THE UNITED NATIONS EDUCATION, SCIENTIFIC

AND CULTURAL ORGANISATION (UNESCO)

TOPIC A: PROTECTION OF CULTURAL SITES IN

CONFLICT ZONES
prepared by Antoine Lemonnier

TOPIC B: IMPROVING WATER SECURITY

IN RESPONSE TO LOCAL, REGIONAL AND GLOBAL
CHALLENGES
prepared by Evangjelia Sali

TABLE OF CONTENTS
THE UNITED NATIONS EDUCATION, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANISATION (UNESCO) ................ 3
TOPIC A: PROTECTION OF CULTURAL SITES IN CONFLICT ZONES ........................................................... 4
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 4
THE MANDATE OF UNESCO WITH REGARD TO THE PROTECTION OF CULTURAL SITES ........................ 5
LATEST THREATS: THE ISLAMIC STATES ACTIONS AGAINST CULTURAL SITES ....................................... 5
RELATED INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK .............................................................................. 6
CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF CULTURAL PROPERTY IN THE EVENT OF ARMED CONFLICT
............................................................................................................................................................. 7
INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON MONUMENTS AND SITES (ICOMOS) .................................................. 7
INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR THE STUDY OF THE PRESERVATION OF CULTURAL PROPERTY
(ICCROM) ............................................................................................................................................. 7
INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES (IUCN) ....... 8
INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE BLUE SHIELD (ICBS) ................................................................ 8
QUESTION A RESOLUTION SHOULD ANSWER ......................................................................................... 8
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RECOMMENDED READINGS ................................................................................... 9
TOPIC B: IMPROVING WATER SECURITY IN RESPONSE TO LOCAL, REGIONAL AND GLOBAL
CHALLENGES .......................................................................................................................................... 11
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 11
RELEVANCE OF THE ISSUE AND POSSIBLE CHALLENGES ....................................................................... 12
THE CURRENT SITUATION ..................................................................................................................... 13
THE POLITICS OF WATER CHALLENGES AND COOPERATION ............................................................. 15
QUESTIONS A RESOLUTION SHOULD ANSWER ..................................................................................... 17
BIBIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READINGS............................................................................................... 17

THE UNITED NATIONS EDUCATION, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL

ORGANISATION (UNESCO)
The United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) was founded
in 1945 and headquartered in Paris. Otherwise known as the intellectual agency of the UN,
UNESCO was created due to a firm belief of member states that political and economic
agreements were not enough to force a lasting peace between member states in a world which
had been ravaged by two world wars in a generation. In order to achieve a lasting peace
between member states, peace must be established on intellectuality and moral solidarity1.
As early as 1942, the governments of many European countries which were confronting Nazi
Germany and its allies, met in the United Kingdom for the Conference of Allied Ministers
of Education (CAME). Even though World War Two was far from over, this conference was
held in order to reconstruct educational systems after peace was restored. After the end
of World War Two, a United Nations Conference for the establishment of an educational
and cultural organization (ECO/CONF) was convened in London from 1 to 16 November 1945.
This conference gathered the representatives of 44 member states to create an organization that
would embody a genuine culture of peace. In their eyes, the new organization must establish
the intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind and, in so doing, prevent the outbreak
of another world war. At the end of the conference, 37 member states founded UNESCO
by signing the Constitution of UNESCO2.
UNESCO has strived to build networks amongst member states via improving education,
aiding intercultural understanding, pursuing scientific cooperation and protecting freedom
of expression. As such, UNESCOs holistic message has never been more important than today.
UNESCO creates policies which aim to address the social, environmental and economic
dimensions of sustainable development.

UNESCO (2016) Introducing UNESCO, Available at: http://en.unesco.org/aboutus/

introducing-unesco
2
UNESCO (2016) The Organizations History, Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/aboutus/who-we-are/history/,

TOPIC A: PROTECTION OF CULTURAL SITES IN CONFLICT ZONES

INTRODUCTION
The issue of the protection of cultural heritage in armed conflict is undeniably a crucial one
humanity is facing these days. Due to conflicts taking place in multiple regions in the world,
there have been questions relating to the effectiveness of the existing United Nations framework
in this regard. Whereas it has been true that these sites are often collaterally damaged and do
not themselves constitute targets, however latest examples including that of the Islamic State
partly destroying the Syrian heritage of Palmyra, do raise serious concerns . It is in this vein
that international actors should come together and highlight the importance of safeguarding the
cultural heritage of mankind.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was
established in 1946 to promote peace through collaboration in the fields of education, science
and culture. UNESCOs Constitution declares its purpose, which is3
to contribute to peace and security by promoting collaboration among nations through
education, science and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, for the rule
of law and for the human rights and fundamental freedoms which are affirmed for the
peoples of the world, without distinction of race, sex, language or religion, by the Charter
of the United Nations.
UNESCO, as the United Nations agency with a mandate for the protection of cultural property,
can play a pivotal part on the adoption of measures with a view to protecting cultural heritage
and develop a more comprehensive approach in the fight against its destruction.

UNESCO, Constitution, 1945, Article I, Paragraph 1

THE MANDATE OF UNESCO WITH REGARD TO THE PROTECTION

OF CULTURAL SITES
The mandate for UNESCO is formally defined in Article 1, paragraph 3 of the Charter of the
United Nations4, and Article 1 of the UNESCO Constitution5. UNESCO is charged with
promoting collaboration among Member States in the fields of education, science, and culture
in order to develop and maintain peace, rule of law, and mutual respect among the states.
Additionally, UNESCO is responsible for coordinating and supporting the development of
knowledge and culture for economic stability, political security, and general well-being of the
peoples of the world. In accordance with this mandate, UNESCO works directly with Member
States, United Nations organs, intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), and non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) to support peace through the collaborative exchange of knowledge,
culture, and sustainable development strategies. Finally, UNESCO plays a major role in
coordinating international conventions and setting standards on topics of education, culture,
and science.

LATEST THREATS: THE ISLAMIC STATES ACTIONS AGAINST CULTURAL

SITES
I condemn in the strongest possible manner the destruction of the archaeological site
of

Nimrud site in Iraq. This is yet another attack against the Iraqi people, reminding us

that

nothing is safe from the cultural cleansing underway in the country: it targets human

lives, minorities, and is marked by the systematic destruction of humanitys ancient

heritage.6
UNESCO Director General Irina Bokova

United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, 1945, Article I, Paragraph 3

UNESCO, Constitution, 1945, Article I, Paragraph 1

Williams, Sue. UNESCO Director General Condemns Destruction of Nimrud in Iraq. UNESCO. United
Nations, 6 Mar. 2015. Web. 4 June 2016.

Since 2014 deliberate destruction and theft of cultural heritage has been conducted by the
Islamic State in the Republic of Iraq and in the Syrian Arab Republic. ISIS justifies the
destruction of cultural heritage sites with its extreme following the Salafism. The Islamic State
has said that the historical objects and sites it destroyed were heresy to its ideology, which is
rooted in Wahhabism. Beyond the ideological aspects of the destruction, there are other, more
practical, reasons behind the Islamic States destruction of historic sites. Grabbing the worlds
attention is easily done through the destruction of such sites, particularly given the extensive
media coverage and international condemnation that comes afterwards.
For example, in Palmyra, the group blew up two historic tombs, one of a Shiite saint and another
of a Sufi scholar, because it considers them to be forms of idolatry. In March 2015, the Islamic
State released videos showing its militants shooting at and bulldozing Hatra and Nimrud,
ancient sites in northern Iraq. The dramatic footage gained significant media attention, allowing
the group to extend its message widely and potentially expand its recruiting. Eleanor Robson,
a professor of ancient Middle Eastern history at University College London, wrote, however,
that contrary to the common perception generated by the episodes, it was far from the total
destruction that has been reported7.

RELATED INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK

The World Heritage Committee of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization is responsible for the management of the world heritage sites of humanity, which
are composed of cultural and natural heritages. It awards places with the title of a world heritage
site after they have been nominated by the state in which they are located in and after the proof
of the significance of their uniqueness, authenticity and integrity to the international community
has been provided. The importance of the title is ratified in the World Heritage Convention of
1972.
As of 2014, UNESCO reports 1,007 monuments in over 161 countries on their list. 44 of those
are on the List of World Heritage in Danger8. Inclusion into this list means that preparation

Almukhtar, Sarah. The Strategy Behind the Islamic States Destruction of Ancient Sites. The New York
Times. The New York Times, 28 June 2015. Web. 04 June 2016.
8

UNESCO, List of World Heritage in Danger, December 2014.

of the specific measure to restore the values which had originally led to its inclusion on the
World Heritage List is required.

CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF CULTURAL PROPERTY IN THE EVENT

OF ARMED CONFLICT

Following the signature of the Roerich Pact by the American States in 1935, attempts were
undertaken to draft a more comprehensive convention for the protection of monuments and
works of art in time of war.
The General Conference of UNESCO in 1951 decided to convene a committee of government
experts to draft a convention. This committee met in 1952 and thereafter submitted its drafts to
the General Conference. The revised drafts were then transmitted to governments for advice.
The intergovernmental Conference which drew up and adopted the Convention and the further
Acts took place at The Hague from April 21st to May 14th, 1954. 56 States were represented.

INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON MONUMENTS AND SITES (ICOMOS)

The International Council on Monuments and Sites was founded in 1965 and is committed to
the protection and maintenance of monuments and the preservation of historical heritage. It is
a sub-organization of UNESCO and the only non-governmental organisation in this field of
expertise. About 95 states collaborate with ICOMOS and is the first of the three expert bodies
advising the World Heritage Committee.

INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR THE STUDY OF THE PRESERVATION

OF CULTURAL PROPERTY (ICCROM)

The International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property
was founded three years after its establishment was approved by the UNESCO. It has 110
Member States and several associate members. The ICCROM has cooperated closely with
UNESCO and worked on various projects supporting the aim of preservation and restoration of
cultural heritage sites of Member States. ICCROM is the second expert body advising the
World Heritage Committee.

INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE AND NATURAL

RESOURCES (IUCN)

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources was founded in
1948, it is best known for its IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and categorizes reserves
within the World Commission on Protected Areas. Its goal is the sensitisation of humanity for
the protection of nature and the promotion of the sustainable use of resources. IUCN is the third
expert body advising the World Heritage Committee.

INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF THE BLUE SHIELD (ICBS)

The International Committee of the Blue Shield was founded in 1954. It aims is the
improvement of protection of cultural property from the effects of war, armed conflicts and
disasters. Major tasks are the support of international cooperation as well as local and regional
activities in cultural heritage protection. The ICBS intervenes as an advisor and cooperates with
other bodies including UNESCO, the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and
Restoration of Cultural Property and the International Committee of the Red Cross.

QUESTION A RESOLUTION SHOULD ANSWER

-

Why do cultural sites happen to become targets in conflict zones?

Has the response to the issue been appropriate so far? The assessment of past actions
taken by the agency in the field of preserving cultural heritage.

Does the Committee for the Protection of Cultural Property need to be further
reinforced? If not, is there a more relevant Committee existing or to be created?

What can be done to better protect cultural sites that are located in an area of high risk
of breakout of a military conflict?

Is it possible to for other States to intervene on territory of another State to protect its
cultural heritage but without the latters consent?

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RECOMMENDED READINGS

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Comprehensive Partnership
Strategy (192 EX/5.INF), 2013.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2014-2021: Medium-Term

Strategy (37 C/4), Fall 2014. Web. 05 June 2016.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Strategic Action Plan for the
Implementation of the World Heritage Convention 2012 -2022 (WHC-11/18.GA/11),
1 August 2011

New Zealand, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, United Nations Handbook 2015-16,
January 2016. Print.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO at a glance

(ERI/2010/WS/2), 2010. Print.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Executive Board. 194th
session, Executive Decisions (194/ex decisions), 19 August 2014. Web. 05 June 2016.

United

Nations

Educational,

Scientific

and

Cultural

Organization,

Final

report

of the Resolutions adopted during the 19th session of the General Assembly of States Parties to
the World Heritage Convention (WHC-13/19. GA/12), 26 November 2013

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, General Conference,

37th Session, Records of the General Conference (Volume I), 2014. Print.
Nimrud: Outcry as IS Bulldozers Attack Ancient Iraq Site. BBC News. British Broadcasting
Corporation, 6 Mar. 2015. Web. 05 June 2016.

Rosenfield, Karissa. Harvard and Oxford Take On ISIS with Digital Preservation Campaign.
ArchDaily. N.p., 1 Sept. 2015. Web. 5 June 2016.
Threats to Cultural Heritage in Iraq and Syria. U.S. Department of State. Government of the
United

States

of

America,

23

Sept.

2014.

Web.

05

June

2016.

Nichols, Michelle. U.N. Security Council Ups Pressure on Islamic State Financing. Reuters
U.K. Reuters, 12 Feb. 2015. Web. 5 June 2016.

USEFUL WEBSITES

The official UNESCO website: http://en.unesco.org/

UNESCO, World Heritage List: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list

UNESCO, World Heritage Convention: http://whc.unesco.org/en/convention/

UNESCO, Armed Conflict and Heritage:

http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/armed-conflict-and-heritage/

International Committee of the Red Cross, Cultural Property: https://www.icrc.org/en/war-andlaw/conduct-hostilities/cultural-property:

International Council of Museums: International Committee of the Blue Shield:

http://icom.museum/programmes/museums-emergency-programme/international-committeeof-the-blue-shield/

International Committee of the Blue Shield: http://www.ancbs.org/cms/en/about-us/about-icbs

Global Policy Forum, Destruction of Cultural Heritage:
https://www.globalpolicy.org/humanitarian-issues-in-iraq/consequences-of-the-war-andoccupation-of-iraq/destruction-of-iraqs-cultural-heritage.html

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TOPIC B: IMPROVING WATER SECURITY IN RESPONSE TO LOCAL,

REGIONAL AND GLOBAL CHALLENGES
INTRODUCTION
"Fierce national competition over water resources has prompted fears that water issues
contain the seeds of violent conflict. If all the world's peoples work together, a secure and
sustainable water future can be ours."9

Kofi Annan - Former UN Secretary-General

Water is a vital resource without substitutes. It is indispensable for all beings, affecting
all aspects of human activities. Water is a crucial component in a multitude of sectors, ranging
from health and agriculture to industry, private use and electricity generation. However, it is a
resource in scarcity, as, while the demand for it increases with economic development and
population growth, fresh water availability is decreasing in many parts of the world, thus raising
distribution questions.
It is deemed that the distribution of water will play a central role in determining how
this changing supply and demand dynamic may impact on security and wellbeing. The
centrality and significance of water distribution is more accentuated in the Middle East, North
Africa, and Central and South Asia, mainly by virtue of its nature in many Middle East states;
where the availability of fresh water is not sufficient to meet the skyrocketing needs, as they
are exacerbated by an ever-growing population and constantly-expanding urbanisation. The
accelerated decrease of water sources readily available, due to exponential use of water for
irrigation, increasing pollution and the effects of climate change has to be added to the above.

International Decade for Action: 'WATER FOR LIFE' 2005-2015,

http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/transboundary_waters.shtml

11

Therefore, water scarcity, increasing demand and limited supply shape the map of water
resources in the Middle East and in Central and Southeast Asia. Of the existing water resources
available for use, a great amount is shared waters or transboundary waters. The latter implies
that when water surpasses state boundaries, states are vulnerable to the decisions of other states.
In light of the above, water management inevitably becomes a politicised issue.
By water security we refer to the capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable
access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human wellbeing, and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution
and water-related disasters, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political
stability. (UN-Water, 2013)10

RELEVANCE OF THE ISSUE AND POSSIBLE CHALLENGES

Water security constitutes a major challenge for several states around the globe. The
reasons accounting for this lie in the vitality of water for life, well-being, and all economic
activities.
The importance of securing water supply may also lead to inciting fierce competition among
states, especially in cases where waters are shared, as well as exacerbate existing conflicts.
Indeed, over the past centuries, a multitude of violent conflicts have resulted from resource and
water scarcity.
Scholars such as Homer-Dixon have argued that scarcity is likely to cause political
violence, should a series of other elements, such as existing tensions and political instability,
be in place11. In addition, Collier and Hoeffler underlying factors such as corruption, poverty,
ethnic tensions, and religious differences may also increase the probabilities of a violent conflict
occurring. Although control over scarce resources is essential to states for their existence and
development, and thus likely to lead to conflictual situations, the literature suggests that
abundance can produce analogous effects12.

10 Water Security, UN WATER, http://www.unwater.org/topics/water-security/en/

11 HOMER-DIXON, T., Environment, Scarcity and Violence, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1999, pp.
72-9
12 DALBY, S. Environmental Insecurities: Geopolitics, Resources and Conflict, Economic and Political
Weekly, Vol 38, No. 48, 2003, pp. 5073-76

12

The most prominent example associating resource scarcity with conflict is water13.
Indeed, it is widely believed that wars in the future will be about water. The literature suggests
that probabilities of conflict over water are likely to increase when water resources become
transboundary, i.e. surpass national borders. This is due to the fact that transboundary water
resources render a country vulnerable and dependent to the decisions taken by another riparian.
Nonetheless, empirical research has shown that water conflicts are rather rare and
unlikely to occur14. They are not impossible, however. Evidence proves that in the past 50 years,
37 disputes over water resulted in violence. Of the 37 violent conflicts, 30 took place between
Israel and its co-riparian states with which it shares water resources. This implies that tensions
over scarce resources may well trigger or be triggered by old disputes and differences among
riparians which could in turn fuel or be fuelled by water scarcity, inability to meet demand on
water and pressing population
density. Overall, we claim that water scarcity is rarely a cause for conflict per se, but rather a
maximiser of existing latent tensions.
In the light of the aforementioned it becomes evident that addressing water-related
issues with a view to ensuring water security is paramount for sustaining livelihoods, wellbeing, and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution
and water-related disasters, and for preserving ecosystems, political stability, and ultimately
even peace.

THE CURRENT SITUATION

Water for most Western nations has always been taken for granted, that there would
always be plenty of fresh water. But that is rapidly changing. Due to pollution, corruption,
inefficiency and the never ending greed of the global elite, the entire world is heading for a very
serious water shortage. Already, there are some areas of the world where water is the number
one local political issue. This is primarily the case in north Africa, the Middle East and Central
Asia. In fact, water is becoming so scarce in certain areas that some states are actually battling

13 Ibid, pp. 5073-79

14 LONERGAN, S.,C., Water and Conflict: Rhetoric and Reality in P.F. DIEHL and N.P. GLEDITSCH,
Environmental Conflict, Boulder and Oxford: Westview Press, 2011 pp.109-124

13

in court over water disputes. Most telling are the recurrent disputes taking place between
Pakistan and India over shared waters and transboundary rivers. Similarly, between China and
its neighbours there exist contests that at times turn to tensions. Unfortunately, there is every
indication that the worldwide water crisis is about to deteriorate in the coming years.
According to a report released by the Natural Resources Defence Council of the USA,
more than one-third of all counties in the lower 48 states will likely be facing very serious water
shortages by 2050. That is just 40 years away. Moreover, as water becomes more scarce and as
big global corporations lock up available supplies, the price of water is almost certainly going
to skyrocket. This will put even more economic pressure on average citizens. According to
data drown from the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the per capita renewable water
resources in many countries lag far behind the world average. For instance, in 2009, the
respective estimations were 2.079 m3 /year for China and 6 225 m3 /year the world average15,
i.e. the water resources corresponding to each Chinese equal merely one-third of the world
average. The predictions are that the per capita amounts will undergo further decline as the
population increases.
The diminution of water resources 204 and the deterioration of water quality, have had
a destabilising effect over time, thus resulting in fierce competition and disputes which, at times,
ended in violence. Up to the present, the world has engaged in violent conflicts or in conflicts
in the context of violence quite a lot of times since 3000 BC. In particular, China has been
among the nations-countries that took part in the conflicts over water. Of the ten times it was
involved, nine out of them developed into violent conflicts or conflicts in the context of
violence16. Conflict may arise from several issues, among which are water allocation, excessive
water withdrawals, coordination issues of the riparians interests, water pollution, monitoring,
and conservation. According to Allan and Mirumachi, there are four kinds of conflict that might
develop: non-politicised, politicised, securitised and violised corresponding to low, moderate,
high and very high levels of water scarcity17.

15 China, Aquastat-FAO, http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/chn/index.stm

16 GLEICK, P.H., Water Conflict Chronology, Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment,
and security, 2008
17 ALLAN, J.A., and MIRUMACHI N., Why Negotiate? Asymmetric Endowments, Asymmetric Power and
the Invisible Nexus of Water, Trade and Power that Brings Apparent Water Security in Anton Earle, Anders
Jagerskog, Joakim O jendal, Transboundary Water Management: Principles and Practice, London, Earthscan,
2010

14

Regarding the institutional framework, the UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational
Uses of International Watercourses18 constitutes only legal framework regulating sharing of
transboundary watercourses. Nonetheless, the Convention has not been signed by all countries.
China, Turkey, and France voted against it in 1997. not having signed or being a member of
any international organisations addressing water management issues, be they of transboundary
rivers or lakes, implies that a given state cannot be held accountable for non-fair water practices
or for infringement of the equitable and reasonable principle provided in the treaty.

THE POLITICS OF WATER CHALLENGES AND COOPERATION

The availability and accessibility of water sources is faced with a series of challenges
that can be detected at the local, regional or even at the global level. Such challenges are: the
excessive use of water for irrigation and other economic activities, as well as the misuse thereof;
the mismanagement and unequal sharing of water between states; as well as water shortage
caused by natural phenomena, the reduction of rainfall levels, and climate change. Aside from
challenges that exist or surpass a single state's capacity to tackle them, water sharing is first and
foremost subject to the will of the states involved and political decisions that may well lead to
either conflict or cooperation.
Although conflicts over water may occur, the same goes for cooperation. Indeed,
research supports that bilateral cooperation is more frequently encountered than conflict. In
effect, 150 treaties have been signed in the last 50 years, according to the UN, compared to 37
acute disputes19. It is preferred to conflict due to the benefits it may offer to the riparians, for it
does not endanger the water resource itself. Cooperation provides the potential to jointly
determine the future of the resources while ensuring its continuation. Furthermore, it is the only

18 Note: The UN Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourse is an
international treaty on water. It was adopted in 1997 by the UN General Assembly (UNGA). It entered into
force on 17 August 2014, i.e. 17 years after its adoption. It imposes an obligation on its signatories to
consider the impact of their actions and water policies. The treaty encourages cooperation among states
pointing out the need for equitable use and that water needs of the states must be taken into consideration
(equitable-reasonable principle). http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/clnuiw/clnuiw.html
19 Op. cit., http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/transboundary_waters.shtml

15

feasible way to tackle water problems that surpass national borders, i.e. water pollution, flood
control, fisheries, etc.
Any sort of cooperation must, first and foremost, begin with answering the following
question: what needs to be resolved and who is expected to do so. That is to say that, prior to
the formation of a regime and the commencement of negotiations between the states involved,
it is imperative that a cooperative regime is set up. Regime formation is a determinant step for
going ahead with a cooperative agreement on the matter in question.
Cooperation, however, is not easy to achieve. This is because inherent differences
among the riparian states, upstream (comparative advantage) or downstream, sharing
transboundary watercourses may affect both the preference for cooperation and the outcome.
They consist in the following: access to and control of the water resources, geography,
population density, national income per capita, economic power, military might, geographic
size and development levels. Another difference, although mainly external, is the military and
economic relations with other countries, e.g. partnerships and alliances. The extent to which a
riparian possesses or not the aforementioned characteristics may increase or decrease a
riparians leverage, influence the bargaining power thereof, as well as impact its ability to utter
credible threats and affect the course of action of another riparian. Altogether, these differences
define power relations among riparians, i.e. power parity or power asymmetry. Nonetheless,
the existence of power asymmetries does not mean that a state will opt for conflict. It may well
adopt a cooperative stance.
As mentioned earlier, cooperation over transboundary resources is difficult to achieve.
In addition, there is a series of interfering factors that may influence the decisions of a state to
proceed with the signing of a cooperative agreement. The most significant impediment towards
signing an agreement and enhancing cooperation lies in the complexity of the water issues and
the circumstances. Nevertheless, it is necessary that all riparians perceive an agreement as a
first step towards solving water disputes and as being mutually beneficial. Furthermore,
cooperation must be deemed by all parties involved as the best alternative for tackling the
problem, compared to either conflict or inertia.

16

QUESTIONS A RESOLUTION SHOULD ANSWER

- What is the status of water security locally, regionally and globally, respectively?
- What are the main local, regional, and global challenges affecting the security of water?
- How to address water security issues provoked by local, regional, and global challenges?
- What measures are required at the local and international levels?
- What can UNESCO do to include all stakeholders in the decision-making process?
- What solutions can be envisaged at the short- and longer terms?

BIBIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READINGS

UNESCO, Science diplomacy and transboundary water management. The Orontes River
case,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002330/233031M.pdf
UNESCO, Water: People and Cooperation,
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002350/235002e.pdf
UN WATER, Water and Jobs, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002439/243938e.pdf
UNICEF, Yemen Situation Report 23-30 April 2015,
http://www.unicef.org/mena/UNICEF_Yemen_Crisis_SitRep_23-30_April_2015.pdf
MARTIN, R., Water: Facts and trends, World Business Council for Sustainable
Development,
2005,http://www.unwater.org/downloads/Water_facts_and_trends.pdfhttp://www.unwater.org/
downloads/Water_facts_and_trends.pdf
D. SMITH,, and J. VIVEKANANDA, A climate of Conflict. The Links between climate
change, peace and war, International Alert, 2007

17

Global Environment and Natural Resources Institute (GENRI), http://genri.gmu.edu/

Global Institute for Water, Environment & Health (GIWEH), www.giweh.ch
Global Water Intelligence (GWI), http://www.globalwaterintel.com/
International Water Management Institute (IWMI), http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/
International Rivers, http://www.internationalrivers.org

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