAwardforpromotingastrongpartnership
betweenIsraelandtheUnitedStates,andtheJerusalemPost,describinghimas
devoutlyproIsrael,namedhimManoftheYearin2003.174

Finally,abriefwordisinorderabouttheneoconservativesprewarsupportof
AhmedChalabi,theunscrupulousIraqiexilewhoheadedtheIraqiNational
Congress(INC).TheyembracedChalabibecausehehadworkedtoestablish
closetieswithJewishAmericangroupsandhadpledgedtofostergoodrelations
withIsraeloncehegainedpower.175ThiswaspreciselywhatproIsrael
proponentsofregimechangewantedtohear,sotheybackedChalabiinreturn.
JournalistMatthewBergerlaidouttheessenceofthebargainintheJewish
Journal:TheINCsawimprovedrelationsasawaytotapJewishinfluencein
WashingtonandJerusalemandtodrumupincreasedsupportforitscause.For
theirpart,theJewishgroupssawanopportunitytopavethewayforbetter
relationsbetweenIsraelandIraq,ifandwhentheINCisinvolvedinreplacing
SaddamHusseinsregime.176

GiventheneoconservativesdevotiontoIsrael,theirobsessionwithIraq,and
theirinfluenceintheBushAdministration,itisnotsurprisingthatmany
AmericanssuspectedthatthewarwasdesignedtofurtherIsraeliinterests.For
example,BarryJacobsoftheAmericanJewishCommitteeacknowledgedin
34

March2005thatthebeliefthatIsraelandtheneoconservativesconspiredtoget
theUnitedStatesintoawarinIraqwaspervasiveintheU.S.intelligence
community.177Yetfewpeoplewouldsaysopublicly,andmostthatdid
includingSenatorErnestHollings(DSC)andRepresentativeJamesMoran(D
VA)werecondemnedforraisingtheissue.178MichaelKinsleyputthepoint
wellinlate2002,whenhewrotethatthelackofpublicdiscussionabouttherole
ofIsraelistheproverbialelephantintheroom:Everybodyseesit,noone
mentionsit.179Thereasonforthisreluctance,heobserved,wasfearofbeing
labeledanantiSemite.Evenso,thereislittledoubtthatIsraelandtheLobby
werekeyfactorsinshapingthedecisionforwar.WithouttheLobbysefforts,
theUnitedStateswouldhavebeenfarlesslikelytohavegonetowarinMarch
2003.

DreamsofRegionalTransformation

TheIraqwarwasnotsupposedtobeacostlyquagmire.Rather,itwasintended
asthefirststepinalargerplantoreordertheMiddleEast.Thisambitious
strategywasadramaticdeparturefrompreviousU.S.policy,andtheLobbyand
Israelwerecriticaldrivingforcesbehindthisshift.Thispointwasmadeclearly
aftertheIraqwarbeganinafrontpagestoryintheWallStreetJournal.The
headlinesaysitall:PresidentsDream:ChangingNotJustRegimebutaRegion:
AProU.S.,DemocraticAreaisaGoalthatHasIsraeliandNeoConservative
Roots.180

ProIsraelforceshavelongbeeninterestedingettingtheU.S.militarymore
directlyinvolvedintheMiddleEast,soitcouldhelpprotectIsrael.181Butthey
hadlimitedsuccessonthisfrontduringtheColdWar,becauseAmericaactedas
anoffshorebalancerintheregion.MostU.S.forcesdesignatedfortheMiddle
East,liketheRapidDeploymentForce,werekeptoverthehorizonandoutof
harmsway.Washingtonmaintainedafavorablebalanceofpowerbyplaying
localpowersoffagainsteachother,whichiswhytheReaganAdministration
supportedSaddamagainstrevolutionaryIranduringtheIranIraqwar(198088).

ThispolicychangedafterthefirstGulfWar,whentheClintonAdministration
adoptedastrategyofdualcontainment.Itcalledforstationingsubstantial
U.S.forcesintheregiontocontainbothIranandIraq,insteadofusingoneto
checktheother.ThefatherofdualcontainmentwasnoneotherthanMartin
Indyk,whofirstarticulatedthestrategyinMay1993attheproIsraelthinktank
WINEPandthenimplementeditasDirectorforNearEastandSouthAsian
AffairsattheNationalSecurityCouncil.182
35

Therewasconsiderabledissatisfactionwithdualcontainmentbythemid1990s,
becauseitmadetheUnitedStatesthemortalenemyoftwocountrieswhoalso
hatedeachother,anditforcedWashingtontobeartheburdenofcontainingboth
ofthem.183Notsurprisingly,theLobbyworkedactivelyinCongresstosavedual
containment.184PressedbyAIPACandotherproIsraelforces,Clinton
toughenedupthepolicyinthespringof1995byimposinganeconomicembargo
onIran.ButAIPACetalwantedmore.Theresultwasthe1996IranandLibya
SanctionsAct,whichimposedsanctionsonanyforeigncompaniesinvesting
morethan$40milliontodeveloppetroleumresourcesinIranorLibya.AsZeev
Schiff,themilitarycorrespondentforHaaretz,notedatthetime,Israelisbuta
tinyelementinthebigscheme,butoneshouldnotconcludethatitcannot
influencethosewithintheBeltway.185
Bythelate1990s,however,theneoconservativeswerearguingthatdual
containmentwasnotenoughandthatregimechangeinIraqwasnowessential.
BytopplingSaddamandturningIraqintoavibrantdemocracy,theyargued,the
UnitedStateswouldtriggerafarreachingprocessofchangethroughoutthe
MiddleEast.Thislineofthinking,ofcourse,wasevidentintheCleanBreak
studytheneoconservativeswroteforNetanyahu.By2002,wheninvadingIraq
hadbecomeafrontburnerissue,regionaltransformationhadbecomeanarticle
offaithinneoconservativecircles.186

CharlesKrauthammerdescribesthisgrandschemeasthebrainchildofNatan
Sharansky,theIsraelipoliticianwhosewritingshaveimpressedPresident
Bush.187ButSharanskywashardlyalonevoiceinIsrael.Infact,Israelisacross
thepoliticalspectrumbelievedthattopplingSaddamwouldaltertheMiddle
EasttoIsraelsadvantage.AlufBennreportedinHaaretz(February17,2003),
SeniorIDFofficersandthoseclosetoPrimeMinisterArielSharon,suchas
NationalSecurityAdvisorEphraimHalevy,paintarosypictureofthewonderful
futureIsraelcanexpectafterthewar.Theyenvisionadominoeffect,withthefall
ofSaddamHusseinfollowedbythatofIsraelsotherenemiesAlongwith
theseleaderswilldisappearterrorandweaponsofmassdestruction.188

Inshort,Israelileaders,neoconservatives,andtheBushAdministrationallsaw
warwithIraqasthefirststepinanambitiouscampaigntoremaketheMiddle
East.Andinthefirstflushofvictory,theyturnedtheirsightsonIsraelsother
regionalopponents.

36

GunningforSyria

IsraelileadersdidnotpushtheBushAdministrationtoputitscrosshairson
SyriabeforeMarch2003,becausetheyweretoobusypushingforwaragainst
Iraq.ButonceBaghdadfellinmidApril,Sharonandhislieutenantsbegan
urgingWashingtontotargetDamascus.189OnApril16,forexample,Sharonand
ShaulMofaz,hisdefenseminister,gavehighprofileinterviewsindifferent
Israelinewspapers.Sharon,inYediothAhronoth,calledfortheUnitedStatesto
putveryheavypressureonSyria.190MofaztoldMaarivthat,Wehavealong
listofissuesthatwearethinkingofdemandingoftheSyriansanditis
appropriatethatitshouldbedonethroughtheAmericans.191Sharonsnational
securityadvisor,EphraimHalevy,toldaWINEPaudiencethatitwasnow
importantfortheUnitedStatestogetroughwithSyria,andtheWashingtonPost
reportedthatIsraelwasfuelingthecampaignagainstSyriabyfeedingthe
UnitedStatesintelligencereportsabouttheactionsofSyrianPresidentBashar
Assad.192

ProminentmembersoftheLobbymadethesameargumentsafterBaghdad
fell.193WolfowitzdeclaredthattherehasgottoberegimechangeinSyria,and
RichardPerletoldajournalistthatWecoulddeliverashortmessage,atwo
wordedmessage[tootherhostileregimesintheMiddleEast]:Yourenext.194
InearlyApril,WINEPreleasedabipartisanreportstatingthatSyriashouldnot
missthemessagethatcountriesthatpursueSaddamsreckless,irresponsibleand
defiantbehaviorcouldendupsharinghisfate.195OnApril15,YossiKlein
HaleviwroteapieceintheLosAngelesTimesentitledNext,TurntheScrewson
Syria,whilethenextdayZevChafetswroteanarticlefortheNewYorkDaily
NewsentitledTerrorFriendlySyriaNeedsaChange,Too.Nottobeoutdone,
LawrenceKaplanwroteintheNewRepubliconApril21thatSyrianleaderAssad
wasaseriousthreattoAmerica.196

BackonCapitolHill,CongressmanEliotEngel(DNY)hadreintroducedthe
SyriaAccountabilityandLebaneseSovereigntyRestorationActonApril12.197It
threatenedsanctionsagainstSyriaifitdidnotwithdrawfromLebanon,giveup
itsWMD,andstopsupportingterrorism,anditalsocalledforSyriaandLebanon
totakeconcretestepstomakepeacewithIsrael.Thislegislationwasstrongly
endorsedbytheLobbyespeciallyAIPACandframed,accordingtothe
JewishTelegraphAgency,bysomeofIsraelsbestfriendsinCongress.198Ithad
beenonthebackburnerforsometime,largelybecausetheBushAdministration
hadlittleenthusiasmforit,buttheantiSyrianactpassedoverwhelmingly(3984

37

intheHouse;894intheSenate),andBushsigneditintolawonDecember12,
2003.199

YettheBushAdministrationwasstilldividedaboutthewisdomoftargeting
Syriaatthistime.Althoughtheneoconservativeswereeagertopickafightwith
Damascus,theCIAandtheStateDepartmentwereopposed.Andevenafter
Bushsignedthenewlaw,heemphasizedthathewouldgoslowlyin
implementingit.200

Bushsambivalenceisunderstandable.First,theSyriangovernmenthadbeen
providingtheUnitedStateswithimportantintelligenceaboutalQaedasince
9/11andhadalsowarnedWashingtonaboutaplannedterroristattackinthe
Gulf.201SyriahadalsogivenCIAinterrogatorsaccesstoMohammedZammar,
theallegedrecruiterofsomeofthe9/11hijackers.TargetingtheAssadregime
wouldjeopardizethesevaluableconnections,andthusunderminethelargerwar
onterrorism.

Second,SyriawasnotonbadtermswithWashingtonbeforetheIraqwar(e.g.,it
hadevenvotedforU.N.Resolution1441),anditwasnothreattotheUnited
States.PlayinghardballwithSyriawouldmaketheUnitedStateslooklikea
bullywithaninsatiableappetiteforbeatingupArabstates.Finally,putting
SyriaontheAmericanhitlistwouldgiveDamascusapowerfulincentiveto
causetroubleinIraq.EvenifonewantedtopressureSyria,itmadegoodsense
tofinishthejobinIraqfirst.

YetCongressinsistedonputtingthescrewstoDamascus,largelyinresponseto
pressurefromIsraelofficialsandproIsraelgroupslikeAIPAC.202Iftherewere
noLobby,therewouldhavebeennoSyriaAccountabilityActandU.S.policy
towardDamascuswouldhavebeenmoreinlinewiththeU.S.nationalinterest.

PuttingIranintheCrosshairs

Israelistendtodescribeeverythreatinthestarkestterms,butIraniswidelyseen
astheirmostdangerousenemybecauseitisthemostlikelyadversarytoacquire
nuclearweapons.VirtuallyallIsraelisregardanIslamiccountryintheMiddle
Eastwithnuclearweaponsasanexistentialthreat.AsIsraeliDefenseMinister
BinyaminBenEliezerremarkedonemonthbeforetheIraqwar:Iraqisa
problem.Butyoushouldunderstand,ifyouaskme,todayIranismore
dangerousthanIraq.203

38

SharonbeganpubliclypushingtheUnitedStatestoconfrontIraninNovember
2002,inahighprofileinterviewinTheTimes(London).204DescribingIranasthe
centerofworldterror,andbentonacquiringnuclearweapons,hedeclared
thattheBushAdministrationshouldputthestrongarmonIranthedayafterit
conqueredIraq.InlateApril2003,HaaretzreportedthattheIsraeliambassador
inWashingtonwasnowcallingforregimechangeinIran.205Theoverthrowof
Saddam,henoted,wasnotenough.Inhiswords,Americahastofollow
through.WestillhavegreatthreatsofthatmagnitudecomingfromSyria,
comingfromIran.

Theneoconservativesalsolostnotimeinmakingthecaseforregimechangein
Tehran.206OnMay6,theAEIcosponsoredanalldayconferenceonIranwith
theproIsraelFoundationfortheDefenseofDemocraciesandtheHudson
Institute.207ThespeakerswereallstronglyproIsrael,andmanycalledforthe
UnitedStatestoreplacetheIranianregimewithademocracy.Asusual,there
wereabevyofarticlesbyprominentneoconservativesmakingthecaseforgoing
afterIran.Forexample,WilliamKristolwroteintheWeeklyStandardonMay12
that,TheliberationofIraqwasthefirstgreatbattleforthefutureoftheMiddle
East.Butthenextgreatbattlenot,wehope,amilitaryonewillbefor
Iran.208

TheBushAdministrationhasrespondedtotheLobbyspressurebyworking
overtimetoshutdownIransnuclearprogram.ButWashingtonhashadlittle
success,andIranseemsdeterminedtogetanucleararsenal.Asaresult,the
LobbyhasintensifieditspressureontheU.S.government,usingallofthe
strategiesinitsplaybook.209Opedsandarticlesnowwarnofimminentdangers
fromanuclearIran,cautionagainstanyappeasementofaterroristregime,and
hintdarklyofpreventiveactionshoulddiplomacyfail.TheLobbyisalso
pushingCongresstoapprovetheIranFreedomSupportAct,whichwould
expandexistingsanctionsonIran.Israeliofficialsalsowarntheymaytake
preemptiveactionshouldIrancontinuedownthenuclearroad,hintspartly
intendedtokeepWashingtonfocusedonthisissue.

OnemightarguethatIsraelandtheLobbyhavenothadmuchinfluenceonU.S.
policytowardIran,becausetheUnitedStateshasitsownreasonstokeepIran
fromgoingnuclear.Thisispartlytrue,butIransnuclearambitionsdonotpose
anexistentialthreattotheUnitedStates.IfWashingtoncouldlivewithanuclear
SovietUnion,anuclearChina,orevenanuclearNorthKorea,thenitcanlive
withanuclearIran.AndthatiswhytheLobbymustkeepconstantpressureon
U.S.politicianstoconfrontTehran.IranandtheUnitedStateswouldhardlybe
39

alliesiftheLobbydidnotexist,butU.S.policywouldbemoretemperateand
preventivewarwouldnotbeaseriousoption.

Summary

ItisnotsurprisingthatIsraelanditsAmericansupporterswanttheUnitedStates
todealwithanyandallthreatstoIsraelssecurity.IftheireffortstoshapeU.S.
policysucceed,thenIsraelsenemiesgetweakenedoroverthrown,Israelgetsa
freehandwiththePalestinians,andtheUnitedStatesdoesmostofthefighting,
dying,rebuilding,andpaying.

ButeveniftheUnitedStatesfailstotransformtheMiddleEastandfindsitselfin
conflictwithanincreasinglyradicalizedArabandIslamicworld,Israelstillends
upprotectedbytheworldsonlysuperpower.210Thisisnotaperfectoutcome
fromtheLobbysperspective,butitisobviouslypreferabletoWashington
distancingitselffromIsrael,orusingitsleveragetoforceIsraeltomakepeace
withthePalestinians.

CONCLUSION

CantheLobbyspowerbecurtailed?Onewouldliketothinkso,giventheIraq
debacle,theobviousneedtorebuildAmericasimageintheArabandIslamic
world,andtherecentrevelationsaboutAIPACofficialspassingU.S.government
secretstoIsrael.OnemightalsothinkthatArafatsdeathandtheelectionofthe
moremoderateAbuMazenwouldcauseWashingtontopressvigorouslyand
evenhandedlyforapeaceagreement.Inshort,thereareamplegroundsforU.S.
leaderstodistancethemselvesfromtheLobbyandadoptaMiddleEastpolicy
moreconsistentwithbroaderU.S.interests.Inparticular,usingAmericanpower
toachieveajustpeacebetweenIsraelandthePalestinianswouldhelpadvance
thebroadergoalsoffightingextremismandpromotingdemocracyintheMiddle
East.

Butthatisnotgoingtohappenanytimesoon.AIPACanditsallies(including
ChristianZionists)havenoseriousopponentsinthelobbyingworld.Theyknow
ithasbecomemoredifficulttomakeIsraelscasetoday,andtheyareresponding
byexpandingtheiractivitiesandstaffs.211Moreover,Americanpoliticians
remainacutelysensitivetocampaigncontributionsandotherformsofpolitical
pressureandmajormediaoutletsarelikelytoremainsympathetictoIsraelno
matterwhatitdoes.

40

Thissituationisdeeplyworrisome,becausetheLobbysinfluencecausestrouble
onseveralfronts.Itincreasestheterroristdangerthatallstatesfaceincluding
AmericasEuropeanallies.BypreventingU.S.leadersfrompressuringIsraelto
makepeace,theLobbyhasalsomadeitimpossibletoendtheIsraeliPalestinian
conflict.Thissituationgivesextremistsapowerfulrecruitingtool,increasesthe
poolofpotentialterroristsandsympathizers,andcontributestoIslamic
radicalismaroundtheworld.

Furthermore,theLobbyscampaignforregimechangeinIranandSyriacould
leadtheUnitedStatestoattackthosecountries,withpotentiallydisastrous
effects.WedonotneedanotherIraq.Ataminimum,theLobbyshostility
towardthesecountriesmakesitespeciallydifficultforWashingtontoenlistthem
againstalQaedaandtheIraqiinsurgency,wheretheirhelpisbadlyneeded.

Thereisamoraldimensionhereaswell.ThankstotheLobby,theUnitedStates
hasbecomethedefactoenablerofIsraeliexpansionintheoccupiedterritories,
makingitcomplicitinthecrimesperpetratedagainstthePalestinians.This
situationundercutsWashingtonseffortstopromotedemocracyabroadand
makesitlookhypocriticalwhenitpressesotherstatestorespecthumanrights.
U.S.effortstolimitnuclearproliferationappearequallyhypocriticalgivenits
willingnesstoacceptIsraelsnucleararsenal,whichencouragesIranandothers
toseeksimilarcapabilities.

Moreover,theLobbyscampaigntosquelchdebateaboutIsraelisunhealthyfor
democracy.Silencingskepticsbyorganizingblacklistsandboycottsorby
suggestingthatcriticsareantiSemitesviolatestheprincipleofopendebate
uponwhichdemocracydepends.TheinabilityoftheU.S.Congresstoconducta
genuinedebateonthesevitalissuesparalyzestheentireprocessofdemocratic
deliberation.Israelsbackersshouldbefreetomaketheircaseandtochallenge
thosewhodisagreewiththem.Buteffortstostifledebatebyintimidationmust
beroundlycondemnedbythosewhobelieveinfreespeechandopendiscussion
ofimportantpublicissues.

Finally,theLobbysinfluencehasbeenbadforIsrael.Itsabilitytopersuade
WashingtontosupportanexpansionistagendahasdiscouragedIsraelfrom
seizingopportunitiesincludingapeacetreatywithSyriaandapromptandfull
implementationoftheOsloAccordsthatwouldhavesavedIsraelilivesand
shrunktheranksofPalestinianextremists.DenyingthePalestinianstheir
legitimatepoliticalrightscertainlyhasnotmadeIsraelmoresecure,andthelong
campaigntokillormarginalizeagenerationofPalestinianleadershas
41

empoweredextremistgroupslikeHamas,andreducedthenumberof
Palestinianleaderswhowouldbebothwillingtoacceptafairsettlementand
abletomakeitwork.ThiscourseraisestheawfulspecterofIsraeloneday
occupyingthepariahstatusoncereservedforapartheidstateslikeSouthAfrica.
Ironically,IsraelitselfwouldprobablybebetteroffiftheLobbywereless
powerfulandU.S.policyweremoreevenhanded.

Butthereisarayofhope.AlthoughtheLobbyremainsapowerfulforce,the
adverseeffectsofitsinfluenceareincreasinglydifficulttohide.Powerfulstates
canmaintainflawedpoliciesforquitesometime,butrealitycannotbeignored
forever.Whatisneeded,therefore,isacandiddiscussionoftheLobbys
influenceandamoreopendebateaboutU.S.interestsinthisvitalregion.Israels
wellbeingisoneofthoseinterests,butnotitscontinuedoccupationoftheWest
Bankoritsbroaderregionalagenda.Opendebatewillexposethelimitsofthe
strategicandmoralcaseforonesidedU.S.supportandcouldmovetheUnited
Statestoapositionmoreconsistentwithitsownnationalinterest,withthe
interestsoftheotherstatesintheregion,andwithIsraelslongterminterestsas
well.

42

ENDNOTES
Indeed,themereexistenceoftheLobbysuggeststhatunconditionalsupportforIsrael
isnotintheAmericannationalinterest.Ifitwas,onewouldnotneedanorganized
specialinterestgrouptobringitabout.ButbecauseIsraelisastrategicandmoral
liability,ittakesrelentlesspoliticalpressuretokeepU.S.supportintact.AsRichard
Gephardt,theformerHouseMinorityLeader,toldtheAmericanIsraelPublicAffairs
Committee(AIPAC),Without[your]constantsupport...andallyourfightingona
dailybasistostrengthenthatrelationship,itwouldnotbe.Thisquotewasdownloaded
fromtheAIPACwebsite[http://www.aipac.org/]onJanuary12,2004.AlsoseeMichael
Kinsley,JAccuse,SortOf,Slate,March12,2003.

2AccordingtotheU.S.AgencyforInternationalDevelopments(USAID)Greenbook,
whichreportsoverseasloansandgrants,Israelhasreceived$140,142,800(inconstant
2003dollars)fromtheUnitedStatesthrough2003.DownloadedfromtheGreenbook
website[http://qesdb.cdie.org/gbk/]onNovember8,2005.

3AccordingtotheGreenbook,Israelreceivedabout$3.7billionindirectaidfromthe
UnitedStatesin2003.IsraelspopulationaccordingtotheInternationalInstitutefor
StrategicStudies[IISS]andtheCIAis6,276,883.IISS,TheMilitaryBalance:20052006
(Oxfordshire:Routledge,2005),p.192;http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/.
Thataveragesoutto$589perIsraeli.Ifoneassumesthesamepopulationsizeand$3
billionintotalaid,theneachIsraelireceives$478.

4Seehttp://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/;WorldBankAtlas(Washington,DC:
DevelopmentDataGroup,WorldBank,September2004),pp.6465.

5ForadiscussionofthevariousspecialdealsthatIsraelreceives,seeClydeR.Mark,
Israel:U.S.ForeignAssistance,IssueBriefforCongress(Washington,DC:
CongressionalResearchService,April26,2005).

6AvnerCohen,IsraelandtheBomb(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1999);
SeymourM.Hersh,TheSamsonOption:IsraelsNuclearArsenalandAmericanForeign
Policy(NewYork:RandomHouse,1991).

7ReportoftheOpenEndedWorkingGroupontheQuestionofEquitable
RepresentationonandIncreaseintheMembershipoftheSecurityCouncilandOther
MattersRelatedtotheSecurityCouncil,AnnexIII,U.N.GeneralAssemblyOfficial
Records,58thSession,SupplementNo.47,2004,pp.1314;DonaldNeff,AnUpdated
ListofVetoesCastbytheUnitedStatestoShieldIsraelfromCriticismbytheU.N.
SecurityCouncil,WashingtonReportonMiddleEastAffairs,May/June2005;Stephen
Zunes,U.S.DeclaresOpenSeasononUNWorkers,CommonDreams.org,January10,
1

43

2003.TherewerealsomanyresolutionsthatnevercametoavotebecauseSecurity
CouncilmembersknewthattheUnitedStateswouldvetothem.Giventhedifficultyof
criticizingspecificIsraeliactionsintheSecurityCouncil,criticismhasoftencomefrom
theU.N.GeneralAssembly,wherenostatehasaveto.Inthoseinstances,theUnited
Statesinvariablyfindsitselfontheshortendoflopsidedvotesontheorderofsay1334,
wherethedissentersincludeMicronesiaandtheMarshallIslandsaswellasIsraeland
theUnitedStates.Inresponse,theForwardreportedinNovember2003thattheBush
Administration,attheinstigationoftheAmericanJewishCommittee,wasembarking
onthemostcomprehensivecampaigninyearstoreducethenumberofantiIsrael
resolutionsroutinelypassedbytheUnitedNationsGeneralAssembly.MarcPerelman,
WashingtonSeekingtoReduceNumberofAntiIsraelVotesatU.N.,Forward,
November14,2003.

8MarcPerelman,InternationalAgencyEyesIsraeliNukes,Forward,September5,2003.

9WilliamB.Quandt,PeaceProcess:AmericanDiplomacyandtheArabIsraeliConflictsince
1967,3rded.(Washington,DC:BrookingsInstitutionPress,2005),chapters57,1012.

10NathanGuttman,U.S.AccusedofProIsraelBiasat2000CampDavid,Haaretz,
April29,2005.AlsoseeAaronD.Miller,IsraelsLawyer,WashingtonPost,May23,
2005;LessonsofArabIsraeliNegotiating:FourNegotiatorsLookBackandAhead,
Transcriptofpaneldiscussion,MiddleEastInstitute,April25,2005.Forgeneral
discussionsofhowtheUnitedStatesconsistentlyfavorsIsraeloverthePalestinians,see
NoamChomsky,FatefulTriangle:TheUnitedStates,IsraelandthePalestinians(Cambridge,
MA:SouthEndPress,1999);KathleenChristison,PerceptionsofPalestine:TheirInfluence
onU.S.MiddleEastPolicy(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2001);NaseerH.
Aruri,DishonestBroker:TheU.S.RoleinIsraelandPalestine(Cambridge,MA:SouthEnd
Press,2003).ItisalsoworthnotingthattheBritishfavoredtheZionistsoverthe
PalestiniansduringtheperiodoftheBritishMandate(19191948).SeeTomSegev,One
Palestine,Complete:JewsandArabsundertheBritishMandate(NewYork:HenryHolt,
2000).

11DownloadedfromAIPACswebsite[http://aipac.org/documents/unitedefforts.html]
onJanuary12,2006.

12See,forexample,WarrenBass,SupportAnyFriend:KennedysMiddleEastandthe
MakingoftheUSIsraelAlliance(NY:OxfordUniversityPress,2003);A.F.K.Organski,The
$36BillionBargain:StrategyandPoliticsinU.S.AssistancetoIsrael(NewYork:Columbia
UniversityPress,1990);StevenL.Spiegel,IsraelasaStrategicAsset,Commentary,June
1983,pp.5155;Idem,TheOtherArabIsraeliConflict:MakingAmericasMiddleEastPolicy,
fromTrumantoReagan(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1985).

44

ThispointwasnotlostonMosheDayan,who,rememberingatalkhehadwithHenry
KissingeratthetimeoftheOctober1973War,notedthatthoughIhappenedtoremark
thattheUnitedStateswastheonlycountrythatwasreadytostandbyus,mysilent
reflectionwasthattheUnitedStateswouldreallyrathersupporttheArabs.Moshe
Dayan,MosheDayan:StoryofMyLife(NY:WilliamMorrow,1976),pp.521513.Alsosee
ZachLevey,TheUnitedStatesSkyhawkSaletoIsrael,1966:StrategicExigenciesofan
ArmsDeal,DiplomaticHistory,Vol.28,No.2(April2004),pp.255276.

14BernardLewiswrotein1992,WhatevervalueIsraelmighthavehadasastrategic
assetduringtheColdWar,thatvalueobviouslyendedwhentheColdWaritselfcameto
aclose.ThechangewasclearlymanifestedintheGulfWarlastyear,whenwhatthe
UnitedStatesmostdesiredfromIsraelwastokeepoutoftheconflicttobesilent,
inactiveand,asfaraspossible,invisible.Israelwasnotanasset,butanirrelevance
someevensaidanuisance.SomeofthethingsthattheIsraeligovernmentlatersaidand
didwereunlikelytochangethisperception.RethinkingtheMiddleEast,Foreign
Affairs,Vol.71,No.4,(Fall1992),pp.110111.

15AccordingtoMiddleEastexpertShibleyTelhami,Nootherissueresonateswiththe
publicintheArabworld,andmanyotherpartsoftheMuslimworld,moredeeplythan
Palestine.NootherissueshapestheregionalperceptionsofAmericamore
fundamentallythantheissueofPalestine.TheStakes:AmericaandtheMiddleEast
(Boulder,CO:WestviewPress,2002),p.96.LakhdarBrahimi,theformerU.N.special
envoytoIraq,whotheBushAdministrationenlistedtohelpformaninterimIraqi
governmentinJune2004,saidthatIsraelipolicytowardthePalestiniansisthegreat
poisonintheregion,andthatintheregion,andbeyondpeoplerecognizedthe
injusticeofthispolicyandtheequallyunjustsupportoftheUnitedStatesforthis
policy.SeeWarrenHoge,U.N.MovestoDisassociateItselffromRemarksbyEnvoy
toIraq,NewYorkTimes,April23,2004;BrahimisIsraelCommentsDrawAnnan,Israel
Ire,Haaretz,April24,2004.AlsoseethecommentsofEgyptianPresidentHosni
MubarakinMubarak:ArabHatredofAmericaGrowing,WashingtonPost,April20,
2004.Finally,seeAmiEden,9/11CommissionFindsAngeratIsraelFuelingIslamic
TerrorismWave,Forward,July30,2004.

16NationalCommissiononTerroristAttacksagainsttheUnitedStates,Outlineofthe
9/11Plot,StaffStatementNo.16,June16,2004.AlsoseeNathanGuttman,AlQaida
PlannedAttacksduringPMsVisittoWhiteHouse,Haaretz,June17,2004;andMarc
Perelman,BinLadenAimedtoLinkPlottoIsrael,Forward,June25,2004.ProIsrael
supportersoftenarguethatbinLadenonlybecameinterestedintheIsraelPalestinian
conflictafter9/11,andonlybecausehethoughtthatitwasgoodforrecruitingpurposes.
Thus,thereisvirtuallynoconnectionbetweenwhathappenedon9/11andU.S.support
forIsrael.SeeAndreaLevin,DontScapegoatIsrael,BostonGlobe,October6,2001;
NormanPodhoretz,IsraelIsnttheIssue,WallStreetJournal,September20,2001.Note
13

45

thatbothofthesepieceswerepublishedrightaftertheTwinTowersfell.However,we
nowhaveasubstantialnumberofbinLadenswritingsandtalksfromthe1980sand
1990s,anditisclearthathecareddeeplyaboutmattersrelatingtoJerusalemandthe
Palestinianslongbefore9/11.See,forexample,JihadagainstJewsandCrusaders,
WorldIslamicFrontStatement,February23,1998;TranscriptofOsamabinLadens
March20,1997interviewwithPeterArnettofCNN(firstbroadcastonMay10,1997).
AlsoNewOsamabinLadenVideoContainsAntiIsraelandAntiAmerican
Statements,downloadedfromtheAntiDefamationLeague(ADL)website
[http://www.adl.org/terrorism_america/bin_l_print.asp]onMarch8,2004.

17ChangingMinds,WinningPeace:ANewStrategicDirectionforU.S.PublicDiplomacyinthe
ArabandMuslimWorld,ReportoftheAdvisoryGrouponPublicDiplomacyfortheArab
andMuslimWorld,SubmittedtotheCommitteeonAppropriations,U.S.Houseof
Representatives,October1,2003,p.18.AlsoseeThePewGlobalAttitudesProject,Views
ofaChangingWorld2003:WarWithIraqFurtherDividesGlobalPublics(Washington,DC:
ThePewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthePress,June3,2003);ReportoftheDefense
ScienceBoardTaskForceonStrategicCommunication(Washington,DC:Officeofthe
UndersecretaryofDefenseforAcquisition,Technology,andLogistics,September2004);
ShibleyTelhami,ArabPublicOpinion:ASurveyinSixCountries,SanJoseMercury,
March16,2003;JohnZogby,TheTenNationImpressionsofAmericaPoll(Utica,NY:Zogby
International,April11,2002);Idem,ImpressionsofAmerica2004:HowArabsViewAmerica,
HowArabsLearnaboutAmerica(SixNationSurvey),(Utica,NY:ZogbyInternational,
2004).

18SeeThePewGlobalAttitudesProject,AmericaAdmired,YetItsNewVulnerabilitySeen
AsGoodThing,SayOpinionLeaders(Washington,DC:ThePewResearchCenterforthe
PeopleandthePress,December19,2001);PewGlobalAttitudesProject,Viewsofa
ChangingWorld2003,p.5.

19Foracopyoftheletter,seeDoomedtoFailureintheMiddleEast,TheGuardian,
April27,2004.AlsoseeNicholasBlanford,USMovesInflameArabModerates,The
ChristianScienceMonitor,April26,2004;RupertCornwell,AlliesWarnBushthat
StabilityinIraqDemandsArabIsraeliDeal,TheIndependent,June10,2004;Glenn
KesslerandRobinWright,ArabsandEuropeansQuestionGreaterMiddleEastPlan,
WashingtonPost,February22,2004;PaulRichter,U.S.HasFreshHopeforMideast,Los
AngelesTimes,November7,2004;RobinWrightandGlennKessler,U.S.Goalsfor
MiddleEastFalter,WashingtonPost,April21,2004.EvensomeIsraelisunderstandthat
thecontinuationofthisconflict,includingtheIsraelioccupation,willmostcertainly
leadtonewwavesofterror;internationalterrorism,whichtheAmericansfearsomuch,
willspread.ZeevSchiff,FittingintoAmericasStrategy,Haaretz,August1,2003.It
isalsoworthnotingthatsome50retiredAmericandiplomatswrotealetterinMay2004
toPresidentBushsimilartotheletterthattheBritishdiplomatssenttoTonyBlair.A

46

copyoftheAmericanletterwaspublishedinTheNewYorkReviewofBooks,November
18,2004.

20Consider,forexample,thecontroversythateruptedin2005overIsraelsdecisionto
expanditssettlementsintheWestBank.SeeAlufBenn,WeCantExpectExplicitU.S.
OkaytoBuildinSettlements,Haaretz,March28,2005;AkivaEldar,Bush:End
ExpansionofSettlements,Haaretz,May27,2005;BushWarnsIsraeloverWestBank,
BBCNewsOnline,April11,2005;DonaldMacintyre,SharonVowstoDefyBushover
ExpansionofIsraeliSettlements,Independent,April22,2005;SharonBrushesOff
WarningfromBush,MSNBC.com,April12,2005;AmyTeibel,U.S.toIsrael:Stop
ExpandingSettlements,WashingtonPost,June26,2005;ZeevSchiff,U.S.:Israel
ShirkingItsPromisesonSettlementBoundaries,Haaretz,March15,2005.Regarding
targetedassassinationsPrimeMinisterSharonpromisedSecretaryofStateColinPowell
inMay2003thatIsraelwouldrefrainfromkillingPalestinianleadersunlesstherewasa
tickingbomb(animminentattack).ZeevSchiff,Focus/AmericansFearAbuMazen
IsFurtherWeakened,Haaretz,June12,2003.Butonemonthlater,afterBushmadea
highprofilevisittotheMiddleEastandtheprospectsfornegotiationsbetweenthe
warringpartieslookedpromising,Sharonlaunchedsevenassassinationmissionsinfive
days,noneinvolvingatickingbomb.BradleyBurston,Background:HasSharons
HamasHitlistConvertedBush?Haaretz,June17,2003.AlsoseeUriAvnery,Avoiding
aRoadMaptotheAbyss,ArabNews(online),August26,2003;GlennKessler,White
HouseBacksLatestIsraeliAttacks,WashingtonPost,June13,2003;LauraKing,Sharon
LaudsHebronKilling,LosAngelesTimes,June23,2003;GideonLevy,WhoViolated
theHudna?Tikkun(online),August17,2003.InMarch2004,theIDFkilledHamas
spiritualleaderSheikYassin,eventhoughhewasnotanimminentthreat,andeven
thoughhisdeathdamagedAmericaspositionintheMiddleEast.GeorgieAnneGeyer,
ArielSharonComplicatesU.S.Mission,ChicagoTribune,March26,2004;H.D.S.
Greenway,AssassinationFalloutBodesIllforUS,BostonGlobe,March26,2004;Tony
Karon,HowIsraelsHamasKillingAffectstheU.S.,Time,March23,2004;DavidR.
Sands,IsraelsKillingofYassinPutsUSinLineofFire,WashingtonTimes,March23,
2004.AsJimHoaglandsaidinthewakeofYassinskilling,Withthepossibleexception
ofCharlesdeGaulle,nofriendlyforeignleaderhascomplicatedmodernAmerican
diplomacymoreconsistentlyorgravelythanArielSharon.HepursuesIsraelsinterests
withawarriorstenacityanddirectnessthattakesawaythebreath,andtheoptions,of
everyoneelse.SeeConsequencesforSharonandtheU.S.,ChicagoTribune,March
26,2004.

21QuotedinDuncanL.Clarke,IsraelsUnauthorizedArmsTransfers,ForeignPolicy,
No.99(Summer1995),p.94.Thisarticleprovidesanexcellentdiscussionofthe
problem.Therewasabittercontroversyin20042005betweentheUnitedStatesand
IsraeloverIsraeliarmssalestoChina.SeeAlufBennandAmnonBarzilai,Pentagon
OfficialWantsYaronFired,Haaretz,December16,2004;AlufBenn,U.S.KeepsIsrael

47

OutofNewFighterJetDevelopmentProgram,Haaretz,October12,2005;NinaGilbert,
YaronWontGiveInfoonArmsSalestoChina,JerusalemPost,December30,2004;
Israeli,U.S.TalksonWeaponsDealswithChinaEndwithoutResult,Haaretz,June29,
2005;MarcPerelman,SpatOverSalesofWeaponsChillingTiesbetweenJerusalemand
Beijing,Forward,December23,2004;MarcPerelman,ChinaCrisisStrainingU.S.Israel
Ties,Forward,August5,2005;MarcPerelman,IsraelMiffedoverLingeringChina
Flap,Forward,October7,2005;ZeevSchiff,U.S.IsraelCrisisDeepensoverDefense
ExportstoChina,Haaretz,July27,2005.

22QuotedinDuncanL.Clarke,IsraelsEconomicEspionageintheUnitedStates,
JournalofPalestineStudies,Vol.27,No.4(Summer1998),p.21.AlsoseeBobDroginand
GregMiller,IsraelHasLongSpiedonU.S.SayOfficials,LosAngelesTimes,September
3,2004;FBISaysIsraelaMajorPlayerinIndustrialEspionage,JewishBulletin,January
16,1998;ClydeR.Mark,IsraeliUnitedStatesRelations,IssueBriefforCongress
(Washington,DC:CongressionalResearchService,November9,2004),pp.1415;Joshua
Mitnick,U.S.AccusesOfficialsofSpying,WashingtonTimes,December16,2004.

23OnthePollardaffair,seeHersh,SamsonOption,pp.285305;Idem,TheTraitor:Why
PollardShouldNeverBeReleased,NewYorker,Vol.74,issue42(January18,1999),pp.
2633.ThereareahugenumberofarticlesontheinternetdealingwiththeFranklin
Affair.Foragoodoverviewofthecase,seeJeffreyGoldberg,RealInsiders:AProIsrael
LobbyandanF.B.I.Sting,NewYorker,Vol.81,issue19(July4,2005),pp.3440.

24TrevorN.Dupuy,ElusiveVictory:TheArabIsraeliWars,19471974(NewYork:Harper
andRow,1978),pp.319,121125,146147,212214,231244,333340,388390,597605,
623633;SimhaFlapan,TheBirthofIsrael:MythsandRealities(NewYork:Pantheon
Books,1987),pp.189199;RashidKhalidi,ThePalestiniansand1948:TheUnderlying
CausesofFailure,inEugeneL.RoganandAviShlaim,eds.,TheWarforPalestine:
RewritingtheHistoryof1948(NY:CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),pp.1236;Haim
Levenberg,MilitaryPreparationsoftheArabCommunityinPalestine,19451948(London:
FrankCass,1993);BennyMorris,TheBirthofthePalestinianRefugeeProblemRevisited
(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,2004),chapters1,3.Idem,RighteousVictims:A
HistoryoftheZionistArabConflict,18811999(NewYork:AlfredKnopf,1999),pp.187
189,191196,217223,235236,241242,286291,311313,393395;MartinVanCreveld,
TheSwordandtheOlive:ACriticalHistoryoftheIsraeliDefenseForces(NY:PublicAffairs,
1998),pp.7782,137138,179182.

25AmosHarel,IsraelMaintainsItsStrategicAdvantage,SaysJaffeeCenter,Haaretz,
November23,2005.Alsosee,UriBarJoseph,TheParadoxofIsraeliPower,Survival,
Vol.46,No.4(Winter200405),pp.137156;MartinVanCreveld,Opportunity
Beckons,JerusalemPost,May15,2003.

48

ForthreeinstructivepiecesonthismatterfromtheIsraelipress,seeAmiramBarkat,
MajorityofIsraelisAreOpposedtoIntermarriage,SurveyFinds,Haaretz,September
15,2003;NickyBlackburn,BetteraJew,Haaretz,April21,2004;LilyGalili,Hitting
BelowtheBelt,Haaretz,August8,2004.

27SeeTheOfficialSummationoftheOrCommissionReport,publishedinHaaretz,
September2,2003.ForevidenceofhowhostilemanyIsraelisweretothereports
findingsandrecommendations,seeNoAvoidingtheCommissionRecommendations,
Haaretz,September4,2003;MollyMoore,IsraeliReportIsWelcomed,Dismissed,
WashingtonPost,September3,2003.AlsoseeBernardAvishai,SavingIsraelfromItself:
ASecularFuturefortheJewishState,HarpersMagazine,January2005.Itisalsoworth
notingthattheIsraelDemocracyInstitutereportedinMay2003that:53percentofIsraeli
JewsareagainstfullequalityfortheArabs;77percentofIsraeliJewsbelievethat
thereshouldbeaJewishmajorityoncrucialpoliticaldecisions;only31percent
supporthavingArabpoliticalpartiesinthegovernment;57percentthinkthatthe
Arabsshouldbeencouragedtoemigrate.SeeTheDemocracyIndex:MajorFindings
2003.ImaginetheoutcrythatwouldoccurifamajorityofwhiteAmericansdeclared
thatblacks,Hispanics,andAsiansshouldbeencouragedtoleavetheUnitedStates.
Formorerecentsurveys,whichshowlittlechangeinIsraeliattitudes,seeYulie
Khromchenko,Survey:MostJewishIsraelisSupportTransferofArabs,Haaretz,June
22,2004;YoavStern,Poll:MostIsraeliJewsSayIsraeliArabsShouldEmigrate,
Haaretz,April4,2005.

28QuotedinJustinHuggler,IsraelImposesRacistMarriageLaw,Guardian,August1,
2003.AlsoseeJamesBennet,IsraelBlocksPalestiniansfromMarryingintoResidency,
NewYorkTimes,July31,2003;RacistLegislation,Haaretzeditorial,July,19,2004;
RacistLegislation,Haaretzeditorial,January18,2005.EventheAntiDefamation
League(ADL)criticizedthelegislation,albeitmildly.NathanGuttman,YairEttinger,
SharonSadeh,ADLCriticizesLawDenyingCitizenshiptoPalestinians,Haaretz,
August5,2003.

29ThefirstwaveofEuropeanJewstocometoPalestineisknownastheFirstAliyah,and
itcoverstheyearsfrom1882to1903.Therewereslightlymorethan15,000Jewsin
Palestinein1882.JustinMcCarthy,ThePopulationofPalestine:PopulationHistoryand
StatisticsoftheLateOttomanPeriodandtheMandate(NY:ColumbiaUniversityPress,
1990),p.11,whichhasexcellentdatafortheyearsfrom1850to1915.AlsoseeMark
Tessler,AHistoryoftheIsraeliPalestinianConflict(Bloomington,IN:IndianaUniversity
Press,1994),p.124.

30ThetotalpopulationofPalestinein1893wasroughly530,000,ofwhomabout19,000
wereJewish(3.6percent).Arabscomprisedthevastmajorityoftheremaining
population.McCarthy,PopulationofPalestine,p.11.
26

49


31

Flapan,BirthofIsrael,p.44;Morris,RighteousVictims,p.186.

Flapan,BirthofIsrael,p22.Similarly,BenGuriontoldhisson,Iamcertainwewillbe
abletosettleinalltheotherpartsofthecountry,whetherthroughagreementand
mutualagreementwithourArabneighborsorinanotherway.Hewentontosay,
ErectaJewishStateatonce,evenifitisnotinthewholeoftheland.Therestwillcome
inthecourseoftime.Itmustcome.AviShlaim,TheIronWall:IsraelandtheArabWorld
(NY:Norton,2000),p.21.AlsoseeFlapan,BirthofIsrael,pp.1353;NurMasalah,
ExpulsionofthePalestinians:TheConceptofTransferinZionistPoliticalThought,18821948
(Washington,DC:InstituteforPalestineStudies,1992),chapter2;Morris,Righteous
Victims,pp.138139;AviShlaim,ThePoliticsofPartition:KingAbdullah,theZionists,and
Palestine,19211951(NY:OxfordUniversityPress,1999).

33Masalah,ExpulsionofthePalestinians,p.128.AlsoseeMorris,RighteousVictims,pp.
140,142,168169.

34BennyMorris,ANewExodusfortheMiddleEast?Guardian,October3,2002.On
thepervasivenessoftransferthinkingamongZionistsbeforeIsraelwasestablishedin
1948,seeMasalha,ExpulsionofthePalestinians;Morris,RevisitingthePalestinian
Exodusof1948,inRoganandShlaim,WarforPalestine,pp.3948;Morris,Birth
Revisited,chapter2;AriShavit,SurvivaloftheFittest,Haaretz,January9,2004.

35Morris,BirthRevisited,providesadetailedaccountofthisevent.AlsoseeMeron
Benvenisti,SacredLandscape:TheBuriedHistoryoftheHolyLandsince1948,trans.Maxine
KaufmanLacusta(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2000),chapters34.The
onlyremainingdebateofrealsignificanceregardingtheexpulsionofthePalestinians
fromtheirhomelandiswhetheritwasbornofwar,asMorrisargues,orbydesign,as
NormanFinkelsteinarguesinImageandRealityoftheIsraelPalestineConflict(London:
Verso,1995),chapter3.

36ErskineChilders,TheOtherExodus,Spectator,May12,1961;Flapan,BirthofIsrael,
pp.81118;WalidKhalidi,WhyDidthePalestiniansLeaveRevisited,Journalof
PalestineStudies,Vol.34,No.2(Winter2005),pp.4254;Idem,TheFallofHaifa,
MiddleEastForum,Vol.35,No.10(December,1959),pp.2232;Morris,BirthRevisited.

37NahumGoldmann,TheJewishParadox,trans.SteveCox(NY:GrossetandDunlap,
1978),p.99.ZeevJabotinsky,thefoundingfatheroftheIsraeliright,madeessentially
thesamepointwhenhewrote,Colonizationisselfexplanatoryandwhatitimpliesis
fullyunderstoodbyeverysensibleJewandArab.Therecanonlybeonepurposein
colonization.ForthecountrysArabsthatpurposeisessentiallyunacceptable.Thisisa
naturalreactionandnothingwillchangeit.QuotedinIanLustick,ToBuildandTo
32

50

BeBuiltBy:IsraelandtheHiddenLogicoftheIronWall,IsraelStudies,Vol.1,No.1
(Spring1996),p.200.

38SeeGeoffreyAronson,Israel,Palestinians,andtheIntifada:CreatingFactsontheWest
Bank(London:KeganPaulInternational,1990);AmnonBarzilai,ABriefHistoryofthe
MissedOpportunity,Haaretz,June5,2002;Idem,SomeSawtheRefugeesastheKey
toPeace,Haaretz,June11,2002;MosheBehar,ThePeaceProcessandIsraeliDomestic
Politicsinthe1990s,SocialismandDemocracy,CurrentIssueNumber32,Vol.16,No.2
(SummerFall2002),pp.3447;AdamHaniehandCatherineCook,ARoadMaptothe
OsloCuldeSac,MiddleEastReportOnline,May15,2003;IsraelsInterestsTake
Primacy:AnInterviewwithDoreGold,inbitterlemons.org,WhatConstitutesaViable
PalestinianState?March15,2004,Edition10;NurMasalha,ImperialIsraelandthe
Palestinians:ThePoliticsofExpansion(London:PlutoPress,2000);SaraRoy,Erasingthe
OpticsofGaza,TheDailyStarOnLine,February14,2004;36Years,andStill
Counting,Haaretz,September26,2003.

39RahidKhalidi,PalestinianIdentity:TheConstructionofModernNationalConsciousness
(NY:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1997),p.147.Meiralsosaid,Itwasnotasthough
therewasaPalestinianpeopleinPalestineconsideringitselfasaPalestinianpeopleand
wecameandthrewthemoutandtooktheircountryawayfromthem.Theydidnot
exist.Masalha,ImperialIsrael,p.47.Rabinsaidin1995,twoyearsaftersigningtheOslo
accords,IseekpeacefulcoexistencebetweenIsraelasaJewishstate,notalloverthe
landofIsrael,ormostofit;itscapital,theunitedJerusalem;itssecurityborderwith
Jordanrebuilt;nexttoit,aPalestinianentity,lessthanastate,thatrunsthelifeof
Palestinians.Thisismygoal,nottoreturntothepreSixDayWarlinesbuttocreate
twoentities,aseparationbetweenIsraelandthePalestinianswhoresideintheWest
BankandtheGazaStrip.HaniehandCook,RoadMap.AlsoseeAkivaEldar,On
theSamePage,TenYearsOn,Haaretz,November5,2005;DavidGrossman,The
NightOurHopeforPeaceDied,Guardian,November4,2005;MichaelJansen,A
PracticethatPreventstheEmergenceofaPalestinianState,JordanTimes,November10,
2005.Itisworthnotingthatinthespringof1998,IsraelanditsAmericansupporters
sharplycriticizedFirstLadyHillaryClintonforsayingthat,Itwouldbeinthelong
terminterestsofpeaceintheMiddleEastfortheretobeastateofPalestine,a
functioningmodernstatethatisonthesamefootingasotherstates.TomRhodesand
ChristopherWalker,CongressTellsIsraeltoRejectClintonsPulloutPlan,NewYork
Times,May8,1998;JamesBennet,AidesDisavowMrs.ClintononMideast,NewYork
Times,May8,1998.
CharlesEnderlein,ShatteredDreams:TheFailureofthePeaceProcessintheMiddleEast,
19952002,trans.SusanFairfield(NY:OtherPress,2003),pp.201,207208;Jeremy
Pressman,VisionsinCollision:WhatHappenedatCampDavidandTaba?International
Security,Vol.28,No.2(Fall2003),p.17;DeborahSontag,QuestforMideastPeace:
40

51

HowandWhyItFailed,NewYorkTimes,July26,2001;ClaytonE.Swisher,TheTruth
aboutCampDavid:TheUntoldStoryabouttheCollapseofthePeaceProcess(NY:Nation
Books,2004),pp.284,318,325.BarakhimselfsaidafterCampDavidthatthe
Palestinianswerepromisedacontinuouspieceofsovereignterritoryexceptforarazor
thinIsraeliwedgerunningfromJerusalemthroughfromMaaleAdumimtotheJordan
River,whicheffectivelywouldhavebeenunderIsraelscontrol.BennyMorris,Camp
DavidandAfter:AnExchange(1.AnInterviewwithEhudBarak),NewYorkReviewof
Books,Vol.49,No.10(June13,2002),p.44.AlsoseethemapIsraelinegotiators
presentedtothePalestiniansatCampDavid,acopyofwhichcanbefoundinRoane
Carey,ed.,TheNewIntifada:ResistingIsraelsApartheid(London:Verso,2001),p.36.
SeeAlanDershowitz,TheCaseforIsrael(Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,2003).Fora
tellingcritiqueofDershowitzsbook,seeNormanG.Finkelstein,BeyondChutzpah:On
theMisuseofAntiSemitismandtheAbuseofHistory(Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia
Press,2005).AlsoseeDershowitzv.Desch,AmericanConservative,January16,2005.

42Morris,RighteousVictims,chapters25.

43Morris,BirthRevisited.ItshouldbenotedthatmanyIsraelidocumentsconcerningthe
eventsof1948remainclassified;Morrisexpectsthatwithrespecttobothexpulsions
andatrocities,wecanexpectadditionalrevelationsastheyearspassandmoreIsraeli
recordsbecomeavailable.Morris,RevisitingthePalestinianExodus,inRoganand
Shlaim,WarforPalestine,p.49.Infact,hemaintainsthatthereportedcasesofrapehe
knowsaboutarejustthetipoftheiceberg.SeeShavit,SurvivaloftheFittest.

44BennyMorris,IsraelsBorderWars,19491956(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,
1997),p.432.Alsoseeibid.,pp.126153,178184.Forevidenceofsimilarbehaviorafter
the1967War,seeUriAvnery,CryingWolf?CounterPunch,March15,2003;Ami
Kronfeld,AvneryonEthnicCleansingandaPersonalNote,inJewishVoiceforPeace,
JewishPeaceNews,March17,2003;KatherineM.Metres,AsEvidenceMounts,Tollof
IsraeliPrisonerofWarMassacresGrows,WashingtonReportonMiddleEastAffairs,
February/March1996,pp.17,104105.

45DuringhisnegotiationswiththeBritishandFrenchgovernmentsoverthelaunching
ofthe1956war,BenGurionproposedagrandplanforreorderingtheregionthatwould
havedividedJordanbetweenIsraelandIraq,transferredallofLebanonsouthofthe
LitaniRivertoIsrael,andgivenIsraelportionsoftheSinaiaswell.OnIsraelspolicies
inthe1950s,seeMorris,IsraelsBorderWars;Morris,RighteousVictims,chapter6,
especiallypp.289290;Shlaim,IronWall,chapters34,especiallypp.184185;Kennett
Love,Suez:theTwiceFoughtWar(NewYork:McGrawHill,1969),pp.589638;Michael
Brecher,DecisionsinIsraelsForeignPolicy(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1975),pp.
282283.
41

52


GabbyBron,EgyptianPOWsOrderedtoDigGraves,ThenShotbyIsraeliArmy,
YediothAhronoth,August17,1995;RonalFisher,MassMurderinthe1956SinaiWar,
Maariv,August8,1995[CopiesofthesetwopiecescanbefoundinJournalofPalestine
Studies,Vol.25,No.3(Spring1996),pp.148155];GalalBana,Egypt:WeWillTurnto
theInternationalWarCrimesTribunalintheHagueifIsraelWillNotCompensate
MurderedPrisonersofWar,Haaretz,July24,2002;Zehavat,Friedman,Personal
Reminiscence:RememberingAmiKronfeld,inJewishVoiceforPeace,JewishPeace
News,September25,2005;Metres,AsEvidenceMounts.

47Avnery,CryingWolf;RobertBlecher,LivingontheEdge:TheThreatofTransfer
inIsraelandPalestine,MERIP,MiddleEastReport225,Winter2002;Baruch
Kimmerling,Politicide:ArielSharonsWaragainstthePalestinians(London:Verso,2003),p.
28.AlsoseeChomsky,FatefulTriangle,p.97;Morris,RighteousVictims,pp.328329;
TanyaReinhart,Israel/Palestine:HowtoEndtheWarof1948(NY:SevenStoriesPress,
2002),p.8.Morrisreports(p.329)that120,000Palestiniansappliedtoreturntotheir
homesrightafterthe1967War,butIsraelallowedonlyabout17,000tocomeback.
AmnestyInternationalestimatedinmid2003thatintheyearssinceIsraelhadacquired
theWestBankandtheGazaStrip,ithaddestroyedmorethan10,000Palestinianhomes
inthoseareas.DannyRubinstein,Roads,FencesandOutpostsMaintainControlinthe
Territories,Haaretz,August12,2003.

48ReportoftheCommissionofInquiryintotheEventsattheRefugeeCampsin
Beirut,February7,1983.ThereportiscommonlycalledTheKahanCommission
Reportafteritschairman,YitzhakKahan.

49SwedishSavetheChildren,TheStatusofPalestinianChildrenduringtheUprisingin
theOccupiedTerritories,ExcerptedSummaryMaterial,Jerusalem,1990,inJournalof
PalestineStudies,Vol.19,No.4(Summer1990),pp.136146.AlsoseeJoshuaBrilliant,
OfficerTellsCourtVillagersWereBound,GaggedandBeaten.NotGuiltyPleaat
BreakBonesTrial,JerusalemPost,March30,1990;JoshuaBrilliant,RabinOrdered
Beatings,MeirTellsMilitaryCourt,JerusalemPost,June22,1990;JacksonDiehl,
RightsGroupAccusesIsraelofViolenceAgainstChildreninPalestinianUprising,
WashingtonPost,May17,1990;JamesA.Graff,CripplingaPeople:PalestinianChildren
andIsraeliStateViolence,Alif,No.13(1993),pp.4663;RonaldR.Stockton,Intifada
Deaths,JournalofPalestineStudies,Vol.19,No.4(Summer1990),pp.8695.Ehud
Barak,theIDFsDeputyChiefofStaffduringtheFirstIntifada,saidatthetime,Wedo
notwantchildrentobeshotunderanycircumstances.Whenyouseeachildyou
dontshoot.Nevertheless,theSwedishSavetheChildrenreportestimatedthat6,500to
8,000childrenwerewoundedbygunfireduringthefirsttwoyearsoftheIntifada.
Researchersinvestigated66ofthe106recordedcasesofchildgunshotdeaths.They
concludedthat:almostallofthemwerehitbydirectednotrandomorricochet
46

53

gunfire;nearlytwentypercentsufferedmultiplegunshotwounds;twelvepercentwere
shotfrombehind;fifteenpercentofthechildrenweretenyearsofageoryounger;most
childrenwerenotparticipatinginastonethrowingdemonstrationwhenshotdead;
andnearlyonefifthofthechildrenwereshotdeadwhileathomeorwithintenmeters
oftheirhomes.

50UnbridledForce,Haaretzeditorial,March16,2003.Forotherevidence,seeJonathan
Cook,ImpunityonBothSidesoftheGreenLine,MERIP,MiddleEastReportOnline,
November23,2005;WhenEverythingIsPermissible,Haaretzeditorial,June6,2005;
ItCanHappenHere,Haaretzeditorial,November22,2004;ChrisMcGreal,Snipers
withChildreninTheirSights,Guardian,June28,2005;Idem,IsraelShockedbyImage
ofSoldiersForcingViolinisttoPlayatRoadblock,Guardian,November29,2004;Greg
Myre,FormerIsraeliSoldiersTellofHarassmentofPalestinians,NewYorkTimes,June
24,2004;ReuvenPedatzur,TheMessagetotheSoldiersWasClear,Haaretz,December
13,2004;ConalUrquhart,IsraeliSoldiersTellofIndiscriminateKillingsbyArmyandA
CultureofImpunity,Guardian,September6,2005.

51SeeSwisher,TruthaboutCampDavid,p.387.

52AccordingtoBtselem,betweenSeptember29,2000,andDecember31,2005,3,386
PalestinianswerekilledbytheIsraelis,ofwhom676werechildren.Ofthose3,386
deaths,1,185werebystanders,1,008werekilledwhilefightingtheIsraelis,andthe
circumstancesof563deathsareunknown.Duringthesameperiod,992Israeliswere
killedbythePalestinians,118ofwhomwerechildren.Ofthose992deaths,683were
civiliansand309belongedtoIsraelisecurityforces.Btselempressrelease,January4,
2006.

53NathanGuttman,ItsaTerribleThing,LivingwiththeKnowledgethatYouCrushed
OurDaughter,Haaretz,April30,2004;AdamShapiro,RememberingRachel
Shapiro,Nation,March18,2004;TsaharRotem,BritishPeaceActivistShotbyIDF
TroopsinGazaStrip,Haaretz,April11,2003.

54MollyMoore,ExSecurityChiefsTurnonSharon,WashingtonPost,November15,
2003;ExShinBetHeadsWarnofCatastrophewithoutPeaceDeal,Haaretz,
November15,2003.ThesecommentswerebasedonaninterviewintheIsraeli
newspaperYediothAhronothonNovember14,2003.Foracopyofthatinterview,see
WeAreSeriouslyConcernedabouttheFateoftheStateofIsrael,TheAlternative
InformationCenter,December1,2003.

55BillMaxwell,U.S.ShouldReconsiderAidtoIsrael,St.PetersburgTimes,December
16,2001.

54

SeeJ.BowyerBell,TerrorOutofZion:TheFightforIsraeliIndependence(New
Brunswick,NJ:TransactionPublishers,1996);JosephHeller,TheSternGang:Ideology,
PoliticsandTerror,19401949(London:FrankCass,1995);BruceHoffmann,TheFailureof
BritishMilitaryStrategywithinPalestine,19391947(Israel:BarIlanUniversity,1983);
Morris,RighteousVictims,pp.173180;Segev,OnePalestine,pp.468486.Accordingto
HaimLevenberg,210ofthe429casualtiesfromJewishterrorisminPalestineduring
1946werecivilians.Theother219werepoliceandsoldiers.Levenberg,Military
Preparations,p.72.Furthermore,itwasJewishterroristsfromtheinfamousIrgunwhoin
late1937introducedthepracticeofplacingbombsinbusesandlargecrowds.Benny
Morrisspeculatesthat,TheArabsmaywellhavelearnedthevalueofterrorist
bombingsfromtheJews.RighteousVictims,pp.147,201.AlsoseeLenniBrenner,The
IronWall:ZionistRevisionismfromJabotinskytoShamir(London:ZedBooks,1984),p.100;
YehoshuaPorath,ThePalestinianArabNationalMovement:fromRiotstoRebellion,Vol.II,
19291939(London:FrankCass,1977),p.238.Finally,Morrisnotesthatduringthe1948
warthemainJewishterroristgroupsknowinglyplantedbombsinbusstopswiththe
aimofkillingnoncombatants,includingwomenandchildren.BirthRevisited,p.80.

57Bell,TerrorOutofZion,pp.336340.

58QuotedinChomsky,FatefulTriangle,pp.485486.IsraeliPrimeMinisterLeviEshkol
usedtocallMenachemBegintheterrorist.Barzilai,BriefHistory.OnShamir,see
AvishaiMargalit,TheViolentLifeofYitzhakShamir,NewYorkReviewofBooks,May
14,1992,pp.1824.

59Moreover,Israelsclaimtoamorallysuperiorstatusisunderminedbysomeofits
otherpolicies.IsraeloncecultivatedclosetieswithapartheideraSouthAfricaand
aidedthewhiteminoritygovernmentsnuclearweaponsprogram.PeterLiberman,
IsraelandtheSouthAfricanBomb,TheNonproliferationReview,Vol.11,No.2(Summer
2004),pp.4680.In1954,IsraeliintelligenceforcesbombedaU.S.diplomaticfacilityin
CairoinabungledattempttosowdiscordbetweenEgyptandtheUnitedStates.Shlaim,
IronWall,pp.110113.

60StevenM.Cohen,The2004NationalSurveyofAmericanJews,sponsoredbytheJewish
AgencyforIsraelsDepartmentofJewishZionistEducation,February24,2005.The
figuretwoyearsearlierwas28percent.SeeStevenM.Cohen,The2002NationalSurveyof
AmericanJews,sponsoredbytheJewishAgencyforIsraelsDepartmentofJewishZionist
Education,conductedinNovemberDecember2002.AlsoseeAmiranBarkat,Young
AmericanJewsAreMoreAmbivalentTowardIsrael,StudyShows,Haaretz,March7,
2005;StevenM.Cohen,Poll:AttachmentofU.S.JewstoIsraelFallsinPast2Years,
Forward,March4,2005;M.J.Rosenberg,LettingIsraelSellItself,IsraelPolicyForum
IssueBrief#218,March18,2005.

56

55

J.J.Goldberg,OldFriend,ShatteredDreams,Forward,December24,2004;Esther
Kaplan,TheJewishDivideonIsrael,Nation,July12,2004;MichaelMassing,
ConservativeJewishGroupsHaveClout,LosAngelesTimes,March10,2002;Eric
Yoffie,ReformtheConference,Forward,August2,2002.

62OriNir,FBIProbe:MoreQuestionsThanAnswers.Forward,May13,2005.

63InigoGilmore,U.S.JewishLeaderHitoverLetter,LondonSundayTelegraph,August
12,2003;IsiLiebler,WhenSeymourMetCondi,JerusalemPost,November24,2005.
AlsoseeSarahBronson,OrthodoxLeader:U.S.JewsHaveNoRighttoCriticizeIsrael,
Haaretz,August2,2004.

64Liebler,WhenSeymourMetCondi;OriNir,O.U.ChiefDecriesAmericanPressure
onIsrael,Forward,December2,2005;Idem,RiceTripRaisesConcernoverU.S.
PressureonIsrael,Forward,November18,2005;SeymourD.Reich,Listento
America,JerusalemPost,November13,2005.

65JeffreyH.Birnbaum,WashingtonsPower25,Fortune,December8,1997.AIPAC
wasrankednumber4inasimilarstudyconductedin2001.SeeJeffreyH.Birnbaumand
RussellNewell,FatandHappyinD.C.,Fortune,May28,2001.

66RichardE.CohenandPeterBell,CongressionalInsidersPoll,NationalJournal.March
5,2005;JamesD.Besser,MostMuscle?ItsNRA,ThenAIPACandAARP,Chicago
JewishStar,March1124,2005.

67SeeMaxBlumenthal,BornAgainsforSharon,salon.com,October30,2004;DarrellL.
Bock,SomeChristiansSeeaRoadMaptoEndTimes,LosAngelesTimes,June18,
2003;NathanGuttman,WipingOutTerror,BriningOnRedemption,Haaretz,April
29,2002;TomHamburgerandJimVandeHei,ChosenPeople:HowIsraelBecamea
FavoriteCauseofChristianRight,WallStreetJournal,May23,2002;PaulNussbaum,
IsraelFindsanAllyinAmericanEvangelicals,PhiladelphiaInquirer,November17,
2005.DanielPipesmaintainsthat,otherthantheIsraelDefenseForces,Americas
ChristianZionistsmaybetheJewishstatesultimatestrategicasset.[Christian
Zionism:]IsraelsBestWeapon?NewYorkPost,July15,2003.

68TheweaknessofthePalestinianLobbyintheUnitedStatesiscapturedinthe
headlinesofthesetwoarticles:NoraBoustany,PalestiniansLoneHandin
Washington,WashingtonPost,April,19,2002;GeorgeGedda,PLOLosesD.C.Office
BecauseofUnpaidRent,ChicagoTribune,April12,2002.Ontheweakimpactofthe
ArabLobby,seeAliA.Mazrui,BetweentheCrescentandtheStarSpangledBanner:
AmericanMuslimsandU.S.ForeignPolicy,InternationalAffairs,Vol.72,No.3(July
1996),pp.493506;NabeelA.Khoury,TheArabLobby:ProblemsandProspects,
61

56

MiddleEastJournal,Vol.41,No.3(Summer1987),pp.379396;AndreaBarron,Jewish
andArabDiasporasintheUnitedStatesandTheirImpactonU.S.MiddleEastPolicy,
inYehudaLukacsandAbdallaM.Battah,eds.,TheArabIsraeliConflict:TwoDecadesof
Change(London:Westview,1988),pp.238259.

69JakeTapper,QuestionsforDickArmey:Retiring,NotShy,NewYorkTimesMagazine,
September1,2002.Also,TomDeLayhascalledhimselfanIsraeliatheart.SeeJames
Bennet,DeLaySaysPalestiniansBearBurdenforAchievingPeace,NewYorkTimes,
July30,2003.

70QuotedinMitchellBard,IsraeliLobbyPower,Midstream,Vol.33,No.1(January
1987),pp.68.

71QuotedinEdwardTivnan,TheLobby:JewishPoliticalPowerandAmericanForeignPolicy
(NY:SimonandSchuster,1987),p.191.J.J.Goldberg,theeditoroftheForward,saidin
2002,ThereisthisimageinCongressthatyoudontcrossthesepeopleortheytakeyou
down.QuotedinJohnDiamondandBriannaB.Piec,ProIsraelGroupsIntensify
PoliticalFrontinU.S.,ChicagoTribune,April16,2002.

72QuotedinCamilleMansour,BeyondAlliance:IsraelinU.S.ForeignPolicy,trans.James
A.Cohen(NY:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1994),p.242.

73AlthoughAIPAChasbeenabletouseitspoliticalmuscletoavoidhavingtoregisteras
aforeignagentforanothergovernment,itisespeciallyconcernedaboutthatproblem
todaybecauseoftheLarryFranklinspyscandal,andthusitisgoingtoconsiderable
lengthstoemphasizeitsAmericanside.SeeOriNir,LeadersFearProbeWillForce
ProIsraelLobbytoFileasForeignAgentCouldFuelDualLoyaltyTalk,Forward,
December31,2004;Idem,LeadersStressAmericanSideofAIPAC,Forward,May27,
2005.

74Sen.HollingsFloorStatementSettingtheRecordStraightonHisMideastNewspaper
Column,May20,2004,acopyofwhichcanbefoundontheformerSenatorswebsite.

75PublishedinanAIPACadvertisementintheChicagoJewishStar,August29
September11,2003.SharonisnotaloneinhisappraisalofAIPACspower.Senate
MinorityLeaderHarryReidsaysthatIcantthinkofapolicyorganizationinthe
countryaswellorganizedorrespected[asAIPAC]andformerHouseSpeakerNewt
Gingrichcalleditthemosteffectivegeneralinterestgroup...acrosstheentireplanet.
FormerPresidentBillClintondescribedAIPACasstunninglyeffectiveandbetter
thananyoneelselobbyinginthistown.QuotationsdownloadedfromtheAIPAC
websiteonJanuary14,2005[www.aipac.org/documents/whoweare.html#say].

57

ThomasB.EdsallandAlanCooperman,GOPUsesRemarkstoCourtJews,
WashingtonPost,March13,2003.AlsoseeJamesD.Besser,JewsPrimaryRole
Expanding,JewishWeek,January23,2004;AlexanderBolton,JewishDefectionsIrk
Democrats,TheHill,March30,2004;E.J.Kessler,AncientWoesResurfacingasDean
EyesTopDemPost,Forward,January28,2005.HamiltonJordanwroteamemorandum
toPresidentJimmyCarterinJune1977,inwhichhesaid:Outof125membersofthe
DemocraticNationalFinanceCouncil,over70areJewish;In1976,over60%ofthelarge
donorstotheDemocraticPartywereJewish;Over60%ofthemoniesraisedbyNixonin
1972wasfromJewishcontributors;Over75%ofthemoniesraisedinHumphreys1968
campaignwasfromJewishcontributors;Over90%ofthemoniesraisedbyScoop
JacksonintheDemocraticprimarieswasfromJewishcontributors;Inspiteofthefact
thatyouwerealongshotandcamefromanareaofthecountrywherethereisasmaller
Jewishcommunity,approximately35%ofourprimaryfundswerefromJewish
supporters.Whereverthereismajorpoliticalfundraisinginthiscountry,youwillfind
AmericanJewsplayingasignificantrole.HamiltonJordan,ConfidentialFile,Box34,
FileForeignPolicy/DomesticPoliticsMemo,HJMemo,6/77,declassifiedJune12,
1990.

77DouglasBrinkley,OutoftheLoop,TheNewYorkTimes,December29,2002.
LawrenceKaplanreportsthatafterBruceRiedel,theMiddleEastexpertontheNational
SecurityCouncil,lefthisjobattheendof2001,thePentagonhelduptheappointment
ofRiedelsdesignatedsuccessor,MiddleEastexpertAlinaRomanowski,whom
PentagonofficialssuspectofbeinginsufficientlysupportiveoftheJewishstate.
TorpedoBoat:HowBushTurnedonArafat,NewRepublic,February18,2003.The
positionwaseventuallyfilledbyElliotAbrams,aferventsupporterofIsrael.Indeed,
forthegovernmentofIsrael,NathanGuttmanwrote,itisagiftfromheaven.See
FromClemencytoaSeniorPost,Haaretz,December16,2002.

78E.J.Kessler,LiebermanandDeanSparOverIsrael,Forward,September9,2003;
StephenZunes,AttacksonDeanExposeDemocratsShifttotheRight,Tikkun,
November/December2003.

79Zunes,AttacksonDean;JamesD.Besser,DeansJewishProblem,ChicagoJewish
Star,December19,2003January8,2004.

80E.J.Kessler,DeanPlanstoVisitIsrael,PoliticalBaggageinTow,Forward,July8,
2005;Zunes,AttacksonDean.

81LauraBlumenfeld,ThreePeaceSuits;ForThesePassionateAmericanDiplomats,a
MiddleEastSettlementistheGoalofaLifetime,WashingtonPost,February24,1997.

76

58

Samuel(Sandy)Berger,PresidentClintonsNationalSecurityAdvisor,reportsthat
atonepointduringthenegotiationsatCampDavid(July2000),DennisRossmadethe
remarkablecommentthat,IfBarakoffersanythingmore,Illbeagainstthis
agreement.UneditedtranscriptofCommentsbySandyBergerattheLaunchofHow
IsraelisandPalestiniansNegotiate(USIPPress,2005),U.S.InstituteofPeace,Washington,
DC,June7,2005.

83QuotedinBlumenfeld,ThreePeaceSuits.

84EricAlterman,IntractableFoes,WarringNarratives,MSNBC.com,March28,2002.

85QuotedinBretStephens,EyeontheMediabyBretStephens:BartleysJournal,
JerusalemPost,November21,2002.

86MaxFrankel,TheTimesofMyLifeAndMyLifewiththeTimes(NY:RandomHouse,
1999),pp.401403.

87FelicityBarringer,SomeU.S.BackersofIsraelBoycottDailiesOverMideastCoverage
ThatTheyDeplore,NewYorkTimes,May23,2002.

88Barringer,SomeU.S.Backers;GabyWenig,NPRIsraelCoverageSparksProtests,
TheJewishJournalofGreaterLosAngeles,May9,2003;GilaWertheimer,NPRDismisses
ProtestRallies,ChicagoJewishStar,May30June12,2003.AlsoseeJamesD.Besser,
NPRRadioWarsPuttingJewishGroupsinaBind,JewishWeek,May20,2005;Samuel
Freedman,FromBalancetoCensorship:BushsCynicalPlanforNPR,Forward,May
27,2005;NathanGuttman,EnoughAlreadyfromThoseProIsraelNudniks,Haaretz,
February1,2005;E.J.Kessler,HotSeatExpectedforNewChairofCorporationfor
PublicBroadcasting,Forward,October28,2005.

89JoelBeinin,Money,MediaandPolicyConsensus:TheWashingtonInstituteforNear
EastPolicy,MiddleEastReport,JanuaryFebruary1993,pp.1015;MarkH.Milstein,
WashingtonInstituteforNearEastPolicy:AnAIPACImageProblem,Washington
ReportonMiddleEastAffairs,July1991.

90QuotedinMilstein,WashingtonInstitute.

91BrookingsAnnouncesNewSabanCenterforMiddleEastPolicy,Brookings
InstitutionPressRelease,May9,2002;AndrewRossSorkin,SchleppingtoMoguldom,
NewYorkTimes,September5,2004.

92JamesD.Besser,TurningupHeatinCampusWars,JewishWeek,July25,2003;
RonaldS.LauderandJaySchottenstein,BacktoSchoolforIsraelAdvocacy,Forward,
82

59

November14,2003;RachelPomerance,IsraelForcesWinningCampusBattle,Say
StudentsAttendingAIPACMeeting,JTA,December31,2002.Jewishgroupsarealso
targetinghighschools.SeeMaxGross,IsraelAdvocacyCoalitionTargetingHigh
Schools,Forward,January23,2004;NewProIsraelCampaignTargetsHighSchool
Students,JTA,June2,2004.

93Besser,TurningupHeat.In2002and2003,AIPACbrought240collegestudentsto
Washington,DCforintensiveadvocacytraining,sendingthembacktoschooltowin
overcampusleaderstoIsraelscause.Besser,TurningupHeat;Pomerance,Israel
ForcesWinning.Inthespringof2005,ithosted100studentgovernmentpresidents(80
ofwhomwerenotJewish)atitsannualconference.NathanielPopper,ProIsrael
Groups:CampusesImproving,Forward,June24,2005.

94MichaelDobbs,MiddleEastStudiesunderScrutinyinU.S.,WashingtonPost,
January13,2004;MicheleGoldberg,OsamaUniversity?Salon.com,November6,2003;
KristineMcNeil,TheWaronAcademicFreedom,Nation,November11,2002;Zachary
Lockman,BehindtheBattleoverUSMiddleEastPolicy,MiddleEastReportOnline,
January2004.

95JonathanR.Cole,ThePatriotActonCampus:DefendingtheUniversityPost9/11,
BostonReview,Summer2003.

96ChanakyaSethi,KhalidiCandidacyforNewChairDrawsFire,DailyPrincetonian,
April22,2005;Idem,DebateGrowsoverKhalidiCandidacy,DailyPrincetonian,April
28,2005.

97RobertGaines,TheBattleatColumbiaUniversity,WashingtonReportonMiddleEast
Affairs,April2005,pp.5657;CarolineGlick,OurWorld:TheColumbiaDisaster,
JerusalemPost,April4,2005;JosephMassad,WitchHuntatColumbia:Targetingthe
University,CounterPunch,June3,2005;NathanielPopper,ColumbiaStudentsSay
FirestormBlursCampusReality,Forward,February11,2005;ScottSherman,The
MideastComestoColumbia,Nation,April4,2005;ChananWeissman,Columbia
Unbecoming,JerusalemPost,February6,2005.

98ColumbiaUniversityAdHocGrievanceCommittee,FinalReport,NewYork,28
March2005(excerpts),inJournalofPalestineStudies,Vol.34,No.4(Summer2005),pp.
90100.

99Goldberg,OsamaUniversity?;RonKampeas,CampusOversightPassesSenateas
ReviewEffortScoresaVictory,JTA,November22,2005;StanleyKurtz,Reformingthe
Campus:CongressTargetsTitleVI,NationalReviewOnline,October14,2003;McNeil,
WaronAcademicFreedom;OriNir,GroupsBackBilltoMonitorUniversities,

60

Forward,March12,2004;SaraRoy,ShortCuts,LondonReviewofBooks,April1,2004;
AndersStrindberg,TheNewCommissars,AmericanConservative,February2,2004.

100Thenumber130comesfromMitchellG.Bard,TenuredorTenuous:Definingthe
RoleofFacultyinSupportingIsraelonCampus,ReportpublishedbyTheIsraelon
CampusCoalitionandTheAmericanIsraeliCooperativeEnterprise,May2004,p.11.
AlsoseeNachaCattan,NYUCenter:NewAdditiontoGrowingAcademicField,
Forward,May2,2003;SamuelG.Freedman,SeparatingthePoliticalMythsfromthe
FactsinIsraelStudies,NewYorkTimes,February16,2005;JenniferJacobson,The
PoliticsofIsraelStudies,ChronicleofHigherEducation,June24,2005,pp.1012;Michael
C.Kotzin,TheJewishCommunityandtheIvoryTower:AnUrgentNeedforIsrael
Studies,Forward,January30,2004;NathanielPopper,IsraelStudiesGainonCampus
asDisputesGrow,Forward,March25,2005.

101QuotedinCattan,NYUCenter.

102JonathanKessler,ProIsraelActivismMakesComebackonCampus,Forward,
December26,2003;Popper,CampusesImproving;BarrySilvermanandRandall
Kaplan,ProIsraelCollegeActivistsQuietlySuccessfulonCampus,JTA,May9,2005;
ChananTigay,AsStudentsReturntoCampus,ActivistsPrepareaNewApproach,
JTA,September1,2005.Nevertheless,therearelimitstotheLobbyseffectivenesson
campuses.SeeJoeEskenazi,Book:CollegeCampusesQuiet,butAntiIsraelFeelingIs
Growing,JTA,November29,2005;GaryRosenblatt,U.S.GradStudentsSeenHostile
toIsrael,JewishWeek,June17,2005.

103QuotedinTonyJudt,GoodbyetoAllThat?Nation,January3,2005.

104AntiDefamationLeague(ADL),AttitudestowardJews,IsraelandthePalestinian
IsraeliConflictinTenEuropeanCountries,April2004;ThePewGlobalAttitudes
Project,AYearAfterIraqWar:MistrustofAmericainEuropeEvenHigher,MuslimAnger
Persists(Washington,DC:ThePewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthePress,March
16,2004),pp.45,26.OntheADLsurvey,seeADLSurveyFindsSomeDecreasein
AntiSemiticAttitudesinTenEuropeanCountries,ADLPressRelease,April26,2004;
ShlomoShamir,PollShowsDecreaseinAntiSemiticViewsinEurope,Haaretz,April
27,2004.ThesefindingshadvirtuallynoeffectonproIsraelpundits,whocontinuedto
arguethatantiSemitismwasrampantinEurope.See,forexample,DanielJ.Goldhagen,
EuropesToothlessReplytoAntiSemitism:ConferenceFailstoBuildToolstoFighta
RisingSicknessLosAngelesTimes,April30,2004;CharlesKrauthammer,TheReal
MideastPoison,WashingtonPost,April30,2004.

105MartinPeretz,theeditorinchiefoftheNewRepublic,says,Theheadquartersofanti
SemiticEuropetoday,justasduringtheThirdRepublic,isParis.CambridgeDiarist:

61

Regrets,NewRepublic,April22,2002,p.50.ThedatainthisparagrapharefromAnti
SemitisminEurope:IsItReallyRising?Economist,May4,2002.

106QuotedinMarcPerelman,CommunityHead:FranceNoMoreAntisemiticThan
U.S.,Forward,August1,2003.AlsoseeFrancoisBujondelEstang,ASlanderon
France,WashingtonPost,June22,2002;FrenchPresidentAccusesIsraelofConducting
AntiFrenchCampaign,Haaretz,May12,2002.

107FrenchPolice:AntiSemitisminFranceSharplyDecreasedin2005,Haaretz,January
19,2006.

108FrenchProtestforMurderedJew,BBCNewsOnline,February26,2006;Michel
Zlotowski,LargeMemorialHeldforParisianJew,JerusalemPost,February23,2006.

109AviBeker,TheEternallyOpenGate,Haaretz,January11,2005;JosefJoffe,A
Boom,ifNotARenaissance,inModernDayGermany,Forward,July25,2003;
NathanielPopper,ImmigrantPolicyEyedasGermanCommunitySwells,Forward,
July25,2003;EliahuSalpeter,JewsfromtheCISPreferGermanytotheJewishState,
Haaretz,May28,2005.Also,theTimesofLondonreportedinthespringof2005,that,
Anestimated100,000JewshavereturnedtoRussiainthepastfewyears,sparkinga
dramaticrenaissanceofJewishlifeinacountrywithalonghistoryofantiSemitism.
JeremyPage,OnceDesperatetoLeave,NowJewsAreReturningtoRussia,Landof
Opportunity,Times,April28,2005.AlsoseeLevKrichevsky,Poll:RussiansDont
DislikeJews,andMoreAreagainstAntiSemitism,JTA,February2,2006.

110ThechairmanoftheEducationDepartmentoftheJewishAgencyrecentlysaidthat
presentdayviolentantiSemitismoriginatesfromtwoseparatesources:radical
IslamistsintheMiddleEastandWesternEuropeaswellastheneoNaziyouthelement
inEasternEuropeandLatinAmerica.JonathanSchneider,AntiSemitismStillaWorld
Problem,JerusalemPost,January26,2006.

111IntheADLsApril2004survey,AttitudestowardJews,IsraelandthePalestinian
IsraeliConflictinTenEuropeanCountries,thefollowingquestionwasasked:Inyour
opinion,isitveryimportant,somewhatimportant,somewhatunimportantornot
importantatallforourgovernmenttotakearoleincombatingantiSemitisminour
country?ThepercentagesforthosewhostronglyagreeorsomewhatagreewereItaly
(92),Britain(83),Netherlands(83),France(82),Germany(81),Belgium(81),Denmark
(79),Austria(76),Switzerland(74),Spain(73).Seep.19.

112PhyllisChesler,TheNewAntiSemitism:TheCurrentCrisisandWhatWeMustDoabout
It(SanFrancisco:JosseyBass,2003);HillelHalkin,TheReturnofAntiSemitism:ToBe
againstIsraelIstoBeagainsttheJews,WallStreetJournal,February5,2002;Barry

62

KosminandPaulIganski,JudeophobiaNotYourParentsAntiSemitism,Haaretz,
June3,2003;AmnonRubinstein,FightingtheNewAntiSemitism,Haaretz,December
2,2003;GabrielSchoenfeld,TheReturnofAntiSemitism(SanFrancisco:EncounterBooks,
2003);NatanSharansky,AntiSemitismisourProblem,Haaretz,August10,2003;Yair
Sheleg.AWorldCleansedoftheJewishState,Haaretz.April18,2002;YairSheleg,
Enemies,aPostNationalStory,Haaretz,March8,2003.Forcriticismofthis
perspective,seeAkivaEldar,AntiSemitismCanBeSelfServing,Haaretz,May3,
2002;BrianKlug,TheMythoftheNewAntiSemitism,Nation,February2,2004;Ralph
Nader,CriticizingIsraelisNotAntiSemitism,CounterPunch,October16/17,2004;
HenriPicciottoandMitchellPlitnick,eds.,ReframingAntiSemitism:AlternativeJewish
Perspectives(Oakland,CA:JewishVoiceforPeace,2004);andespeciallyFinkelstein,
BeyondChutzpah,chapters13.

113HelenNugent,ChiefRabbiFlaysChurchoverVoteonIsraelAssets,TimesOnline,
February17,2006.AlsoseeBillBowder,SacksSeeksTalksafterSynodVoteon
Disinvestment,ChurchTimes,February24,2006;BulldozerMotionBasedon
Ignorance,inibid;RuthGledhill,ChurchUrgedtoReconsiderInvestmentswith
Israel,TimesOnline,May28,2005;IreneLancaster,AnglicansHaveBetrayedthe
Jews,DownloadedfromMorielMinistries(UK)website,February20,2006;U.K.Chief
RabbiAttacksAnglicansoverIsraelDivestmentVote,Haaretz,February17,2006.

114ThattheChurchofEnglandwasmerelycriticizingIsraelipolicyandnotengagingin
antiSemitismisclearlyreflectedintheFebruary10,2006letterthattheArchbishopof
Canterbury(Dr.RowanWilliams)senttoEnglandsChiefRabbi(JonathanSacks)
explainingtheChurchsdecisionondivestment.Foracopyoftheletter,see
Archbishop:SynodCallWasExpressionofConcern,February10,2006,Downloaded
fromChurchofEnglandwebsite,February20,2006.

115StevenKull(PrincipalInvestigator),AmericansontheMiddleEastRoadMap(Program
onInternationalPolicyAttitudes,UniversityofMaryland,May30,2003),pp.911,1819.
AlsoseeStevenKulletal.,AmericansontheIsraeliPalestinianConflict(Programon
InternationalPolicyAttitudes,UniversityofMaryland,May6,2002).A2005Anti
DefamationLeaguepublicopinionsurveyfoundthat78percentofAmericansbelieve
thattheirgovernmentshouldfavorneitherIsraelnorthePalestinians.American
AttitudestowardIsraelandtheMiddleEast,SurveyconductedonMarch1825,2005,
andJune1923,2005,bytheMarttilaCommunicationsGroupfortheAntiDefamation
League.

116RobertG.Kaiser,BushandSharonNearlyIdenticalonMideastPolicy,Washington
Post,February9,2003.

63

LeeHockstaderandDanielWilliams,IsraelSaysItWontPayPriceofCoalition,
WashingtonPost,September18,2001;JonathanKarp,SharonCancelsPeaceTalksin
RebufftoU.S.Concerns,WallStreetJournal,September24,2001;ThomasOliphant,A
DelicateBalance,BostonGlobe,September18,2001:IsraelsOpportunity,LosAngeles
Timeseditorial,September18,2001.

118KurtEichenwald,U.S.JewsSplitonWashingtonsShiftonPalestinianState,New
YorkTimes,October5,2001.Atthesametime,PrimeMinisterTonyBlairmadeBritains
strongestendorsementyetofPalestinianstatehood.MichaelDobbs,BlairBacks
CreationofPalestinianState,WashingtonPost,October16,2001.

119JamesBennet,SharonInvokesMunichinWarningU.S.onAppeasement,New
YorkTimes,October5,2001;JanePerlezandandKatharineQ.Seelye.U.S.Stongly
RebukesSharonforCriticismofBush,CallingitUnacceptable.NewYorkTimes
October6,2001;ShlomoShamir,U.S.Jews:SharonisWorriedbyTerrorism
Distinction,Haaretz,September18,2001;AlanSipressandLeeHockstader,Sharon
SpeechRilesU.S.,WashingtonPost,October6,2001.ForevidencethatotherIsraelis
sharedSharonsfears,seeIsraelHarel,LessonsfromtheNextWar,Haaretz,October
6,2001.

120JackDonnelly,NationSettoPushSharononAgreement,BostonGlobe,October10,
2001;HockstaderandSipress,SharonSpeechRilesU.S.;PerlezandSeelye.U.S.
StronglyRebukesSharon.

121LeeHockstader,SharonApologeticoverRowwithU.S.,WashingtonPost,October7,
2001;SergeSchmemann,RaisingMunich,SharonRevealsIsraeliQualms,NewYork
Times,October6,2001.

122AlufBenn,Analysis:ClutchingatStraws,Haaretz,September18,2001;Excerpts
fromTalkbySharon,NewYorkTimes,December4,2001;WilliamSafire,Israelor
Arafat,NewYorkTimes,December3,2001.

123ElaineSciolino,SenatorsUrgeBushNottoHamperIsrael,NewYorkTimes,
November17,2001.

124DanaMilbank,BushSpokesmanGentleonIsraeliAssault,WashingtonPost,
December3,2001;Safire,IsraelorArafat;DavidSanger,U.S.WalksaTightropeon
TerrorisminIsrael,NewYorkTimes,December4,2001.

125KeithB.RichburgandMollyMoore,IsraelRejectsDemandstoWithdrawTroops,
WashingtonPost,April11,2002.AllquotesinthisparagrapharefromFareedZakaria,
ColinPowellsHumiliation:BushShouldClearlySupportHisSecretaryofState
117

64

OtherwiseHeShouldGetaNewOne,Newsweek,April29,2002.AlsoseeMikeAllen
andJohnLancaster,DefiantSharonLosingSupportinWhiteHouse,WashingtonPost,
April11,2002,whichdescribestheBushAdministrationsangerwithSharon.

126ItisworthnotingthattheAmericanpeopleweregenerallysupportiveofBushs
effortstoputpressureonIsraelinthespringof2002.ATime/CNNpolltakenonApril
1011foundthat60percentofAmericansfeltthatU.S.aidtoIsraelshouldbecutoffor
reducedifSharonrefusedtowithdrawfromthePalestinianareashehadrecently
occupied.Poll:AmericansSupportCuttingAidtoIsrael,ReutersNewsRelease,April
12,2002;AFPNewsRelease,April13,2002.AlsoseeIsraelandthePalestinians(Program
onInternationalPolicyAttitudes,UniversityofMaryland,lastupdatedonAugust15,
2002).Moreover,75percentofthosesurveyedthoughtthatPowellshouldmeetwith
ArafatwhenhevisitedIsrael.RegardingSharon,only35percentfoundhim
trustworthy,while35percentthoughthewasawarmonger,20percentsawhimasa
terrorist,and25percentconsideredhimanenemyoftheUnitedStates.

127WilliamKristolandRobertKagan,SeniorWhiteHouseAides:SpeakUp!Weekly
Standard,April11,2002.ForagraphicdescriptionoftheheatthattheLobbyputon
PowellwhenhewasintheMiddleEast,seeBobWoodward,BushatWar(NewYork:
SimonandSchuster,2002),pp.323326.AlsoseeJohnSimpson,IsraeliLeaderHas
MorePowerinWashingtonthanPowell,SundayTelegraph(London),April14,2002,
whichdescribesajointpressconferencePowellandSharonconductedbynotingthat:
theSecretaryofStateslanguage,bodyandverbal,certainlywerenotthatofthe
paymastercomingtocallaclienttoaccount.Farfromit.Mr.Powellseemedingratiating,
deferential;nodoubtherealizeshowmuchsupportMr.SharonhasbackinWashington
andhowmuchinfluencehisfriendshavetherewiththePresident.Itisalsoworth
notingthatformerIsraeliPrimeMinisterBenjaminNetanyahu,whowasmakingIsraels
caseintheUnitedStatesatthetime,saidevenbeforePowellarrivedinIsraelthathis
tripwontamounttoanything.ElaineSciolino,NetanyahuSaysPowellMission
WontAmounttoAnythingandUrgesArafatsExile,NewYorkTimes,April11,2002.

128JamesD.Besser,NoTennesseeWaltz,JewishWeek,December27,2002.Alsosee
MikeAllenandJulietEilperin,WhiteHouseandDeLayatOdds,WashingtonPost
April26,2002;JudithEilperinandHelenDewar,LawmakersEndorseIsraels
Offensive,WashingtonPost,May3,2002.Bushwasfeelingintensepressurenotjust
fromlawmakers,butfromJewishleadersandChristianEvangelicals.SeeMikeAllen
andJohnLancaster,DefiantSharonLosingSupportinWhiteHouse,WashingtonPost,
April11,2002;DanBalz,BushStatementonMideastReflectsTensioninGOP,
WashingtonPost,April7,2003;ElisabethBumiller,BushSendsAidetoSpeakatRallyto
QuellaGrowingFuror,NewYorkTimes,April16,2002;BradleyBurston,Background:
CanBushAffordtoPressSharonforPeace?Haaretz,May6,2002;AkivaEldar,Bush
andIsrael,1991and2002,Haaretz,May6,2002;AlisonMitchell,U.S.PoliticalLeaders

65

SeekUnityonMideast,forNow,WashingtonPost,April12,2002;WilliamSafire,On
BeinganAlly,NewYorkTimes,April11,2002;AlanSipress,PolicyDivideThwarts
PowellinMideastEffort,WashingtonPost,April26,2002;andAlanSipressandKaren
DeYoung,U.S.PressesAheadwithPeaceEfforts,WashingtonPost,May9,2002.

129RandallMikkelsen,WhiteHouseCallsSharonManofPeace,Reuters,April11,
2002;BillSammon,WhiteHouseSoftensTonewithIsrael,WashingtonTimes,April12,
2002.

130PeterSlevinandMikeAllen,Bush:SharonAManofPeace,WashingtonPost,April
19,2002;DavidSanger,PresidentPraisesEffortbyPowellintheMiddleEast,New
YorkTimes,April19,2002.Foratranscriptofthepressconference,seePresidentBush,
SecretaryPowellDiscussMiddleEast,WhiteHouse,OfficeofthePressSecretary,April
18,2002.

131EilperinandDewar,LawmakersEndorseIsraelsOffensive;JulietEilperinand
MikeAllen,HillLeadersPlanVotesonProIsraelRelations,WashingtonPost,May2,
2002;AlisonMitchell,HouseandSenateSupportIsraelinStrongResolutions,New
YorkTimes,May3,2002.Forcopiesofthetworesolutions,see2ResolutionsExpressing
SolidaritywithIsrael,NewYorkTimes,May3,2002.AlsoseeMatthewE.Berger,Bills
inCongressBoostIsrael,TreatArafatasTerrorist,JewishBulletin,April26,2002.

132AriehOSullivan,VisitingCongressmenAdviseIsraeltoResistAdministration
PressuretoDealwithArafat,JerusalemPostMay6,2002.

133EliLake,IsraeliLobbyWins$200MillionFight,UnitedPressInternational,May11,
2002.

134QuotedinJeffersonMorley,WhosinCharge?WashingtonPost,April26,2002.As
AkivaEldarnotedjustbeforeSharonsteamrolledBush,Sharonhasalotofexperience
stickingittotheAmericans.Ultimately,whetheritwasPalestinianterror,Arafats
mistakes,ordomesticpolitics,theAmericansweresenttothepeanutgallery.Seehis
WordsAreNotEnough,Haaretz,April8,2002.NorwasBushshumiliationloston
commentatorsaroundtheworld.Spainsleadingdaily,ElPais,expressedtheviewsof
manyoutsideobserverswhenitcommented,Ifacountrysweightismeasuredbyits
degreeofinfluenceonevents,thesuperpowerisnottheUSAbutIsrael.Quotedin
Morley,WhosinCharge?

135BradleyBurston,HamasRUs,Haaretz,January18,2006;AkivaEldar,Kadimato
ANewMiddleEast,Haaretz,December19,2005;Idem,WhoNeedsAbuMazen?
Haaretz,November7,2005;RanHaCohen,HamasandIsrael:RivalTwins,
AntiWar.com,February6,2006;M.J.Rosenberg,NoPartnerAsAlways,IPFFriday,

66

IssueNo.260,February3,2006;DannyRubenstein,AllWeDidWasSwitchtheNon
Partner,Haaretz,February5,2006;DisarrayAmongthePalestinians,NewYorkTimes
editorial,January17,2006.

136RegardingtheviewsofpreviousPresidents,seeClydeR.Mark,IsraeliUnitedStates
Relations,IssueBriefforCongress(Washington,DC:CongressionalResearchService,
August29,2002),p.7.OnApril14,2004,Bushbrokewithhispredecessorsand
proclaimedthatIsraelwouldnothavetoreturnalloftheterritoriesthatitoccupiedin
1967,andthatPalestinianrefugeeswouldnotbeallowedtoreturntotheirformerhomes
inIsrael,butwouldhavetosettleinanewPalestinianstate.SeeStatementbythe
PresidentRegardingIsraelArabPeaceProcess,April14,2004;andPresidentBushs
LettertoPrimeMinisterSharon,April14,2004.

137USScowcroftCriticizesBushAdminsForeignPolicy,FinancialTimes,October13,
2004.AlsoseeGlennKessler,ScowcroftisCriticalofBush,WashingtonPost,October
16,2004.

138OnKerry,seeGadiDechter,Analysis:PresidentKerryonIsrael,UnitedPress
Internationalpressrelease,July9,2004;NathanGuttman,KerryPositionPaperOutlines
SupportforIsrael,Haaretz,July2,2004:NathanGuttman,KerryJumpsonSharon
BandwagoninFavoringGazaDisengagementPlan,Haaretz,April25,2004.On
Clinton,seeAdamDickter,Hillary:IHadALottoProve,JewishWeek,November18,
2005;KristenLombardi,HillaryCallsIsraelaBeaconofDemocracy,VillageVoice,
December11,2005;SoniaVerma,ClintonStressedU.S.IsraelCoalition,Newsday,
November15,2005;RachelZabarkesFriedman,SenatorIsrael,NationalReviewOnline,
May25,2005.

139EmadMekay,IraqWasInvadedtoProtectIsraelUSOfficial,AsiaTimesOnline,
March31,2004.ZelikowalsoservedwithRiceontheNationalSecurityCouncilwhen
GeorgeH.W.BushwasPresident,andcoauthoredabookwithheronGerman
reunification.HewasalsooneoftheprincipalauthorsofthesecondBush
Administrations2002NationalSecurityStrategy,whichisthemostcomprehensive
officialpresentationofthesocalledBushDoctrine.

140JasonKeyser,IsraelUrgesU.S.toAttack,WashingtonPost,August16,2002.Alsosee
AlufBenn,PMUrgingU.S.NottoDelayStrikeagainstIraq,Haaretz,August16,2002;
Idem,PMAide:DelayinU.S.AttackLetsIraqSpeedUpArmsProgram,Haaretz,
August16,2002;ReuvenPedhatzur,IsraelsInterestintheWaronSaddam,Haaretz,
August4,2002;ZeevSchiff,IntotheRough,Haaretz,August16,2002.

141GideonAlon,SharontoPanel:IraqisOurBiggestDanger,Haaretz,August13,
2002.AtaWhiteHousepressconferencewithPresidentBushonOctober16,2002,

67

Sharonsaid:Iwouldliketothankyou,Mr.President,forthefriendshipand
cooperation.AndasfarasIremember,aswelookbacktowardsmanyyearsnow,I
thinkthatweneverhadsuchrelationswithanyPresidentoftheUnitedStatesaswe
havewithyou,andweneverhadsuchcooperationineverythingaswehavewiththe
currentadministration.Foratranscriptofthepressconference,seePresidentBush
WelcomesPrimeMinisterSharontoWhiteHouse;QuestionandAnswerSessionwith
thePress,U.S.DepartmentofState,October16,2002.AlsoseeKaiser,Bushand
SharonNearlyIdenticalonMideastPolicy.

142ShlomoBrom,AnIntelligenceFailure,StrategicAssessment(JaffeeCenterfor
StrategicStudies,TelAvivUniversity),Vol.6,No.3(November2003),p.9.Alsosee
IntelligenceAssessment:SelectionsfromtheMedia,19982003,inibid.,pp.1719;
GideonAlon,ReportSlamsAssessmentofDangersPosedbyLibya,Iraq,Haaretz,
March28,2004;DanBaron,IsraeliReportBlastsIntelligenceforExaggeratingtheIraqi
Threat,JTA,March28,2004;GregMyre,IsraeliReportFaultsIntelligenceonIraq,
NewYorkTimes,March28,2004;JamesRisen,StateofWar:TheSecretHistoryoftheCIA
andtheBushAdministration(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2006),pp.7273.

143MarcPerelman,IraqiMovePutsIsraelinLonelyU.S.Corner,Forward,September
20,2002.Thisarticlebegins,SaddamHusseinssurpriseacceptanceofunconditional
UnitedNationsweaponsinspectionsputIsraelonthehotseatthisweek,forcingitinto
theopenastheonlynationactivelysupportingtheBushadministrationsgoalofIraqi
regimechange.PeresbecamesofrustratedwiththeUNprocessinthefollowing
monthsthatinmidFebruary2003helashedoutattheFrenchbyquestioningFrances
statusasapermanentmemberoftheSecurityCouncil.PeresQuestionsFrance
PermanentStatusonSecurityCouncil,Haaretz,February20,2003.Onavisitto
MoscowinlateSeptember2002,SharonmadeitcleartoRussianPresidentPutin,who
wasleadingthechargefornewinspections,thatthetimewhentheseinspectorscould
havebeeneffectivehaspassed.HerbKeinon,SharontoPutin:TooLateforIraqArms
Inspection,JerusalemPost,October1,2002.

144EhudBarak,TakingApartIraqsNuclearThreat,NewYorkTimes,September4,
2002.

145BenjaminNetanyahu,TheCaseforTopplingSaddam,WallStreetJournal,
September20,2002.TheJerusalemPostwasparticularlyhawkishonIraq,frequently
runningeditorialsandopedspromotingthewar,andhardlyeverrunningpieces
againstit.RepresentativeeditorialsincludeNextStopBaghdad,JerusalemPost,
November15,2001;DontWaitforSaddam,JerusalemPost,August18,2002;Making
theCaseforWar,JerusalemPost,September9,2002.Forsomerepresentativeopeds,
seeRonDermer,TheMarchtoBaghdad,JerusalemPost,December21,2001;Efraim

68

Inbar,OustingSaddam,InstillingStability,JerusalemPost,October8,2002;GeraldM.
Steinberg,ImaginingtheLiberationofIraq,JerusalemPost,November18,2001.

146AlufBenn,Background:EnthusiasticIDFAwaitsWarinIraq,Haaretz,February17,
2002.AlsoseeJamesBennet,IsraelSaysWaronIraqWouldBenefittheRegion,New
YorkTimes,February27,2003;ChemiShalev,JerusalemFretsAsU.S.BattlesIraqWar
Delays,Forward,March7,2003.

147Indeed,aFebruary2003pollreportedthat77.5percentofIsraeliJewswantedthe
UnitedStatestoattackIraq.EphraimYaarandTamarHermann,PeaceIndex:Most
IsraelisSupporttheAttackonIraq,Haaretz,March6,2003.RegardingKuwait,a
publicopinionpollreleasedinMarch2003foundthat89.6percentofKuwaitisfavored
theimpendingwaragainstIraq.JamesMorrison,KuwaitisSupportWar,Washington
Times,March18,2003.

148GideonLevy,ADeafeningSilence,Haaretz,October6,2002.

149SeeDanIzenberg,ForeignMinistryWarnsIsraeliWarTalkFuelsUSAnti
Semitism,JerusalemPost,March10,2003,whichmakesclearthattheForeignMinistry
hasreceivedreportsfromtheUStellingIsraelistocooltheirjetsbecausetheUS
mediaisportrayingIsraelastryingtogoadtheadministrationintowar.Thereisalso
evidencethatIsraelitselfwasconcernedaboutbeingseenasdrivingAmericanpolicy
towardIraq.SeeBenn,PMUrgingU.S.NottoDelayStrike;Perelman,IraqMove
PutsIsraelinLonelyU.S.Corner.Finally,inlateSeptember2002,agroupofpolitical
consultantsknownastheIsraelProjecttoldproIsraelleadersintheUnitedStatesto
keepquietwhiletheBushadministrationpursesapossiblewarwithIraq.Dana
Milbank,GroupUrgesProIsraelLeadersSilenceonIraq,WashingtonPost,November
27,2002.

Theinfluenceoftheneoconservativesandtheiralliesisclearlyreflectedinthe
followingarticles:SeeJoelBeinin,ProIsraelHawksandtheSecondGulfWar,Middle
EastReportOnline,April6,2003;ElisabethBumillerandEricSchmitt,OntheJobandat
Home,InfluentialHawks30YearFriendshipEvolves,NewYorkTimes,September11,
2002;KathleenandWilliamChristison,ARosebyAnotherName:TheBush
AdministrationsDualLoyalties,CounterPunch,December13,2002;RobertDreyfuss,
ThePentagonMuzzlestheCIA,TheAmericanProspect,December16,2002;Michael
ElliottandJamesCarney,FirstStop,Iraq,Time,March31,2003;SeymourHersh,The
IraqHawks,NewYorker,Vol.77,issue41(December2431,2001),pp.5863;Glenn
Kessler,U.S.DecisiononIraqHasPuzzlingPast,WashingtonPost,January12,2003;
JoshuaM.Marshall,BombSaddam?WashingtonMonthly,June2002;DanaMilbank,
WhiteHousePushforIraqiStrikeIsonHold,WashingtonPost,August18,2002;Susan

150

69

Page,ShowdownwithSaddam:TheDecisiontoAct,USAToday,September11,2002;
SamTanenhaus,BushsBrainTrust,VanityFair,July2003.Notethatallthesearticles
arefrombeforethewarstarted.

151SeeMortimerB.Zuckerman,NoTimeforEquivocation,U.S.News&WorldReport,
August26/September2,2002;Idem,ClearandCompellingProof,U.S.News&World
Report,February10,2003;Idem,TheHighPriceofWaiting,U.S.News&WorldReport,
March10,2003.

152AnUnseemlySilence,Forward,May7,2004.AlsoseeGaryRosenblatt,Hussein
Asylum,JewishWeek,August23,2002;Idem,TheCaseforWaragainstSaddam,
JewishWeek,December13,2002.

153JustbeforetheU.S.militaryinvadedIraq,CongressmanJamesP.Moran(DVa)
createdastirwhenhesaid,IfitwerenotforthestrongsupportoftheJewish
communityforthiswarwithIraq,wewouldnotbedoingthis.SpencerS.Hsu,Moran
SaidJewsArePushingWar,WashingtonPost,March11,2003.However,Moran
misspoke,becausetherewasnotwidespreadsupportforthewarintheJewish
community.Heshouldhavesaid,Ifitwerenotforthestrongsupportofthe
neoconservativesandtheleadershipoftheIsraelLobbyforthiswarwithIraq,wewould
notbedoingthis.

154SamuelG.Freedman,DontBlameJewsforThisWar,USAToday,April2,2003.
AlsoseeOriNir,PollFindsJewishPoliticalGap,Forward,February4,2005.

Itisnoexaggerationtosaythatinthewakeof9/11,theneoconservativeswerenot
justdetermined,butwereobsessedwithremovingSaddamfrompower.Asonesenior
AdministrationfigureputitinJanuary,2003,Idobelievecertainpeoplehavegrown
theologicalaboutthis.Itsalmostareligionthatitwillbetheendofoursocietyifwe
donttakeactionnow.Kessler,U.S.DecisiononIraqHasPuzzlingPast.Kessleralso
describesColinPowellreturningfromWhiteHousemeetingsonIraq,rollinghiseyes
andsaying,Jeez,whatafixationaboutIraq.BobWoodwardreportsinPlanofAttack
(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2004),p.410,thatKennethAdelmansaidhehad
worriedtodeathastimewentonandsupportseemedtowanethattherewouldbeno
war.Alsoseeibid.,pp.164165.

156Thefirstletter(January26,1998)waswrittenundertheauspicesoftheProjectforthe
NewAmericanCenturyandcanbefoundonitswebsite.Thesecondletter(February
19,1998)waswrittenundertheauspicesoftheCommitteeforPeaceandSecurityinthe
GulfandcanbefoundontheIraqWatchwebsite.AlsoseetheMay29,1998letterto
SpeakeroftheHouseNewtGingrichandSenateMajorityLeaderTrentLottwritten
155

70

undertheauspicesoftheProjectfortheNewAmericanCenturyandfoundonits
website.Theneoconservatives,itshouldbeemphasized,advocatedinvadingIraqto
toppleSaddam.SeeTheEndofContainment,WeeklyStandard,December1,1997,pp.
1314;ZalmayM.KhalizadandPaulWolfowitz,OverthrowHim,inibid.,pp.1415;
FrederickW.Kagan,NotbyAirAlone,inibid.,pp.1516.

157SeeClintonscommentsafterhesignedtheIraqLiberationActof1998.Statement
bythePresident,WhiteHousePressOffice,October31,1998.

158Onemightthinkfromthepublicityandthecontroversysurroundingtwobooks
publishedin2004RichardClarkesAgainstAllEnemies:InsideAmericasWaronTerror
(NewYork:FreePress,2004)andRonSuskind,ThePriceofLoyalty:GeorgeW.Bush,the
WhiteHouse,andtheEducationofPaulONeill(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2004)
thatBushandCheneywerebentoninvadingIraqwhentheyassumedofficeinlate
January2001.However,thisinterpretationiswrong.Theyweredeeplyinterestedin
topplingSaddam,justasBillClintonandAlGorehadbeen.Butthereisnoevidencein
thepublicrecordshowingthatBushandCheneywereseriouslycontemplatingwar
againstIraqbefore9/11.Infact,BushmadeitcleartoBobWoodwardthathewasnot
thinkingaboutgoingtowaragainstSaddambefore9/11.SeePlanofAttack,p.12.Also
seeNicholasLehmann,TheIraqFactor,NewYorker,Vol.76,issue43(January22,
2001),pp.3448;EricSchmittandStevenLeeMeyers,BushAdministrationWarnsIraq
onWeaponsPrograms,NewYorkTimes,January23,2001.AndCheneyhaddefended
thedecisionnottogotoBaghdadthroughoutthe1990sandduringthe2000campaign.
SeeTimothyNoah,DickCheney,Dove,Slate,October16,2002;CalmafterDesert
Storm,AnInterviewwithDickCheney,PolicyReview,No.65(Summer1993).Inshort,
eventhoughtheneoconservativesheldimportantpositionsintheBushAdministration,
theywereunabletogeneratemuchenthusiasmforattackingIraqbefore9/11.Thus,the
NewYorkTimesreportedinMarch2001thatsomeRepublicanswerecomplainingthat
RumsfeldandWolfowitzarefailingtoliveuptotheirpreelectionadvocacyof
steppingupeffortstooverthrowPresidentHussein.Atthesametime,aWashington
Timeseditorialasked,HaveHawksBecomeDoves?SeeJanePerlez,CapitolHawks
SeekTougherLineonIraq,NewYorkTimes,March7,2001;HaveHawksBecome
Doves?WashingtonTimes,March8,2001.

159Woodward,PlanofAttack,pp.2526.WolfowitzwassoinsistentonconqueringIraq
thatfivedayslaterCheneyhadtotellhimtostopagitatingfortargetingSaddam.
Page,ShowdownwithSaddam.AccordingtooneRepublicanlawmaker,hewaslike
aparrotbringing[Iraq]upallthetime.ItwasgettingonthePresidentsnerves.Elliot
andCarney,FirstStop,Iraq.WoodwarddescribesWolfowitzaslikeadrumthat
wouldnotstop.PlanofAttack,p.22.

160Woodward,PlanofAttack,pp.144.

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RegardingtheneoconservativesinfluenceonCheney,seeElliottandCarney,First
Stop,Iraq;Page,ShowdownwithSaddam;MichaelHirsh,BernardLewis
Revisited,WashingtonMonthly,November2004,pp.1319;FrederickKempe,Lewiss
LiberationDoctrineforMideastFacesNewTests,WallStreetJournal,December13,
2005;CarlaAnneRobbinsandJeanneCummings,HowBushDecidedthatHussein
MustBeOustedfromAtopIraq,WallStreetJournal,June14,2002.OnCheneyscritical
roleinthedecisionmakingprocess,seeGlennKesslerandPeterSlevin,Cheneyis
FulcrumofForeignPolicy,WashingtonPost,October13,2002;BarbaraSlavinandSusan
Page,CheneyRewritesRolesinForeignPolicy,USAToday,July29,2002.

162TheNewYorkTimesreportedshortlyafter9/11that,Somesenioradministration
officials,ledbyPaulD.WolfowitzandI.LewisLibbyarepressingfortheearliest
andbroadestmilitarycampaignagainstnotonlytheOsamabinLadennetworkin
Afghanistan,butalsoagainstothersuspectedterroristbasesinIraqandinLebanons
Bekkaregion.PatrickE.TylerandElaineSciolino,BushAdvisersSplitonScopeof
Retaliation,NewYorkTimes,September20,2001.AlsoseeWilliamSafire,PhonyWar
II,NewYorkTimes,November28,2002.WoodwardsuccinctlydescribesLibbys
influenceinPlanofAttack(pp.4849):Libbyhadthreeformaltitles.Hewaschiefof
stafftoVicePresidentCheney;hewasalsonationalsecurityadvisertothevice
president;andhewasfinallyanassistanttoPresidentBush.Itwasatrifectaofpositions
probablyneverheldbeforebyasingleperson.Scooterwasapowercenteruntohimself
.LibbywasoneofonlytwopeoplewhowerenotprincipalstoattendtheNational
SecurityCouncilmeetingswiththepresidentandtheseparateprincipalsmeetings
chairedbyRice.Alsoseeibid.,pp5051,288292,300301,409410;Bumillerand
Schmitt,OntheJobandatHome;KarenKwiatkowski,TheNewPentagonPapers,
Salon.com,March10,2004;PatrickE.TylerandElaineSciolino,BushAdvisersSpliton
ScopeofRetaliation,NewYorkTimes,September20,2001.OnLibbysrelationshipto
Israel,anarticleintheForwardreportsthatIsraeliofficialslikedLibby.Theydescribed
himasanimportantcontactwhowasaccessible,genuinelyinterestedinIsraelrelated
issuesandverysympathetictotheircause.OriNir,LibbyPlayedLeadingRoleon
ForeignPolicyDecisions,Forward,November4,2005.

163ThisletterwaspublishedintheWeeklyStandard,October1,2001.
161

RobertKaganandWilliamKristol,TheRightWar,WeeklyStandard,October1,2001;
CharlesKrauthammer,OurFirstMove:TakeOuttheTaliban,WashingtonPost,
October1,2001.AlsoseeWarAims,WallStreetJournal,September20,2001.

165EvenbeforethedusthadsettledattheWorldTradeCenter,proIsraelforceswere
makingthecasethatSaddamwasresponsiblefor9/11.SeeMichaelBarone,Warby
Ultimatum,U.S.NewsandWorldReport,October1,2001;BillGertz,IraqSuspectedof
SponsoringTerroristAttacks,WashingtonTimes,September21,2001;DrainthePond
164

72

ofTerror,JerusalemPosteditorial,September25,2001;WilliamSafire,TheUltimate
Enemy,NewYorkTimes,September24,2001.

166SeeJamesBamford,APretexttoWar(NewYork:Doubleday,2004);chaps.1314;
Woodward,PlanofAttack,pp.288292,297306.Alsoseeibid.,pp.72,163,300301.

167Woodward,PlanofAttack,p.290.

168SeeBamford,PretexttoWar,pp.287291,307331;DavidS.Cloud,Prewar
IntelligenceInquiryZeroesInOnPentagon,WallStreetJournal,March11,2004;
SeymourM.Hersh,SelectiveIntelligence,NewYorker,Vol.79,issue11(May12,2003),
pp.4450;Kwiatkowski,NewPentagonPapers;JimLobe,PentagonOfficeHometo
NeoConNetwork,InterPressServiceNewsAgency,August7,2003;GregMiller,Spy
UnitSkirtedCIAonIraq,LosAngelesTimes,March10,2004;PaulR.Pillar,Intelligence,
Policy,andtheWarinIraq,ForeignAffairs,Vol.85,No.2(MarchApril2006),pp.1527;
JamesRisen,HowPairsFindingonTerrorLedtoClashonShapingIntelligence,New
YorkTimes,April28,2004;EricSchmittandThomShanker,ThreatsandResponses:A
C.I.A.Rival;PentagonSetsUpIntelligenceUnit.NewYorkTimesOctober24,2002.

169TheOfficeofSpecialPlansreliedheavilyoninformationfromAhmedChalabiand
otherIraqiexilesandithadcloselinkswithvariousIsraelisources.Indeed,theGuardian
reportsthatitforgedclosetiestoaparallel,adhocintelligenceoperationinsideAriel
SharonsofficeinIsraelspecificallytobypassMossadandprovidetheBush
administrationwithmorealarmistreportsonSaddamsIraqthanMossadwasprepared
toauthorize.JulianBorger,TheSpiesWhoPushedforWar,Guardian,July17,2003.

170See,forexample,DouglasJ.Feith,TheInnerLogicofIsraelsNegotiations:
WithdrawalProcess,NotPeaceProcess,MiddleEastQuarterly,March1996.Foruseful
discussionsofFeithsviews,seeJeffreyGoldberg,ALittleLearning:WhatDouglas
FeithKnewandWhenHeKnewIt,NewYorker,Vol.81,issue12(May9,2005),pp.36
41;JimLobe,LosingFeith,oristheBushTeamSheddingItsSharperEdges?TheDaily
Star,January31,2005;JamesJ.Zogby,ADangerousAppointment:ProfileofDouglas
Feith,UndersecretaryofDefenseunderBush,MiddleEastInformationCenter,April
18,2001;IsraeliSettlements:Legitimate,DemocraticallyMandated,VitaltoIsraels
Securityand,Therefore,inU.S.Interest,TheCenterforSecurityPolicy,TransitionBrief
No.96T130,December17,1996.Notethatthetitleofthelatterpiece,whichwas
publishedbyanorganizationintheLobby,saysthatwhatisinIsraelsinterestis
thereforeinAmericasnationalinterest.InLosingFeith,Lobewrites:In2003,when
Feith,whowasstandinginforRumsfeldataninteragencyPrincipalsMeetingonthe
MiddleEast,concludedhisremarksonbehalfofthePentagon,accordingtothe
Washingtoninsidernewsletter,TheNelsonReport,[NationalSecurityAdvisor

73

Condoleezza]Ricesaid,ThanksDoug,butwhenwewanttheIsraelipositionwell
invitetheambassador.

171TheCleanBreakstudywaspreparedforTheInstituteforAdvancedStrategicand
PoliticalStudiesinJerusalemandpublishedinJune1996.Acopycanbefoundonthe
Instituteswebsite.

172AkivaEldar,PerlesofWisdomfortheFeithful,Haaretz,October1,2002.

173RallyUnitesAnguishedFactionsunderFlagofStandwithIsrael,Forward,April
19,2002;Forward50,Forward,November15,2002.

174JohnMcCaslin,IsraeliTrainedCops,WashingtonTimes,November5,2002;Bret
Stephens,ManoftheYear,JerusalemPost(RoshHashanaSupplement),September26,
2003;JanineZacharia,InvasiveTreatment,inibid.OtherusefulpiecesonWolfowitz
includeMichaelDobbs,ForWolfowitz,AVisionMayBeRealized,WashingtonPost,
April7,2003;JamesFallows,TheUnilateralist,AtlanticMonthly,March2002,pp.26
29;BillKeller,TheSunshineWarrior,NewYorkTimesMagazine,September22,2002;
PaulWolfowitz,Velociraptor,Economist,February915,2002.

175AccordingtoFeithsformerlawpartner,L.MarcZell,Chalabialsopromisedtore
buildthepipelinethatonceranfromHaifainIsraeltoMosulinIraq.SeeJohnDizard,
HowAhmedChalabiConnedtheNeocons,Salon.com,May4,2004.InmidJune2003,
BenjaminNetanyahuannouncedthat,ItwontbelongbeforeyouwillseeIraqioil
flowingtoHaifa.Reuters,NetanyahuSaysIraqIsraelOilLineNotPipeDream,
Haaretz,June20,2003.Ofcourse,thisdidnothappenanditisunlikelytohappeninthe
foreseeablefuture.

176MatthewE.Berger,NewChancestoBuildIsraelIraqTies,JewishJournal,April28,
2003.AlsoseeBamford,PretexttoWar,p.293;EdBlanche,SecuringIraqiOilforIsrael:
ThePlotThickens,Lebanonwire.com,April25,2003.NathanGuttmanreportsthatthe
AmericanJewishcommunityandtheIraqioppositionhadforyearstakenpainsto
concealthelinksbetweenthem.MutualWariness:AIPACandtheIraqiOpposition,
Haaretz,April8,2003.

177Nir,FBIProbe.Ontheeveofthewar,BillKeller,whoisnowtheexecutiveeditorof
theNewYorkTimes,wrote:TheideathatthiswarisaboutIsraelispersistentandmore
widelyheldthanyouthink.Keller,IsItGoodfortheJews?NewYorkTimes,March8,
2003.

178Inanopedwritteninmid2004,HollingsaskedwhytheBushAdministration
invadedIraqwhenitwasnotadirectthreattotheUnitedStates.Theanswer,which

74

hesayseveryoneknows,isbecausewewanttosecureourfriendIsrael.Senator
ErnestF.Hollings,BushsFailedMideastPolicyIsCreatingMoreTerrorism,
CharlestonPostandCourier,May6,2004;Sen.HollingsFloorStatement.Not
surprisingly,HollingswascalledanantiSemite,achargehefuriouslyrejected.Matthew
E.Berger,NotSoGentleRhetoricfromtheGentlemanfromSouthCarolina,JTA,May
23,2004;Sen.HollingsFloorStatement;SenatorLautenbergsFloorStatementin
SupportofSenatorHollings,June3,2004,acopyofwhichcanbefoundonHollings
website.OnMoran,seenote151.AhandfulofotherpublicfigureslikePatrick
Buchanan,MaureenDowd,GeorgieAnneGeyer,GaryHart,ChrisMatthews,and
GeneralAnthonyZinni,haveeithersaidorstronglyhintedthatproIsraelforcesinthe
UnitedStatesweretheprinciplemoversbehindtheIraqwar.SeeAlufBenn,Scapegoat
forIsrael,Haaretz,May13,2004;MatthewBerger,WillSomeJewsBackingforWarin
IraqHaveRepercussionsforAll?JTA,June10,2004;PatrickJ.Buchanan,Whose
War?AmericanConservative,March24,2003;AmiEden,IsraelsRole:TheElephant
TheyreTalkingAbout,Forward,February28,2003;TheGroundShifts,Forward,May
28,2004;NathanGuttman,ProminentU.S.Jews,IsraelBlamedforStartofIraqWar,
Haaretz,May31,2004;LawrenceF.Kaplan,ToxicTalkonWar,WashingtonPost,
February18,2003;E.J.Kessler,GaryHartSaysDualLoyaltyBarbWasNotAimedat
Jews,Forward,February21,2003;OriNirandAmiEden,ExMideastEnvoyZinni
ChargesNeoconsPushedIraqWartoBenefitIsrael,Forward,May28,2004.

179MichaelKinsley,WhatBushIsntSayingaboutIraq,Slate,October24,2002.Also
seeidem,JAccuse.

180RobertS.GreenbergerandKarbyLeggett,PresidentsDream:ChangingNotJust
RegimebutaRegion:AProU.S.,DemocraticAreaisaGoalthatHasIsraeliandNeo
ConservativeRoots,WallStreetJournal,March21,2003.AlsoseeGeorgePacker,
DreamingofDemocracy,NewYorkTimesMagazine,March2,2003.Althoughnotall
neoconservativesareJewish,mostofthefounderswereandvirtuallyallwerestrong
supportersofIsrael.AccordingtoGalBeckermanintheForward,Ifthereisan
intellectualmovementinAmericatowhoseinventionJewscanlaysoleclaim,
neoconservatismisit.SeeTheNeoconservativePersuasion,Forward,January6,2006.

181See,forexample,RebuildingAmericasDefenses:Strategy,ForcesandResourcesforaNew
Century,AReportfortheNewAmericanCentury,September2000,p.14.

182MartinIndyk,TheClintonAdministrationsApproachtotheMiddleEast,Speech
toSorefSymposium,WashingtonInstituteforNearEastPolicy,May18,1993.Alsosee
AnthonyLake,ConfrontingBacklashStates,ForeignAffairs,Vol.73.No.2
(March/April1994),pp.4553.

75

BarbaraConry,AmericasMisguidedPolicyofDualContainmentinthePersian
Gulf,ForeignPolicyBriefingNo.33,CATOInstitute,November10,1994;GregoryF.
GauseIII,TheIllogicofDualContainment,ForeignAffairs,Vol.73.No.2(March/April
1994),pp.5666;ZbigniewBrzezinskiandBrentScowcroft,DifferentiatedContainment:
U.S.PolicyTowardIranandIraq,ReportofanIndependentStudyGrouponGulfStability
andSecurity,CouncilonForeignRelations,NewYork,1997.

184BrzezinskiandScowcroft,DifferentiatedContainment,p.6.

185BrzezinskiandScowcroft,DifferentiatedContainment,p.130.

186Forexample,theJerusalemPostnotedinaneditorial(September9,2002)that
accordingtoMiddleEastexpertBernardLewis,apostSaddamIraqisonethatwould
bemorelikelytomakepeacewithIsrael,defangArabradicalism,andperhapseven
catalyzerevolutionaryforcesinpresentdayIran.Similarly,MichaelLedeenwroteon
August6,2002intheNationalReviewOnline(ScowcroftStrikesOut)that,Ifeverthere
wasaregionthatrichlydeservedbeingcauldronized,itistheMiddleEasttoday.Ifwe
wagethewareffectively,wewillbringdowntheterrorregimesinIraq,Iran,andSyria,
andeitherbringdowntheSaudimonarchyorforceittoabandonitsglobalassembly
linetoindoctrinateyoungterrorists.OnAugust19,JoshuaMuravchikarguedinthe
NewYorkTimes(DemocracysQuietVictory)that,Changetowarddemocratic
regimesinTehranandBaghdadwouldunleashatsunamiacrosstheIslamicworld.
AlsoseeMarinaOttawayetal.,DemocraticMirageintheMiddleEast,PolicyBrief#20
(Washington,D.C:CarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,October2002).

187CharlesKrauthammer,PeacethroughDemocracy,WashingtonPost,June28,2002.

188Benn,Background.Also,theNewYorkTimesreportedthatHalevygaveaspeechin
MunichinFebruary2003inwhichhesaid,Theshockwavesemergingfrompost
SaddamBaghdadcouldhavewiderangingeffectsinTehran,Damascus,andin
Ramallah.TheTimesarticlewentontosaythatIsraelishopingthatonceSaddam
Husseinisdispensedwith,thedominoeswillstarttotumble.Accordingtothishope
moderatesandreformersthroughouttheregionwouldbeencouragedtoputnew
pressureontheirowngovernments,notexceptingthePalestinianAuthorityofYasir
Arafat.Bennet,IsraelSaysWaronIraqWouldBenefittheRegion.Thissametheme
isreflectedinaForwardarticlefromearlyMarch2003,whichsaidthatIsraelstop
political,militaryandeconomicechelonshavecometoregardtheloomingwarasa
virtualdeusexmachinathatwillturnthepoliticalandeconomictablesandextricateIsrael
fromitscurrentmorass.Shalev,JerusalemFrets.Finally,thislineofthinkingwas
apparentinformerPrimeMinisterEhudBarakspreviouslydiscussedSeptember4,
2002,opedintheNewYorkTimes.BarakmaintainedthatputtinganendtoSaddam
HusseinsregimewillchangethegeopoliticallandscapeoftheArabworld.Heclaimed
183

76

thatAnArabworldwithoutSaddamHusseinwouldenablemanyfromthisgeneration
[leadersabouttocomeintopower]toembracethegradualdemocraticopeningthat
someofthePersianGulfstatesandJordanhavebeguntoenjoy.Barakalsomaintained
thattopplingSaddamwouldcreateanopeningforforwardmovementontheIsraeli
Palestinianconflict.

189SeeSeymourM.Hersh,TheSyrianBet,NewYorker,Vol.79,issue20(July28,2003),
pp.3236;MollyMoore,SharonAsksU.S.toPressureSyriaonMilitants,Washington
Post,April17,2003;OriNir,JerusalemUrgesBush:NextTargetHezbollah,Forward,
April11,2003;Idem,SharonAideMakestheCaseforU.S.ActionagainstSyria,
Forward,April18,2003;MarcPerelman,BehindWarningstoDamascus:Reassessment
ofYoungerAssad,Forward,April18,2004;DanielSobelmanandNathanGuttman,
PMUrgesU.S.toKeepHeatonSyria,CallsAssadDangerous,Haaretz,April15,
2003.

190

Moore,SharonAsksU.S.

Nir,SharonAide.AlsoseeKarenDeYoung,U.S.ToughensWarningstoSyriaon
Iraq,OtherIssues,WashingtonPost,April15,2003.

192Nir,SharonAide.AlsoseePerelman,BehindWarnings.Intheireffortsto
demonizeSyriaandbaittheUnitedStatesintoattackingit,Israelishavesaidthat
DamascuswasharboringhighlevelIraqisfromSaddamsregime,andevenworse,
hidingIraqsWMD.Perelman,BehindWarnings;LaurieCopans,IsraeliMilitary
BossClaimsIraqHadChemicalWeapons,AssociatedPressnewsrelease,April26,2004;
IraStoll,SaddamsWMDMovedtoSyria,AnIsraeliSays,NewYorkSun,December
15,2005;Idem,IraqsWMDSecretedinSyria,SadaSays,NewYorkSun,January26,
2006.InAugust2003,whenasuicidetruckbomberblewupUNheadquartersin
Baghdad,IsraelsambassadortotheUNcausedadiplomaticspatbysuggestingthat
Syriahadprovidedthetruck,therebyimplyingthatSyriawaspartlyresponsible.
MichaelCasey,IsraeliAmbassadorBelievesTruckUsedinU.N.BombingCamefrom
Syria,AssociatedPressnewsrelease,August21,2003;IsraeliEnvoyLinksSyriatoUN
Blast,StirsFlap,Reutersnewsrelease,August21,2003.ItmarRabinowich,theformer
IsraeliambassadortotheUnitedStates,toldSeymourHershthathewondered
whether,giventhequalityoftheirsources,theSyrianshadhadadvanceinformation
abouttheSeptember11thplotandfailedtowarntheUnitedStates.Hersh,The
SyrianBet.Therewaslittleevidencetosupportthesecharges,butIsraelswillingness
tomakethemshowshoweagertheyweretogettheUnitedStatesembroiledwithyet
anotherArabregime.

191

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SyriahadbeenintheLobbysgunsightswellbefore9/11.Infact,Syria,notIraq,was
themaintargetintheCleanBreakstudythatFeith,Perle,andWurmserwrotefor
Netanyahuin1996.AndDanielPipesandZiadAbdelnour,theheadoftheU.S.
CommitteeforaFreeLebanon(USCFL),hadcoauthoreda2000reportcallingforthe
UnitedStatestousemilitarythreatstoforceSyriatoremoveitstroopsfromLebanon,
getridofanyWMDitmighthave,andstopsupportingterrorism.(EndingSyrias
OccupationofLebanon:TheU.S.Role,ReportoftheMiddleEastStudyGroup,Middle
EastForum,May2000.)TheUCSFLisaclosecousinoftheLobby,anditincludes
numerousneoconservatives(Abrams,Feith,Ledeen,Perle,andWurmser)amongits
officialcoresupporters.JordanGreen,NeoconsDreamofLebanon,ZNet,July23,
2003;DavidR.Sands,HawksRecycleArgumentsforIraqWaragainstSyria,
WashingtonTimes,April16,2003.ExceptforLedeen,theyallsignedthe2000report,as
didproIsraelCongressmanEliotEngel(DNY),anothercoresupporterofUCSFL.

194NathanGuttman,SomeSeniorU.S.FiguresSaySyriaHasCrossedtheRedLine,
Haaretz,Aril14,2004;MichaelFlynn,TheWarHawks:TheRightFlexesMusclewith
NewU.S.Agenda,ChicagoTribune,April13,2003.InadditiontoPerleandWolfowitz,
JohnBoltonpushedhardfrominsidetheAdministrationforregimechangeinSyria.He
hadtoldIsraelileadersamonthbeforetheIraqwarthattheBushAdministrationwould
dealwithSyria,aswellasIranandNorthKorea,rightafterSaddamfellfrompower.
Flynn,TheRightFlexesMuscle.Inpursuitofthatgoal,Boltonreportedlypreparedto
tellCongressinmidJulythatSyriasWMDprogramshadreachedthepointwherethey
wereaseriousthreattostabilityintheMiddleEastandhadtobedealtwithsooner
ratherthanlater.However,theCIAandothergovernmentagenciesobjected,claiming
thatBoltonsanalysisgreatlyinflatedtheSyrianthreat.Consequently,the
AdministrationdidnotallowBoltontogivehistestimonyonSyriaatthattime.Douglas
Jehl,NewWarningWasPutOffonWeaponsSyriaPlans,NewYorkTimes,July18,
2003;MarcPerelman,StateDepartmentHawkunderFireinIntelligenceFlapover
Syria,Forward,July25,2003;WarrenP.StrobelandJonathanS.Landay,Intelligence
DataonSyriaNowDisputed,PhiladelphiaInquirer,July17,2003.YetBoltonwasnot
putoffforlong.HeappearedbeforeCongressinSeptember2003anddescribedSyriaas
agrowingthreattoU.S.interestsintheMiddleEast.NathanGuttman,US:Syria
SupportingTerror,DevelopingWeaponsofMassDestruction,Haaretz,September16
2003.

195QuotedinRobinWright,U.S.InsistsSyriaAlterItsCourse,LosAngelesTimes,April
14,2003.AlsoseeMartinIndyksandDennisRossstoughmindedrhetoricaboutSyria
inHersh,TheSyrianBet.

196LawrenceF.Kaplan,WhiteLie,NewRepublic,April21&28,2003.AlsoseeWilliam
KristolandLawrenceF.Kaplan,TheWaroverIraq:SaddamsTyrannyadAmericasMission
(NewYork:EncounterBooks,2003).
193

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DeYoung,U.S.ToughensStance.TherewasastoryinHaaretz(NYCongressman
SaysWillPushBilltoPressureSyria)onAugust19,2003,whichreportedthatEngel
hadjustmetwithSharoninhisJerusalemOfficefor90minutesandtheIsraelileader
hadendorsedEngelseffortstopushtheSyriaAccountabilityAct.Regardingthe
specificsofthatlegislation,seeZviBarel,DecipheringtheSyrians,Haaretz,July9,
2003;TheReturnoftheSyriaAccountabilityAct,NewsMax.com,April19,2003;Claude
Salhani,TheSyriaAccountabilityAct:TakingtheWrongRoadtoDamascus,Policy
Analysis,No.512,CATOInstitute,March18,2004.Notsurprisingly,RichardPerlecalled
onCongresstopasstheSyriaAccountabilityActshortlyafterEngelreintroducedthe
legislation.Sands,HawksRecycleArguments.

198RonKampeas,Bush,OnceReluctantonSanctions,PreparestoTakeaToughLine
withSyria,JTA,March16,2004.

199Salhani,TheSyriaAccountabilityAct,p.5.

200JulianBorger,BushVetoesSyriaWarPlan,Guardian,April15,2003;Kampeas,
Bush,OnceReluctant.

201SeeHersh,TheSyrianBet.OtherpiecesdiscussingtheadvantagesfortheUnited
statesofcooperatingwithSyriaincludeSpencerAckerman,RoughTrade,New
Repulic,January13,2003;SusanTaylorMartin,ExpertsDisagreeonDangersofSyria,
St.PetersburgTimes,November3,2002;Salhani,TheSyriaAccountabilityAct;Stephen
Zunes,BushHasClearRunatSyria,AsiaTimesOnline,March2,2005.

202TwoarticlesthatappearedintheForwardafterBaghdadfelldescribethedriving
forcesbehindthenewU.S.policytowardSyria.InapieceinmidApril,theauthor
noted:AsuddenflurryofU.S.warningstoSyriainrecentdaysindicatesthat
WashingtonhasundertakenwhatIsraelanditssupportersherehavebeenurgingfor
months:acomprehensivereassessmentofSyrianrulerBasharAssad.Perelman,
BehindWarnings.AfewmonthslaterinmidJuly,anotherauthornoted:Duringthe
pastseveralmonths,topIsraeliofficialshavewarnedtheirAmericancounterpartsand
audiencesaboutAssadsunreliability.Americanofficialshaveechoedthestanceand
pressreportshavespeculatedaboutpossibleAmericanmilitaryinterventioninSyria.
MarcPerelman,SyriaMakesOvertureoverNegotiations,Forward,July11,2003.

203QuotedinAlanSipress,IsraelEmphasizesIranianThreat,WashingtonPost,
February7,2002.Thisarticle,whichwaswrittenasSharonwasarrivinginWashington,
makesclearthatTelAvivwasredoublingitseffortstowarntheBushadministration
thatIranposesagreaterthreatthantheIraqiregimeofSaddamHussein.Alsosee
SeymourHersh,TheIranGame,NewYorker,Vol.77,issue38(December3,2001),pp.
197

79

4249;PeterHirschberg,Background/PeresRaisesIranianThreat,Haaretz,February5,
2002;DavidHirst,IsraelThrustsIraninLineofUSFire,Guardian,February2,2002;
IsraelOnceAgainSeesIranasACauseforConcern,Haaretz,May7,2001.

204StephenFarrell,RobertThomson,andDanielleHaas,AttackIrantheDayIraqWar
Ends,DemandsIsrael,TheTimes(London),September5,2002;StephenFarrelland
RobertThomson,TheTimesInterviewwithArielSharon,inibid.

205AmbassadortoU.S.CallsforRegimeChangeinIran,Syria,Haaretz,April28,
2003.TendayslatertheNewYorkTimesreportedthattheWashingtonwasgrowing
increasinglyconcernedaboutIransnuclearambitions,andthatthereisalotof
hammeringfromtheIsraelisforustotakethispositionseriously.StevenR.Weisman,
NewU.S.ConcernsonIransPursuitofNuclearArms,NewYorkTimes,May8,2003.
ShimonPeresthenpublishedanopedintheWallStreetJournalonJune25entitled,We
MustUnitetoPreventanAyatollahNuke.HisdescriptionoftheIranianthreat
soundedjustlikehisearlierdescriptionofthethreatfromSaddam,evenincludinga
ritualreferencetothelessonsofappeasementinthe1930s.Iran,heemphasized,must
betoldinnouncertaintermsthattheUnitedStatesandIsraelwillnottolerateitgoing
nuclear.

206InlateMay2003,InterPressServicereportedthat,Theneoconseffortstonowfocus
USattentiononregimechangeinIranhasbecomemuchmoreintensesinceearlyMay
andalreadyhasbornesubstantialfruit.JimLobe,U.S.NeoConsMoveQuicklyon
Iran,InterPressService,May28,2003.InearlyJune,theForwardreportedthat,
Neoconservativesinsideandoutsidetheadministrationhavebeenurginganactive
efforttopromoteregimechangeinTehran.Reportsofpossiblecovertactionshave
surfacedinrecentweeks.MarcPerelman,PentagonTeamonIranComesunderFire,
Forward,June6,2003.Alsoseeidem,WhiteHouseIsAimingtoRaiseIranianNukesat
U.N.SecurityCouncil,Forward,May9,2003;Idem,NewFrontSetsSightsonToppling
IranRegime,Forward,May16,2003.Finally,theLobbyhasestablishedcloserelations
withRezaPahlavi,thesonofthelateShahofIran.Heisevenreportedtohavehad
meetingswithNetanyahuandSharon.ThisrelationshipissimilartotheLobbys
relationshipwithAhmedChalabi.Specifically,proIsraelforcespromotePahlavi,andin
return,hemakesclearthatifhecomestopowerinIran,itwillhavegoodrelationswith
Israel.ConnieBruck,Exiles:HowIransExpatriatesAreGamingtheNuclearThreat,
NewYorker,Vol.82,issue2(March6,2006),pp.4863;Perelman,NewFront.

207Theflyeradvertisingtheconference,whichwasentitledTheFutureofIran:
Mullahcracy,DemocracyandtheWaronTerror,canbefoundatanumberofsiteson
theweb.AlsoseeGreen,NeoconsDreamofLebanon;Lobe,U.S.NeoConsMove
Quickly.

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WilliamKristol,TheEndoftheBeginning,WeeklyStandard,February12,2003.
OtherswritingarticlesatthetimeincludeDanielPipesandPatrickClawson,whowrote
apieceonMay20fortheJerusalemPostentitledTurnupthePressureonIran.They
calledfortheBushAdministrationtosupporttheMujahedeeneKhalq,aterrorist
organizationbasedinIraqthatwasbentonoverthrowingtheayatollahsrunningIran.
LawrenceKaplanarguedintheNewRepublic(Iranamok)onJune9thattheUSneeded
togettougherwithIranoveritsnuclearprograms,whichhefearedwerefurtheralong
thanmostAmericanpolicymakersrecognized.MichaelLedeen,oneoftheleading
hawksonIran,wroteintheNationalReviewOnline(TheOthers)onApril4:Thereis
nomoretimefordiplomaticsolutions.Wewillhavetodealwiththeterrormasters,
hereandnow.Iran,atleast,offersusthepossibilityofamemorablevictory,becausethe
Iranianpeopleopenlyloaththeregime,andwillenthusiasticallycombatit,ifonlythe
UnitedStatessupportsthemintheirjuststruggle.

209ForevidenceoftheLobbysintensifiedeffortstogettheBushAdministrationtodeal
withtheIraniannuclearproblem,seeStewartAin,IsraelUrgingU.S.toStopIran
Nukes,JewishWeek,October7,2005;EfraimInbar,TheImperativestoUseForce
againstIranianNuclearization,BESACenter[BarIlanUniversity,Israel]Perspectives,
Number12,December1,2005;MartinS.Indyk,IransBlusterIsntABluff,LosAngeles
Times,November1,2005;RonKampeas,WithTimeShortonIranNukes,AIPAC
CriticizesBushApproach,JTA,December2,2005;CharlesKrauthammer,InIran,
ArmingforArmageddon,WashingtonPost,December16,2005;DafnaLinzer,Pro
IsraelGroupCriticizesWhiteHousePolicyonIran,WashingtonPost,December25,
2005;OriNir,NewSanctionBillLosesMomentumasAdministrationPresses
Diplomacy,Forward,June10,2005;Idem,JewishGroupsPushforIranSanctions,
Forward,September23,2005;Idem,IsraeliAidesWarnU.S.NottoDropBallonIran,
Forward,December9,2005;MichaelRubinetal.,WarFooting:10StepsAmericaMust
TaketoPrevailintheWarfortheFreeWorld,AmericanEnterpriseInstitute,
November30,2005;RowanScarborough,IsraelPushesU.S.onIranNukeSolution,
WashingtonTimes,February21,2005.

210Someneoconservativesevenwelcomethisoutcome.Forexample,RobertKaganand
WilliamKristolwroteintheaftermathof9/11that,Afghanistanwillprovebutan
openingbattle.thiswarwillnotendinAfghanistan.Itisgoingtospreadandengulf
anumberofcountriesinconflictsofvaryingintensity.Itcouldwellrequiretheuseof
Americanmilitarypowerinmultipleplacessimultaneously.Itisgoingtoresemblethe
clashofcivilizationsthateveryonehashopedtoavoid.TheGatheringStorm,Weekly
Standard,October29,2002.AlsoseeEliotA.Cohen,WorldWarIV,WallStreetJournal,
November20,2001;PhilMcCombs,TheFireThisTime,WashingtonPost,April13,
2003;NormanPodhoretz,HowtoWinWorldWarIV,Commentary,February2002;
Idem,WorldWarIV:HowItStarted,WhatItMeans,andWhyWeHavetoWin,
208

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Commentary,September2004;BrianWhitaker,PlayingSkittleswithSaddam,Guardian,
September3,2002.

211RonKampeas,AfterRestructuring,AIPACPlanstoFocusonWiderRangeof
Issues,JTA,September26,2005.

82