Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
MODULE ONE
UNDERSTANDING SOME CONCEPTS AND
TERMS USED IN SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
In this module you should be able to:
1. define and explain the meaning of some terms used in Systems Analysis
2. identify the factors or variables that interact within a social system
students become educated citizens. Process is what transforms input into output. It is also
called throughput.
Outputs include the organizations products and services. Graduates as educated citizens
are examples of outputs. In the interrelationship between the input and output, feedback plays a
very important function. Feedback is the information concerning the outputs or the process of
the organization may lead to changes both in the process and the future outputs. Feedback is like
a reaction a performer gets from the audience. Similarly, the school system gents information
from the environment or society as to how it has performed / Feedback tells whether a certain
plan should be continued or not. For this reason, all educational development plans are made on
a rolling basis, meaning, they are subject to modifications, revision, or changes depending on the
feedback after some time of operation.
In the study of a system, we can come across with the terms subsystem, and suprasystem
Subsystem is a small system within the big system. It has its own purpose and is there for the
purpose of the system. It has its own parts and components which are determined by the overall
purpose of the system for which it is a part. The components of a subsystem work in an
integrated or interrelated manner. Subsystem is also called microsystem.
Suprasystem is the largest system that includes both the system and its subsystem. The
suprasystem has its subsystem such as the political system, educational system, cultural system
and economic system. Suprasystem is also called macrosystem.
When we analyze a specific system, we have to consider what we call System
Boundaries. System Boundaries determine what is to be included or excluded from the system.
For example, the educational system may be defined by levels, that is, elementary, secondary,
and tertiary level.
Any kind of system is always situated in a environment. Environment is what surrounds
the organization which includes the social, political, and economic factors that impinge on the
organization. Basically, all organizations are considered an open system since all the factors
outside the organizations can influence their stability. System stability is a condition when all
the components are in harmony at all times. However, this is not always possible because there
are changes that occur in the environment or the society which are not commensurate with the
existing conditions of the system. Thus it is the task of the system, like the school system to
adjust continuously if stability is to be maintained.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
The foregoing gives us definitions of significant terms used in analyzing a system.
Lets check our understanding by performing the following exercises:
1.
In all the foregoing definitions, which of the following attributes could be deduced from
the term System. Check the blank that corresponds to your answer.
_________________________________
2. Suprasystem
_________________________________
3. System boundaries
_________________________________
4. Internal environment
_________________________________
5. Feedback
_________________________________
6. Input
_________________________________
7. Process
_________________________________
8. Output
_________________________________
MODULE TWO
APPROACHES TO SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
In this module, you should be able to:
1. gain knowledge and skills on the theories and approaches used in Systems Analysis
2. explain how to utilize the Systems theory in analyzing an organization or an institution
3. expound on the interrelationships among the basic elements of an organization
Systems Theory
The utilization of Systems Analysis in understanding an organization or an institution is
anchored on the Systems theory.
This theory holds that an organization is a system. It is a way of viewing organization as
whole unit taking into consideration the interrelationships among its parts and its relationship
with the external environment. In other words, in order to understand an organization, we must
adopt a holistic view of it before we analyze its individual parts. It is a way of organizing and
relating dependent parts of the whole system for some purposes.
Figure 1 depicts the basic system theory of organizations which has five parts namely;
inputs, a transformation process, outputs, feedback, and the environment.
As the figure shows, the organizations is situated in an environment. We start by
identifying the inputs and have them subjected to some processes to produce the desired output.
However, as we go along, we have to gather some information through a feedback mechanism to
inform us on how we are getting along. We should have a sort of monitoring system that can
provide signals if what we are doing should be continued or not. As shown, the feedback loop
goes back both to the process and the inputs.
Environment
Organization
Inputs
Transformation Process
Outputs
Feedback
Figure 2 shows the pattern of interrelationships among the factors within a school system.
Inputs. The environment provides it with personnel, financing, theory, knowledge. The
national and local governments enact laws that regulate the school. In addition, other groups
may make demands on the school. Students, for example, want relevant curriculum that will
prepare them for employment. Teachers might want higher salary, better working conditions,
and fringe benefits. Similarly, the community expects the school to provide quality education.
In this situation where each group has its demands, it is the job of the school administrator to
integrate these diverse goals into a viable plan of action.
Process. This includes the internal operation of the organization or school and its system
of operational management. The administrator has to utilize his technical competence in
communication, decision making, curriculum development, motivation, developing
organizational culture and his leadership styles in transforming the inputs into outputs.
Outputs. These include student achievement, growth, dropout, attitude toward school,
teacher performance, employee job satisfaction, employee-management relations and schoolcommunity relations, among others.
Finally, the external environment or the suprasystem reacts to these outputs and provides
feedback to the school system. If the feedback is positive, then the schools stability can be
maintained. If negative, it can be used to correct deficiencies in administrators operational plan
of action which in turn will have an effect on the schools output.
The Systems Theory is popularly used by researchers in assessing or evaluating existing
programs in selected organizations or institutions. It is used as the research paradigm which
indicates the input, process, and output. In this simplified form the paradigm is presented as
follows:
Input
Process
Feedback
Figure 1
Research Paradigm
Output
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
A.
Reasoned Reaction. Write A if you Agree with the statement. If you Disagree, write D
and support your stand.
MODULE THREE
SUBSYSTEMS IN THE SCHOOL
SYSTEM AND IN THE SOCIETY
In this module, you should be able to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
10
Within the school system are the social systems, cultural systems and economic systems.
(Zwaenepoel, 1985). These three systems are integral parts of the school systems. Any change
in one of these systems affects the others. They are closely interrelated. For example, a high
drop-out rate affects the economic stability of the school system. In effect, this causes a social
problem to the school. At the same time, students belonging to the low-income class may be
deprived of participating in socio-cultural activities. The faculty members may also be affected
in terms of their salary rate. On the other hand, increases in tuition fees among private schools
could affect the smooth relationship between administrators and students.
In addition to the above classification of subsystems Hanson (1991) identified eight types
of subsystems and the related variables under each type. He calls these as the general properties
of an educational system.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
It is enough to identify the subsystems within the school and the subsystems in the
society. We have to look into their relationships since they are inseparable entities of which one
affects the other.
The school is considered as an open system which receives inputs from society like the
students, and transform them into outputs, i.e. the kind of citizens that society needs. These
outputs have to satisfy society in order that society would be able to maintain the school system,
since the school system receives all its support from society. Thus, the utilization of knowledge
and skills and attitude and values by the students in their respective environment is referred to as
the functionality of the school. The 1973 Constitution spells this out when it states that the state
11
shall establish and maintain complete, adequate, and integrated system of education relevant to
the goals of educational development. In essence, relevant, adequate, complete, and functional
could refer to the contribution of the school system to the social, cultural, economic, political,
and technological subsystems of the society. The relationship therefore between the school
system and the subsystems of the society is one that is functional, that is, while the school system
influences the social, cultural, economic, political, and technological subsystems of the society,
the society influences the school in return in the same aspects.
Thus, if want to determine the contribution of the school system to the various systems of
society, we have to identify the needs to the society that the school is supposed to satisfy. These
needs are: social, cultural, economic, political and technological.
In the social aspect, the school must consider the socio-economic mobility of the
graduates, that is, they would be able to move to a higher status, lesson the social problems in the
community, and minimize social and discriminating social stratifications in the community.
In the cultural aspect, national security, national identity, solidarity, Filipinism, have to be
strengthened in the school curriculum.
In the economic realm, the manpower needs of the community must be determined in
relation to curriculum offerings. There ought to be a linkage between the schools, and business,
and industry in order to ensure the employability of the graduates. Briefly, there should be a
balance between the quantity of educational output and the market demand for labor.
In the political arena, the school must develop among the students and the community, a
critical, logical, analytic, and rational mind, especially in the choice of leaders in the local,
regional, and national levels. Political consciousness and awareness must be developed among
the students in appropriate subject areas.
In the technological aspect, the advances in science and technology call for curriculum
enrichment, revision, and modification and re-training of teachers in these areas.
The foregoing has defined the relationship between the subsystems within the school and
the subsystems in the society. We have learned that their relationship is functional rather than
cause-and-effect relationship.
Indicators of the Contribution of the School System to the Social, Cultural, Economic,
Political, and Technological Subsystem of Society through the Individuals
The extent to which the schools have contributed to the growth and development of
society toward advancement, can be determined through the individual student the knowledge
he has acquired, skills, values, and attitudes developed, are indicators which can signify
observable changes and benefits for the student himself, his family, or the society in general.
The individual as members of the society might have contributed to the society through his field
of specialization. His contribution will apparently indicate the functionality of the school system
to society. In the system approach, the changes of individuals as individual or individuals as
12
members of society would then become the variables to be analyzed. Similarly, the benefits
accruing to the individuals and to society is often termed the external productivity of an
educational program.
For example, the following are some indicators which measure the contribution of the
school system to the economic system of society.
1. Distribution of labor force by occupation
2. Supply of output of graduates into the labor market
3. Amount of on-the-job training given annually to the labor force by occupation, formal
education, and industry.
13
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Which of the subsystems in the school system should be given priority in making a
annual action plan?
2. How does the relationship between school policy and teacher behavior, differ from the
relationship between the subsystems in the school and the subsystems in the society?
3. Explain why in Systems Analysis, all the components of the school system must be
analyzed?
14
MODULE
FOUR
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. define the role of systems analysis in conducting research
2. identify problem areas and the factors to be considered in conducting research within the
school system
3. acquire skills in constructing a questionnaire as the research instrument for gathering data
4. categorize and classify the various subsystems in the school system that should be
considered in conducting research
15
16
10.
B.
1.
2.
3.
The goals and ideals of the school are consistent with the community and national
development goals.
4.
5.
6.
The desirable Filipino values like pakikisama, utang-na-loob, hiya etc. are keenly
observed here.
17
The data gathered on the different subsystem could be analyzed in terms of their
interrelationships with given standards. For example, data on the interrelationships on the
economic subsystem could be compared with given standards in terms of: per student cost; salary
structure; budgeting system income-expense, and percentage of expenses for salaries, etc.
Step 3:
Administer the instrument to students at the entry level and exit level of the educational
program and subsequently compare the results of the evaluation at the entry level and exit level
in order to determine what the students have acquired in terms of knowledge, skills, attitudes,
and values.
Step 4:
Analyze and interpret data gathered about the inputs and its processes (obtained
under Step 2) and the outputs (obtained under Step 3) which is the level of
knowledge and skills acquired and the attitude and values developed among the
students. Vis--vis the aims and objectives of the educational program being
evaluated.
The foregoing discussion presents in a capsulized form how to utilize systems analysis in
conducting research. As pointed out, research can be conducted on specific problem within the
school system or an academic department of a college or university.
18
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Using the questionnaire on why teachers prefer to stay in a certain school, construct a
questionnaire to determine why students prefer to study in a certain school.
Have 5 items for each category as follows:
Items belonging to Economic subsystem
1-5
Items belonging to Social subsystem
1-5
Items belonging to Cultural Subsystem
1-5
19
MODULE FIVE
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. acquire a working knowledge on the concept and importance of educational planning
2. identify the factors to be considered in planning
3. demonstrate how to use systems approach in making educational plans
4. appreciate the advantages of using the systems approach in educational planning
20
Concept of Planning
According to Zwaenepoel (1985) planning is both an organizational function and a
responsibility of school managers or administrators. It is required because of the need to shape
the future in desirable directions to take account of change, and to manage the major
achievements that may entail. It is endemic in all types of organizations, whether economic,
political, or social. Planning results in concrete plans in all types of organizations whether
operational, procedural, conceptual, or strategies. The process and skills or relating the present
to the future and to desired goals are embodied in the concept of planning.
In planning, we dont wait for problems to occur before taking action. We should
continuously assess progress, objectives, and past decisions by observing present conditions and
by studying trends, forecast and predictions.
Gleaned from the foregoing discussion, we can define planning as an executive action
that involves anticipating influencing, and controlling the nature and direction of change.
Planning also means thinking that takes place prior to actions or decisions. It is done to decide
what to do and how to do it before taking concrete action.
Managerial Problems in Planning
There are four managerial problems that may enter into the process of planning. These
are evaluation or assessment of present conditions, time factor, collection and analysis of data,
and the existence of a hierarchy of plans within the school as an organization.
Evaluation of present conditions or situational analysis. In assessing/evaluating existing
conditions, inadequacies that would lead to the desired change must be recognized. The planner
must be aware of dissatisfaction with present conditions because from such dissatisfaction will
arise the controlled and planned changed that is intended to prevent or minimize problems or
alleviate problems that have arisen.
The factor. The time span which planning covers ranged from relatively short-term to
long-term duration. The planner faces a time span ranging from the immediate present to the
indeterminate future. Short-term planning is concerned with the near future, like plan for one
school year or the next two or three years. Long-term planning may cover the next five to ten
years.
21
Collection and analysis of data. Planning depends for its effectiveness on the quality and
quantity of data available to the planner. It is necessary to identify reliable sources of
information, evaluate the worth of these sources and judge the value of the materials.
Information in planning may be classified as internal and external. Internal data consist of
records of costs, production sales, labor requirements, knowledge of quotas, objectives, and other
strategic matters describing the existing conditions. External sources include a large number of
regular newspapers, periodicals, and other publication from industry, community, and
government.
Hierarchy of plans. This pertains to plans that are arranged according to degree of
importance. The higher the level of the organization, the broader and longer the scope and
coverage of the plan is. Judging the degree of importance of the various plans in the school
system helps the planner to see how his particular planning must fit into the other existing or
contemplated plans. For example, in the preparation of the overall budget for the school year,
each unit of department prepares its particular budget by requesting its subdivisions to prepare
their budget. Thus each level plans its budget and the successively higher levels incorporate the
budgetary plans of those below.
Educational Planning
Educational planning is defined as a rational scientific method of choosing alternatives
covering the needs of education in its social subsystem, cultural subsystem, and economic
subsystem and relating them to the social, cultural, political, and technological system of society,
in order to perform a responsible choice and implement the chosen option.
The necessity of educational planning is due to the following factors:
1. Rise in the student participation rate in higher education
2. Economic or financial resources are getting scare for education
3. The educational system is not adjusted to the requirements in the labor market which
results in the oversupply of graduates.
4. Unemployment is increasing while educational cost per student is rising
5. There is discontent among the youth on many issues against the school
Systems Approach in Planning
In using the systems approach to planning we start by conducting an appraisal of the
existing conditions through feedback or through measure of external productivity, that is, the use
of benefits gained. Our purpose is to determine if there is a difference between the desired
outcomes (objectives) and the observed products (benefits). Then we identify the extent of
integration, extent of congruence, and extent of relevance of the objectives and the benefits. This
22
Paradigm on Planning
Inputs
Assessment
results on
areas:
or evaluation
the following
Congruence on program
output vs. institutional goals
Process
Outputs
Improved
quality
educational services
Availed to clientele
of
Feedback
It assumes that a system has a plan which is systematically working towards the
accomplishment of specified and operationally defined achievements. Meaning the system is
always having an aim.
23
2.
A system is adaptive, flexible, and will take the options and constraints of its
environment into consideration while trying to reach its aims.
3.
It assumes that the system has a built-in mechanism of quality control, that evaluates the
adequacy of all components in the system and provides feedback about the progress in the
direction of the aim.
4.
A system will try to minimize the input needed and the same time maximize the output.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
1.
2.
Explain the various steps you are going to undertake if you intent to determine if there is
a reasonable balance between the numbers of college graduate and the demand for
employment.
24
MODULE SIX
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
analyze the components and principles underlying small group as an open system
25
list and explain the major input, throughout, and output variables in a small group
system and provide examples of their interdependence
26
Another principle is multiple causation which states that whatever happens in a system
is not the result of a single, simple cause, but is produced by a complex interrelationships among
multiple forces. At this instance, we can invoke the argument that the act of one is the act of
all.
27
Just as input, throughout, and output variables are interdependent, so is a group highly
interdependent with its environment or the setting in which the group exists. Most groups are
part of a larger organizational structure and must interact with individuals and other groups
within that structure. The reason for this is that, most groups are not self-groups are not selfcontained entities but are highly dependent on their environments. Figure 1 shows the
interrelationships of the variables in a group as an open system.
The figures shows that there are many variables, included in each of the main system
categories. The inputs flows into the machinery of the system where they are processed and
changed during the throughput process. The exit channel at the bottom represents the systems
outputs. The tube on the right side represents the feedback channel that provides responses to the
systems outputs.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Give one concrete example (situational) for each of the following principles underlying a
small group as an open system.
a. interdependence
b. nonsummativity
c. multiple causation
2. Explain how you would reconcile different ideas expressed by each group member in
order to arrive at wise decisions.
3. Assuming that you are the chair of one of the groups formed during a workshop on
Values Education. Your output would be an action plan on the identification of core
values that the school aims to adopt and integrate into the curriculum. Make a
comprehensive explanation/ discussion how your group will be able to come up with an
action plan by utilizing the different categories of variables as show in Figure 1, page.
28
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bilhart, John and Gloria Galanes, Katherine Adams. Effective Group Discussion. New York:
McGraw-Hill 2001
Hanson, Mark E. Educational Behavior and Organizational Behavior. Mass: Allyn and
Bacon, 1991
Henry, Nicolar. Public Administration and Public Affairs. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall,
1995.
Lunenberg, Fred. Educational Administration: Theory and Practice. New York: McGrawHill, 1991.
Rosenbloom, David H. Public Administration. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998.
Zwaenepoel, Paul P. Systems Analysis in Education. Manila: UST Press. 1985.
29
30