Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
1750-1890:
This period was reconsidered by arch historians
Stated that during hte 1nd half of 18thc to the early 19thc,
through Neoclassicism experience and ecelcticism and
revivalism of historical form, architects were not able to provide
the style of modernism= no arch vcab that described that time
period thats why it wasnt recognized till the 1970s
1750-1800= attempts to propose innovative theories without
distinction of forms
Enlightenment= affected all eds= new social group
(bourgeoisie) inuenced all elds+gained importance= new
requirements and new buildings and new style needs
Neoclcissism= archs, historians etc. started to revisit Greece,
Rome etc. attempt to break w/ Rennaissance and Barroque and
create new values representing new social group--> criticized
bec LACK OF INVENTIVE SPIRIT --> classical forms used to
represent new values etc.
Have:
- shaping of new theories
- new forms (siple, abstract forms to try nding new style)
- new materials
19thc period of copying but of innovation, new functions and
typologies= representative because of separation of
nationa&state, national arch, and use historical forms for new
tpologies
Bourgeoisie isolated 3 important points (1750-1850):
1. New relationship that took shape in 2nd half of 18thc w/ new
approach to historical experiences
2. inuence that new scientic research had in shaping of
methodologies in arch+writing of theories etc.
3. new importance the public acquired in social+political realm
attempt to create a public city w/ public heritage
arch became new laboratory--> emergence of a new social
power, social class
relationship between arch+history (Montesquieu- explained in
other elds the importance of history+Voltaire) in this period
we had the most important archaeological works
+scientic enquiries became ref. for shaping+inuence of arch
18thc of Newtons discoveries+ideas inuenced aobjectivity of
archaeological sites_order
role of bourgeoisie affect functions but also shaping of city
city considered FOR public_bourgeoisie (moves away from
embellishment of the royal family)
rst scholars= art hsitorians
Lecture 2 (12/03/13)
Neoclassicism: France, Britain & Italy
Period considered: 1750-1850/80
Ange-Jacques
Gabriel, Petit
Trianon, Versailles
(1761-64)
1 gallican church= catholic church in France frm time of declaration fo Clergy of France 1682
- Keddleston Hall:
- North facade= Greek Temple
- South facade= Roman arch+dome
- changed proportions of classical orders
Syon House, Middlesex, 1760-69
- suburban, villa in countryside
- created a rotunda plan
- combination of vaults+arches+columns, references to
Roman Pantheon
Adam also redesigned multiple urban s tructures ex. Adelphi
Terraces, london 1768--> can see how idea to use orders
+classicity in diff way started to acquire greate importance-->
use of order to solve new needs
W. Chambers <Treatise on Civil Architecture> (1759)
- Worked w/ lord burlington
- there are exible rules to use classical orders
- for new typologies etc. orders could be combined+used
based on the needs of the buildings
William Kent, Chiswick house, London 1725
- for Lord Burlington, another ex of classicism in GB housing.
Lecture 3 (13/03/13)
The city and the Public (XVIII Century City)
social change inuenced also city transformation/Urban Plan
Enlightenment period inuenced also perception of the city
+emphasised the role of the citizen-->activity of bourgeoisie
need specic types of places=aim: create stages for public life
theaters, libraries etc. used to be part of royal or ecclesiastic
buildings.
model used= Greek society: Agora`+forum
public sphere= more and more important
in GB instead we see change occurs in domestic spaces
neoclassical became instrumental to characterize new society=
instrumental to show reaction to style+social class
changes citizens life but also citizens taste
Paris mid 18thc
debate about design of Royal square dedicated to Louis XV
Royal square= instrument of ruban design, based on
representing royals/monarchs + used to rennovate
neighborhood+celebrate the king
all they cared for was facade looking into the square, the rest
was irrelevant ie. coudl be left blank and boring.
new approach= as intellecturals, architects etc. to propose a
solution--> MORE DEMOCRATIC = show emergence of new
social class
1747-48
PIerre Patte- tried
new operation
tryin gto put on
one map all
interesting
projects, made
map of utopic
solution for royal
modern squares,
Lecture 4 (19/03/13)
The City and the Public
Public Architecture: New Theater
Charles de Wailly, Comedie Francaise (Theatre Odeon), Paris,
1776
- classical orders+codes started to be used in exible way to
show specic/new functions (Louis XV requested
construction of 20theaters
- theaters=symbolic/instrumental in social and moral
revolution=occasion to redesign+reshape urban texture
- main entrance+colonnade= lter for public+during
revolution was used as open air theater
desengagement--> construction of iconic public monuments to
redesign + recreate old fabric of the city
Landscape designers
architecture objects
shouldnt be included in
landscape
Lecture 6- 26/03/2013
Eclecticism
ecclecticism- We call eccecticism architecture AFTER 1814
bec=date of Vienna Congress (beginning of restoration period
after Napoleon empire). Arch historians dont agree on end of
period bec term=so vast+includes so many ways of doing arch
that it is difficult to dene an end for the movement.
Some ends dened:
1814-1890: From restoration period to Art Nouveau
1814-1914: From Restoration Period to WWI
1814-1940: From Restoration Period to WWII
Eclecticism denition:
19th century dened as negative/horrible arch+none of the
charcters dened as eclectic would accept to be called such
Therefore there are 2 meanings to eclecticism:
1. category in history of architecture
Gothic Revivalism
Gothic=new entrance/element in panorama of architectural
language. Gothic=antagonist of Classical:
- classical=proportion, beauty vs. Gothic=ugly,
unproportioned
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Lecutre 7 9/4/13
Mid 18th century=need in EU (F+GB context) to represent new
social group adopting+revising historical forms+historical
references. 3 different approaches to use+adopt historical forms:
1. historicism- reuse historical forms ex. classical principles +
classical codes w/out caring about original aims. Diff exs
where architects tried to represent new typologies (theaters,
libraries etc.) combining classical codes+orders w/out caring
about original symbolic meaning+aims+concept of
character=to use in appropriate way the classical references
on basis of function of the building
2. revivalism- architects began to recognize one particular
style (gothic) due to symbolic value+used it to represent
new typologies by reviving one specic style.
3. pluralism- not reuse one unique histoircal reference but
combine diff historical+geographical references to represent
new building types. Aim=develop specic appropriate idiom
to represent new typologies. Must wait till 2nd half of 19thc
(industrial revolution) to see how architects nally have
instruments to create new forms. Late 18th century (buollee
nad ledoux) create radical unbuilt visionary projects using
primary forms to represent new typologies for new needs.
Through industrial revolution architects nally have
instruments to create new architectural forms. (only drawn
and hypothesized by Boullee and Ledoux)
All this search to dene a new architectural idiom+vocab for
building type nally arrived to important break w/ industrial
revolution:
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Joseph Paxton:
Crystal Palace, London Hyde Park (11850-51)
- lead to the rst exhibition pavilion= experiment on
greenhouse typologies+greenhouse constructions. conceived
as exhibition pavilion. Previous greenhouse now used to
represent GB achievement in industrial building @ London
International Exhibtion 1851. Exhibition=show local
industrial design+ production. In this case pavilion=more
important thn exhibited inside.
- Interesting=roles of designer+builder of pavilion. Paxton=
hortoculturalist. project selected by royal family because
responded 2 important requirements= short time+low cost.
Intended to bring building type from one are of expertise to
another.
- Prefabricated buidling=perfect to represent advancement in
industry.Paxton was expected to develop project in 8 days+
build in 9 months.
- On site during the process of construction dened new
rules of construction of pavilions. Used beams as railways
for carts that had to place glass on the roof=functional
elements during construction+structural elements.
- Perception of space =continuous space. Return to material
honesty+express structural principles= structural truth. no
visual interruption.
- Contrast bet buiding+exhibition inside.
- Overall project conceived as simple element was deeply
criticized bec=considered engineering element arch. Here
we begin to see how new aesthetic (not udnetsood at the
time) was being developed=structural elements became
gradually decorative/aesthetic elements.
Paxton anticipated conception of building as a machine.
Another new typology= train station= symbol of new gates of
city. Post-steam engine=need to cover passengers along the
tracks.
2 important cases:
1. Kings Cross (london)
2.St. Pancras
(London) W.H.
Barlow, Roland
MasonOrdish, built
1864-1868.
-aim=little mass,
small support=archs
can achieve new
Lecture 8- 10/04/2013
the Chicago School and the invention of a new building type
the skyscraper - result of industrial revolution in US
late 2nd half 19th century and post war *1950s*
between 1870 and end of century we have denition of a
skyscraper type. 1920= 2nd generation of skyscraper design.
Post-war period through affirmation of international style,
1950s we see how structural elements of skyscrapers wll acquire
their own aesthetic and become elements of the facade.
1st generation: 2nd half of 19thc in US
Why chicago?
Geographic panorama: in this period chicago=connection bet
east+west+was place where immigration passed to arrive to
west+had economic importance because=core of system of
communication=impressive growth of american economy.
Core of railroad system=Problematic place bec diff social
+ethnical groups that arrived. Chicago =symbol/icon/core of
american expansion+conquest of the west.
Also had construction of canals connecting the lakes=way fo
transportation also for materials. So constructionof canals bet
illinois river+michigan lake (1847) constitutes precondition for
economic development of chicago.
Chicago economy based on industry=stockyards we could nd
on the shore of the lake deeply affected panorama of the black
city. Production of meat= big part of chicago industry.
Chicago protrayed and described by visitors, intellectuals and
writers as black city bec industrial city. Center=built through
intensive housing=bad life condition=industrial families, low
income, immigrants etc. this is why the reconstruction of the
center took place exactly in Chicago and at that time
Growth of chicago: frm village of 350 inhabitants (1833).
1836=4000 inhabitants. incredible growth in little time
Chicago=imigrants=maintained identity, habits and culture=
problems of regulating relationship bet diff groups+also took
place rst american Labor Unions bec factory life characterized
this society so deeply= rst improtant strikes organized by
workers.
No building codes+regulations in north american cities, must
wait till 1st decade of 20thc regulating height of buildings=
uncontrolled growth of cities.=perfect millieu for strikes,
revolution, etc.
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Examples of hiding
structure:
Henry Hobson
Richardson,
Marshall FIeld Store,
Chicago 1885-1887
(demolished in
1930)
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perimeter
- again skeleton steel frame+separation w/ diff proportions
bet 3 parts of the uildings
important point= skyscrapers show very well that architects
payed no attention to the urban role. attention on facade+
structure. but no attention of effect of buildings in street section
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Lecture 9- 24/04/13
ARTS AND CRAFTS
Eclecticism
the attitude that took shapes towards historical forms
Moving on the discourse of the early modernist movement next week. The approach that took place in 19th century
created a reaction against this.
Eclecticism - during 19th century, the approach towards
history started to change (at one point the greek and roman
history were the only models, but during the second half of
the 19th century, new models were taken: exotic references,
egyptian, chinese architecture.)
The reaction against France was not from the citizens against
Napoleone, but against the Ecole des Beaux Arts (that
dominated the European architecture till mid 19th century) - France, romanticism was created
- the concept of national genius (romantic literature)
influenced the role of german architects during the 19th
century). Discourse: why in German culture and climate we
have to adopt greek and roman models? Why german culture
needs to imitate classicity? The climate did not represent the
right context for greek and roman models. There is a need to
define a national architecture, one that answers the needs of
Germany (critique to national style).
Germany looked for symbols to define their national culture
- fragmented context
The construction of the Cathedral of Cologne - gothic
construction, architecture.
Gothic castles, cathedrals were built in German climate and
responding to the climate, context.
After German unity, 1810, this process started to influence the
architectural debate. Architects acquired the role of rebuilding
this society through the definition of a local specific
architecture.
Identitarian reasons.
Churches represented very well the idea of local roots,
materials and architectural style - patriotic reasons at the basis
of this movement.
- reconstruction of german society - method
In the construction of mediaeval cathedrals - the entire society
participated in the construction process
Character -the use of a specific classical element in the
appropriate way for a specific building type. They found one
style (gothic) - for the construction of the new society. They
refused the concept of character (because it was repressntative
for the French academy).
F.k.Schinkel, war of liberation monument, berlin 1815
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Bavaria and Prusia the approach is totally different
- the intent was the same - but the stylistic and cultural
program is totally different
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Architecture in Bavaria, Leo Von Klenze- a German Pantheon
- mUnich as capital of Bavarian State - based on national
monuments representing the german culture, heroes etc construction of a number of national monuments in the
territory - iconic places in Bavaria
- public intellectual buildings
- reshape Bavarian architectural discourse (national
monuments in the territory - an itinerary that celebrates the
local tradition and local culture, to create national monuments,
through the use of Greek classicism to represent the national
society
- romantic setting
- combination of wired elements ( doric greek temple
parthenon - symbol, ziggurat mixed)
- commemoration of local culture (celebrate pan-german
heroes - celebrating the local methodology)
The Sculpture Gallery - Leo von Klenze, Glyptothek, Munich
(1816- 43)
- intellectuel public centers (museums) - Munich
- greek elements (reference to Afalia temple in Greece)
- greek element representing the main entrance (fragments of
historical elements combined)
Schauspielhaus
(1818-1821) built on
the site of the
burned National
Theatre
- symbol to
represent the
perfect society that
needed to be
reshaped in Germany (specific idiom, style for different
building types)
- center of Berlin (a new Berlin) - to be redesigned through a
public program development through a number of cultural
public buildings - effort to define a modernized vocabulary stimulate the renewal of the language (through architecture)
-modernization of classical language (classical trabeated
system combined - column at entrances, but the idea of
trabeated grid). This search for modernization started with
rhythm, proportion of trabeated system - hybridization of
classical order - original ionic portico has a new role due to
the presence of the stairs - like a journey to get there.
Process of abstraction of the system - importance of methods
of construction (brick method of construction) - tentative to
define a specific aesthetic for the brick and masonry
construction
- brick must have its own architectural expression
F. Schinkel,
Bauakademie, Berlin
1832-35 (school of
architecture, public
works)
- total break with the
classical language - he
went beyond classicism,
beyond gothic,
adopting the segmented
arches that Hubisch defined in Bavaria one decade ago
HE arrived to give an expression and an aesthetic
- the structure generates the style
- the brick arrived to influence the definition of aesthetic and
style
- the frame defined the aesthetic of the facade (break with the
previous projects)
- reference to british warehouse - reference to represent the
modernization of the local culture (reference to industrial era)
- the colors of the facade - maintaining the expression of the
brick: terra-cotta and bricks are the only elements used
- refusing any kind of historical forms
- show through the building the history of its construction the building with didactic aim
At the end of his career, Schinkel tried to codify and fix the
principles he defined during his life.
(catalogue of elements, references to be used)
ex: the experiences of Durand - taxonomy of architectural
forms to be used and re-composed
- ex: piers to be combined to define a space
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Bauakademie, berlin
1832-35
-Went beyond
classicism, gothic etc.
using arches dened
by Hubsch. Finally
gave arch+expression
to brick.
-brick method=
inuence denition of principles+ aesthetic +style.
-External parttitions correspond to internal division of
buildings. Frame denes aesthetic of facade, totally breaking
w/ principles used in design of theater+museums.
-references to british warehouses bec admiredd british
inustrial society+looked to warehouses as rep of
modernization of culture.
-grid on facade. 8 bays that also inuence internal part of
building. colors of facade=give specic expression of building.
-terracotta+brick. rst dened grid system then added shape
of terracotta windows+nally refused previous arch.
Schinkel, atles
(old) museum
(1824-30)
-Created same
taxonomy he
wanted to
represent in hsi
sketches. combined
diff elements
coming from historical experiences (stoa for main entrances,
domed rotunda for sculpture exhibit room, galleries etc.) in
kind of dictionary/catalogue of historical forms aimed to
represent acheivement of german culture.
-cultural center for public=reason for use of stoa, reps
concept of greek society+conclusion of a public space.
-Already consisted of palace+garden therefore constituted
interesting tentative of environment design. one of rst
approaches to compose space that is formed by garden, royal
baroque palace+museum.
-through stoa colonnade we see the three elements combined
w/out historical coherence. colonnade= lter but also central
domed rotunda= obv reference+celebration of pantheon+
exterior stair hall= deeply criticized element of combo of
historical forms. BUT aim respect classical preinciples and
proportions but to create a journey inside buildings for
visitors, to teach them about historical forms.
-Dictionary he wrote=possibility to educated citizen+has
didactic aim.
-concept of isolating the exterior+closing+createng continuity
bet in and out is emphasized thorugh stair hall. intention of
visual perspective towards palace etc. through frame of
colonnade+create reciprocal view as continuous element=rst
efforts of environment design.
-visitors can see succession of arch forms, had perfect view of
public squares outside.
- wanted to create specic space for each exhibitionand
wanted a specic route/passage for ppl to go through. =greek
envelope/skin around a plan that used greek elements but
Owen Jones
began to study geometries patterns+symbols form other
societiesconsidering local cultures but graphic aspects+
patterns to create abstract system of decorative elemtns+
liberate GB arch from historicism. One osluiotn=toally refuse
forms denouncing crisis of the time showing how these patterns
from diff societies could rep good reference+inspiration to
enrich catalogues+patterns to be used in british spaces.
on basis of htese studies, in 1856 the same Jones arrived to
codiy patterns+abstract system creating the grammar of
ornament where he wanted to codify universal principles of
good design. How? looking at design of other parts of the world
as grac elemnt+patterns to be adopted+used.
created catalogue of references to rennovate british design.
Experiences=extremely improtant for shaping of Art Nouveau
where organic forms, natural elements etc. are used to reject +
refuse any kind of historicism+look at other elements+graphics.
why did owen jones try to do these operations? bec idea=
reeducate GB society introducing new patterns grac systems
also in production of everyday life objects for entire society.
Every family (even low income) will be allowed to have teacups,
furniture, wallpaper following this new graphic design=tentative
to create a catalogue to renew british design. but also
theoretical improtance=reform art+arch= role that John
Ruskinand WIlliam Morris had in the 2nd half of the 19thc in
the debate and critique against industrialization etc.etc.
John Ruskin 1819-1900
critique of work conditino and prnciples=attack on capitalism
+industrialization used by the arts&crafts movement to dene
the encounter bet ne arts+artisans/handcraft.
two different interpretations of arts+crafts movements show
very well why arts+crafts is considered as beginning of modern
movement: refused any kind of historicism BUT is also aprt of
a gneral reform of applied arts that constitutes starting point of
gothic experiences.
arch should eb organized on model of gothic workshop=
everyone participates in creatino of arch+design obejcts.
William Morris 1834-1896
pupil, student and collaborator of JOhn Ruskin
started to adopt/assume all these theoretical critiques to
industrialization+capitalism to reform the arch culture+art
work. highlighted that in everyday life, workers didnt reect
local scoiety but=negatino of personal aspects= proposed:
1. arch allow the transformation+redesign of all everyday life
use objects to counter banal impersonal appraoch of ppl
during hte industrial period
2. every element of design needs to be consdered as important.
3. wanted to renovate gure of architecture
Interest for medieval period=also social intent=reform method
+discipline in the eld of arhcitectural design. cooperation bet
artists needs to be the base to reshape society.
tried to develop principles for his idea but understood by the
end that in arch it was not possible to control the entire proces
+aslo began accepting machine in cretion of elmeents of
everyday life (which he had refused throughout the his life).
political and social engagements. We will see that there are only
few rare examples of public buildings that adopt the art
nouveau vocabulary
form of art= private realm, without social and political
engagements
sparks contrast between: ***
Pevsner- rst form of art nouveau can be seen in 1883 in cover
of book by mackmurdo - in this book if we look at graphic art
and design we nd for the rst time the use of ccurvilinear
lines in abstract way that could represent for art nouveau
architects an important inspiration.
AN started in eld of variety of other disciplines (outside
architecture) and then arrived to architecture.
movement that takes place in the city that was aimed at
representing the new bourgeousie and show its differences if
compared to the aristocracy and wanted to represent their
identity amongst the diff social groups. THis is extremely
improtant because it is not only graphic but is aimed at
providign specic values for the social class etc.
in histories up to the 90s, AN is always considered an
INternational movement. BUT infact AN is deeply inuenced
by regional and national context. the tendency though is the
same and is what circulated and was then adapted/adopted by
the regional and national context.
AN internationally. All following styles have same
preconditions but tot. diff interpretation of AN ideas:
- Modern Style in Scotland
- Jugendstjl in Germany
- Florla or Liberty iin Italy
- Sezession in Austria
- Catalan Modernism in Barcelona
th clients always= members of new bourgeoisie who wanted to
beprogressive and use innovative vocab to differentiate from
aristocracy and Academy which reps old generation of
architects.
Based on natural/organic forms and natural realm. Thanks to
new technologies (iron steel and glass) totally refused all
principles and theories form french academy ex. Symmetry,
proportions, rectilinear forms to representyound spirit, nation
and generation (in the case of belgium)
What is interesting in our discourse are also the places of its
elaboraiton and development. How did they discuss and
observe these expressions. International exhibition and fairs
were improtant places for spreading, circulationa nd
implementation of this new style.
International Exhibitions: Paris (1900), Turin (1902)
Shops, Stores, galleries: Salon de LArt Nouveau in Paris, Tiffany
in NY, Liberty in London= collectors where collectors met and
had exchange= place for circulaiton and exchange of new ideals.
Specialized press= art journals
the Glasgow
School of Art
Uk after Arts and
Crafts the number
of architects
started to strees
the decandence of
this arts and crafts
ideas. therfore
started proposing
going to analyze:
domesticity, innovation in use of materials and new aesthetic
that the industry started to acquire in the rst decade of the
19thc
rst point to address: possibilities that the use of a new material
such as reinforced concrete gave to architects and engineers to
dene shapes and create a enw arch vocab. We will focus on
france which constitutes the base/core for the possibilities of
reinforced concrete. But we will see that this debate on the use
of this material circulated.
AN circulated as a way of living to represent new group
(bourgeoisie). what is important is that this reaction against
academicism and classicity brought briey to a strong critic to
the same AN principle because considered expression of
individual taste and not a form that could eb typied and
reproduced through industrial production.
the debate= appropriate form to give to the industrial city/
metropolis. This is important because now the point wasnt to
imitate and reproduce certain forms but to create certain fors
for new materials and forms. so structure became fundamental
for the expression. this is why these experiences are called
protorationalism because in all cases there is a functional
reason that provoked the development of these forms. in the
end of the 19tch in France architects began to experiment with
the denition of a new engineering system thanks to the
inuence of the 19thc engineer culture (bridge, expo pavilions)
so the technique produced and achieved by the engineers in the
denition of new structure in iron and steel inuenced the
experimentation of the ocmbo between concrete and iron to
dene a systemt hat started to deeply inuence the expressive
transformation of materials and new forms.
Viollet-le-duc advocated and stressed the improtance of the
true nature of materials, improtance to show the real nature of
the materials and not to hide them with false decorations and
ornaments. through his theories he dene a way to use and
dene these materials but hte shift is produced when in france
engineer began to combine metal grids/elements with concrete.
one of rst experiments= Joseph Monier (monier system).
Simple rst experiments to include metal elements/grid in the
design of small objects (pots for plants etc). through this
monier began to udnerstand the potentials of concrete
Saint-Jean de Montmartre
-made with skeleton
imitating medieval vault
that was only covered by
panels= search to nd
expression/modern form
for structural elements
and skeleton. What form
can understand how in diff places you can see the opposition
betwen AN ideas and the new functionalist ideas that ocme
from industrial design and use of new materials. Perret used
these grids etc. as new ideals. behrens refused Jungendstile. later
Adolf loos refusing secessionist ideas.
process of simplication and dematerialization of factory is
more evident than the turbine AEG factory designed by young
walter gropius. the idea was to dematerialize and simplify
temple and calssical proportions that Behrens still defended by
abstrating the principles. in facade you can see how we have the
dematerialization of the massive corners and a uniform cglass
facade for main entrances and for lateral facades (Fagus Shoe-
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Lectures mIssed
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Lecture 14 (21/05/13)
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(Gropius+Meyer
competition entry, left;
Saarinen 2nd place
entry, art deco)
- overall there is no american style but there is still mirror of
the personal taste of the architects and the taste of the
committers that ask architects to show improtance of
building through height and through references to history
this process is deeply inuenced bythe economic process o the
US and in 1929 we have the nancial crash and the depression.
so the buidings up till 1929 represent the cathedrals of
capitalism that were the skyscrapers in the big american capital
cities int hsi period
this debate on skyscrapers is also inuenced by a wider
discrouse that circulated in theis period about the vertical city,
all these also promoted tentatives to create new urban projects
based on urban developmetn tin american cities.
up till that moment sky scrapers didnt have an urban role and
there was no care for the wider scale and the city. during this
period lms like Metropolis provided architects and planners to
consider planning in a larger scale. making them consider utpic
images of the vertical city that were strongly inuenced by EU
experiences.
this connection and mutual inuence between EU and uS is not
so clear ebcause amny of these images started to circulate the
theoretical discourse and many architects in EU started to
travel to US where they found big industrial cities which
becagan to inuence the EU archits ideas themselves.
the EU archs were mainly inuenced by the ENGINEERS
woorks.
one of the inuencing books involve also Enrich Mendelsohnss
1926: amerika. Bilderbuch eines architekten (america: bookof
images by an architect) where he provided a series of pictures to
show his impression of the american city.
this exchange between EU and US deeply inuenced the
deifnition of both vocabs.
some of the industrial landscapes sucha s Albert Khans
structures (conceived as the result of engineer work) became
the references and inspiration for EU architects.
this process in fact and architectural discourse totally changed
after 1929 twith eh Great Depression and the inauguration of
the new Deal policy (1933). The architectural discourse on
modern arch took a tots diff direction. this moment deeply
inuenced also the kind of forms that owuld hve to inuence
the skypscrapers. in this period we also see the imediate
simplication in decorations and the use of local materials.
Raymond Hood&associates,
rockefeller center,
began to be considered a
vertical city within the city, a
project at an urban scale based
on highrise. bec of great
depression, oly part of wider
project was actually built. inf
act all skyscrapers built in that
decade reectv. well the new
restrictions frm the New Deal
and the politcies archs had to
repsect during depression.
tso we arrive to international
style skyscrapers. After WWII we will have proliferation fo thes
kinds of forms and pricniples in concstruction of entire North
american cities. THis is the unique modern international style
skyscrapers built before the woar, and tit isfor this reason
considered a prototype/foundig of the later
internaitonal style:
William Lescaze, George Howe,
Philadelphia saveing fund society building,
philadelphia, 1926-1932
this is a kind of manifesto because
represents the combo fo the diff theories
debated:
-separation of the spaceson the facade
- open plan
- the basement (rst arir conditioned skyscrapers in US) is
also dedicated to public transport, commerical activity etc.
but is also a reference to mdnelsons experiences. separation
of vertical distribution and the back block in respect to the
core. core (stairs and elevator) is moved to the back corner
- the different distribution of horizontal and vertical spaces is
seena s the introduction of modern vocab in US.
Lescaze was amogst architects that after WWI moved to US and
began to introduce the EU experiences.
also built the modern town house in NY 1930s . obvious
difference in appearance and materials used.
analyzed till now are deeply based in the avant guarde of EU.
however new deels programs etc. are also the emergence of
certain principles.1933 Roosevelt started to promote wider,
alrger-scale projects and itnerventions to build new
infrastructure in the us and promoted most improtnat public
housing projects developed in history of us. These constituted
oportunity for young EU architects that couldnt work ont hese
wider scale works. private commisisons disappeared during
great depression.
this is the case for a number of housing projects by lescaze for
NY. ex. Howe&Lescaze, Cristhie-Forsyth Housing Develompent
Project Modern Architecture. International Exhibition, MOMA
project for lower-east part of manhattan, where he proposed to
replace old overcrowded slums based on orthogonal grid
tradition with superblocks that were the application of tLe
Corubsiers housing projects.
broke with local morphology and typology.
these projects were not implemented but constituted occasion
tocirculate EU experiences and advocate economicity of these
blocks.
L shaped blocks that allow inlcusion and intro of greenery,
open spaces, creation of open spaces/super blocks within
overcrowded traditional cities
we see here the inuence of le corbusiers plans and the
barcelona plans as well as other projects and EU experiences.
in river gardesns the layouts were inspired by traditional forms,
he played with diff heights etc.
after all these utopic and revolutionary projects and utopic
provocations he nally buil a housing project withint he federal
programs fshowing how in the mid-30s ain the beginning
deant started to accept these ideas. The following housing
projects in the us would consequently take form these
modernist ideals, introduction i the federal programs and these
models will be the most used typologies in housing till the 50s
till we have critical histories regarding these radical
interventions.
what happend w/ project of williamsburg area. Initially
overcrowded. lescaze proposed diagonal layout.
because not presenting urban viison but proposing via 1932Disappearing city and 1934-35 broadacre city, a plan that
represnets theimportnce of the automobile and infrastructure in
design of american cities. we have rep of entire territory as
combo of countryside and city. showing anti-urban model
focused on distribution of activities housing ain entire territory.
in broadacre city- urban sprawl was the central element of the
project.
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what hapenned at the end of the decade/20s and how at a
certain point a fundamental shifttook place in the work of may
protagonists.
The ideologies that developed in the rst part of the decade
developed and inuenced and shifted at the end of the decade
and we see the rst emergence fo thew eakness of the models
developed during the machine aage and th e modern movement
an important day for many arch historians which marks the
beginning of this shift is 1927
late 10s ad early 20s we see architects begin to cooperate to
develop a shared international vocab. The mdoel and reference
for these models afte WWI was the labor committees, working
together etc. so not only reform discipline but society of post
war. this moel of internationalization that looks at these
workers internationalist experiences and the cooperation of diff
gures and elimintation fo distance between social groups starts
to becomethe most common method between architects.
there are 2 important moments which mark the nal
acceptance fo the legitimization of vocab the rst i the League
of Nations meeting in Geneva where Le Corbusier proposed a
proejct w/ Pierre Jeannerret, comniinign many avant garde
experiences and references also to hsi own purist experineces.
We see how in this project that entered in the competition
wasnt chosen because problems in tech elements. YET very
publicized because evident change of scale frm house to public/
alrge scale. And we see also beginnning of monumental
elemets.
we see in this moment le corbusier begins to rethink about his
purist ideals which he advocated in the 20s. int he 30s in fact he
begins to personalize and humanize his vocab and shows new
attention to local tradition, vocab etc. This league of nations
proposals were seen at rst as radical, revolutionary and
generated frm a specici context, became n the 20s a recurrent
model w/out the original concer for social and economic aims
that at the beginning originated htese models. At the end of the
20s (1927) naly at the end of the decade the vocab became
official vocab and officially acknowledged and showed variety of
diff declination of the debate and can be seen aslso in the
Weissenhofsiedlung buit in Stuttgart for the Deutscher
Werkbund Exhibition. Mies Van Der Rohe was asked to design
the entire masterpla, the exhibition was payed, promoted and
organized by the local municipality BUT van der rohe asked
diff architects frm EU to propose their own concept of house.
therefore became a City exhibition and we nd all the
experiences we
analyzed during this
period, declinated in
diff way sfrm villa,
collective blocks,
common house etc.
that originated frm
same idea of mechanization and mahcine but thanks ot he
prefabrication, tipicaiton, standardization it became a formal
development and we nd a catalogue of forms/solutions for
private houses thatwere shown in 1 unique example (each
architect proposed own interpretation.)
number of diff examples. 33 houses, 17 architects:
- House 1-4 Ludwig Mies van Der Rohe
- House 5-9 Peter Oud- de Stile
- HOuse 10 Victor Bourgeois- declinated topic of individual
houses bease on purist le corbusier systems
- HOuse 13 and 14-15- Le corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret, one
based on Citroen modela nd one on 5 points of le corbusier
which he develped in the 20s.
all these experineces were put together to show the official
results and concretization of the experiences.
Vand der rohe was very criticized for this exhibition because
vocab was offciially acknowledged in the architectural culture
but were seen as exotic and refused because not based on local
identitarian values but on an international style. therefore
criticized by conservative approach. experiences have been seen
as antigerman.
end of the decade, we nally have in all the countries the ocial
acknowledgeent of the vocab and to circulate and x the
guielines of these experiences ex. De Stijl journal but als
Donmus and casabella. Le Corbusier publishes the Esprit
Nouveau etc. so through journals there isthe circulation fo the
ideas but also through Exhibitions. ex. exhibitions of modern
architecture both in EU and US the year marks a specic
beginning of this period that is 1927. (league of nations, monza
biennale, etc) THere is a rapid moment of circulationa nd
dissemination of these ideas.
we also have model villages neighborhoods urbna sectors
showing and faturing these experineces.
to understandhow at the endof the decade these experineces
that took shape during hte 20s wtarted to be codied and
studied by historians, architects, and critics, we can look at the
number of narratives of the modern movement thtt started to
be publicshed. the rst historica accounts of the modernity take
shape in 1932 with the catalogue of theexhibition of modern art
which was also the occasion for the publication of the book title
INTERNATINAL STYLE
shaping of modernity in US, in 1932 rst tentative to intro EU
mdoern experineces in US was the exhibition. also HItchcock
and JOhnson also did signicant operation bec put together
projects without mentioning social, economic and political
contextst where the projects originated.
also other rst tentatives to write and synthetize the modern
movement experineces and to pinpoit the origins fo the
modmovements were written at the time. Another example is
- british also didnt have the Avant gardein the reld of art in
the 1920s. we see that in EU all the 20s experiences develop
frm art, in Britian this wasnt hte case
- y did these ideologies migrate so late in britain? BECAUSE
of geography of architects migration. All the architects
active in germany and in the EU countries in the beginning
of the 30s, more or less after the conclusion of the Bauhaus
experience and advent fof the Nazi party, are expected to
leave to the US. And they all pass thorugh Britain and create
real community of immigrants in London. ONe of the
fundamental gures= Berthold Lubetkin:
- worked with auguste perret, stayed in paris and
had contact with le corbusier and at a certain
point arrived in london and founded the group:
Tecton.
- The rst tentatives were developed in the london
zoo for the gorilla cage and the penguin pool.
- also in 1933 founded MARS (Modern architecture
....). What is interesting at that moment is that in
this oval swimming pool, using reinforced
concrete, he created to curved, interlaced ramps
for the penguins, looking for the diff images ocing
frm constructivism and collaborated with Ove
Arup, creating this structure. (became icon of
beginning of modernity in UK)
- inuence of constructivist experineces is seen
better in the eld of housing. After the
construction of the penguin pool, workd on the
construction of the rst modern collective
houseign project developed inbritain. THese are
all designed by Emigre architects that arrived in
britain. in the tradiitonal longdon context of time
these buildings provided a radical shift. High
Point I, London 33-35:
Arts&Crafts Movement in GB
context:
1851 international exhibition- emerged crisis of GB design, still
based on copy+imitation of historical forms= starting point for
- Jugendstjl in Germany
- Florla or Liberty in Italy
- Sezession in Austria
- Catalan Modernism in Barcelona
clients always= new bourgeoisie who wanted progress+use
innovative vocab to differentiate from aristocracy+Academy
Based on natural/organic forms+natural realm. Thnx to new
techs (iron steel+glass)refused principles+theories of F academy
Int exhibition+fairs= important places for spreading, circulation
+implementation of new style. Paris (1900), Turin (1902).Shops,
Stores, galleries=where collectors met+exchange= place for
circulation+exchange new ideals. Specialized press=art journals
Brussels and belgian context
Origins: Flemish Nationalism+Art 1830-1839
publications+journals=platfrm for exchange+new arch type circ
Victor Horta, Hotel Tassel,
Brussels, 1892
-looked at these houses as tot
work of art
-aim= reshape everyday life of
new bourgeoisie. in domestic
life=important precondition for
rationalist+ functionalist
experiences.
-c o n t e x t = c e n t e r o f
Brussels=Urban experiences.
-Tried proposing new layout.
Looked at typical belgian houses= narrow+long site crossing
frm street to internal court+thx to glass+thin structure
wanted even visual continuity bet entrance+court.
- facade= timid tentative to add new vocab+idiom.
- interior+core= stair hall=horta experimented possibilities.
thin structural elements allowed (in other projects) use+
addition of colored glass. looking at refs of Horta can
udnerstand how certain models+theoretical experiences were
used to express aesthetic experiences
(VLD, Owen Jones)
Victor horta, Maison/Atelier Horta,
Brussels, 1892-1893
-more courageous operation to rep in
facade the interiors+potentialities of cast
iron+raught iron also in facade.
Horta=attempt to apply studies of AN in
all details of hosues.
Victor Horta, Maison du Peuple, Brussels,
1896-1899
- can see trying to shape space for public
- steel metal cage=meeting of workers, also became deco lmnt.
- later destroyed but had panels+thin support= tentative to go
beyond rst experiences to develop space for masses.
- used iron cage structure+decorative elements esp bec was in
corner therefore curvilinear form.
Henry Van de Velde, furniture for own house, Brussels, 1895
- tried to dene aesthetic principles+forms for everyday life
objects. Conceived ornament looking @ organic forms.
Started to look at certain mechanical objects (Airplanes,
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Lecture 13
(15/5/13) BAUHAUS + CIAM
Tentative to shape new vocab to rep: society post-WWI+new
generation of archs formed at beginning of century that wanted
to react at basis of protorationalism.
G, post war=political+economic=tentative by young archs+
artists to participate to reconstruction of nation+new society.
Artist technocrats=important gures circulating post 1919 who
wanted promote shaping of new national culture. How? via
paper projects=writing/manifestos=emerging tool to circulate
+collect ideas bec econ+housing crisis=no physical prjct possibi
G tried exchange w/ EU contexts to reshape nation+society.
Hope to build new society=new arch idiom. Political rev
intention=break lessons from academists=create unique,
international idiom, beyond local culture, traditions+ideals
Taut, G arch, via paper projects+manifestos circulated beg 20s
started to promote+show via images+utopic models=basis of
new utopic societeis+ideas. Avant garde=starting point in new
generation of archs+artsits that wanted to ght against prewar
situation. rejection+refusal of tradition/academic tradition
+tentative to propose rev/shift through diff methods:
1. internationalists
2. abstraction
3. simplication of any kind of existing references+forms
avant-garde come frm military vocab started to be used to
dene forces that were circulating+started to take shape in EU
ex. art=cubist experinece deeply inuenced architectural avant
garde (De Stijl). pointshape object as is ma wt u know of
object via simultaneous combo of diff pov same object.
up to post-WWII avant garde still considered dominant culture.
30s-40s AG=rev movement but isolated+want break w/ arch
+art culture. 40s-50s accepted as dominant+official culture
+language. 60s= end of this period
all protagonists of bauhaus produced a lot of paper projects,
unbuilt, manifestos. ma have to wait post-war period in US to
nd built work
russian rev (1917)=starting point for the implementation+
circulaiton fo these experineces, WWII=other limit of these
experiences=events taht codify+acknowledge AG principles
how these ideals ciruclated? associations, jorunals, exhibitions,
conferences=exchange platform for young archs diff manifestos:
CIAM, International Style at MOMA, all try shape international
- won competition
- evident gothic roots
- culture deeply rooted in US formation of arch
- abstraction of certain historical forms+eclectic use of
neogothic ref+mesoamerican decos...
- process progressive simplication through develop of
buildings reaching peak w/ mcGraw-Hill building 1928-30
- overall no US style but mirror of personal taste of archs+
committers=ask to show importance via height+history refs
Process=inuenced by econ of US. 1929=nancial crash.
Buidings until 1929 rep cathedrals of capitalism=skyscrapers in
big american capital cities
debate on skyscrapers inuences discrouse abt vertical city,+
promoted tentatives to create new urban projects.
up till that moment sky scrapersurban role: there was no care
for wider scale+city. Films like Metropolis provided archs+
planners to consider planning in large scale. making them
consider utpic imgs of vertical city inuenced by EU experience
connection+mutual inuence bet EU+uSclear
Inuencing book=Enrich Mendelsohnss 1926: amerika.
Bilderbuch eines architekten (america: bookof images by an
architect)=provided pics to show impression of US city.
industrial landscapes: Albert Khans structures became refs
+inspiration for EU architects.
process tot post-1929 (Great Depression+inauguration of new
Deal policy, 1933). Discourse on modern arch=diff direction.
produced imediate deco simplication+use of local materials.
Raymond Hood&associates, rockefeller center
- began to be considered vertical city w/in city=project
@urban scale based on highrise.
- great depression=all project building. All skyscrapers built
in that decade reect new restrictions frm New Deal
+politcies archs had to repsect
Arrive @ international style skyscrapers. post-WWII=
proliferation of thes forms+pricniples in concstruction of entire
North US cities=unique modern international style skyscrapers
built b4 war+considered prototype of later internaitonal style:
William Lescaze, George Howe, Philadelphia saveing fund
society building, philadelphia, 1926-1932
kind of manifesto bec reps combo fo diff theories debated:
- separation of spaces on facade
- open plan
- basement (rst air conditioned skyscrapers) also dedicated
to public transport, commercial activity... but also ref
mdnelson experiences. separation vertical distribution+back
block w.r.t core=stairs+elevator=moved to back corner
- diff distribution of horizontal+vertical spaces=intro of
modern vocab in US.
Lescaze was amogst archs that moved to US+began to intro EU
experiences. also built modern town house in NY 1930s .
Architectural modern vocab inuenced by emigrants
other than Lescaz also:
Rudlolph Schindler (1887-1953)- worked in FLW office
Chase House, Hollywood, california, 1921-22
- house for himself
- combo:local material+concrete=intro idiom of EU expernce:
- at roof
- wide glass sufaces
- managed to combine these to local landscape
- Search for local modernity develop via use of reinforced
concrete+combo w/ local materials+elements typical of west
coast houses=patios+relationship bet in+out spaces.
Lovell Beach HOuse, Newport beach, california, 1923-26
- combines schindlers principles
- For cultivated local doctor, house in fornt of beach trying to
intro/adopt all principles +systems frm EU experience
- conception of horizontal box supported by pilotis
(structural piers in this case) intro ribon windows,
- functionalism=rep in facade functions+ distribution in
interior+structure designed to be repd in exterior.
- intent=maintian continuous perspective that allows to
consider the experiences of the LC.
Richard Neutra (particularly in post WWII).
key role in shaping international style ideas. worked for FLW
w/ Schindler+build house for same client but diff location:
Lovell Health House, Los Angeles , 1927-29
- use same visual lmnts, structural lmnts+principles managed
to develop same conditions (beach+hill).
- irst house w/ steel structure in US.
also neutra=desire to move frm scale of building+provide
solution for utopic city. ex. Rush City REformed, 1925.
The International Style 1932- Term of international style
coined+invented in NY, MOMA (introd, circulated +codied),
which had power+ability to inuence US society decided to
make exhibition dedicated to EU 20s experiences. Social
+political aims of EU experiencesintroduced. Henry Russell
Hitchcock, and Philip Johnson deicded to organize travel in EU
+selected diff projects that would be shown in exhibition to
circulate+propose models, references... that would become new
vocab 4 US archs. Operation to only show forms is based on
specic aproach of MOMa=visual aproach=proposed pure arch/
catalogue of forms that could be used in universal way
(international). separated social housing+arch.
Housingconsidered arch bec of social aim+ in arch they didnt
put social housing= dene vocab:
- no deco
- volume can replace mass
- supported idea of regularity instead of symmetry
Via 3 principles introd modern vocab to be used as catalogue
repd how projects had been originated in EU.
20s+early 30s US avant guarde movements in art. All
experiences are based in avant guarde of EU.
deals/programs etc. =also emergence of certain principles:
1933-Roosevelt start promote wider, larger-scale projects+
interventions for new infrastructure+promoted improtnat
public housing projects=oportunity for young EU archs bec
GD= stop private commission.
=the case for a number of housing projects by lescaze for NY
Howe&Lescaze, Crystie-Forsyth Housing Develompent Project
Modern Architecture. International Exhibition, MOMA
- project for lower-east manhattan. proposed replace old
overcrowded slums w/ superblocks=apply LC housing prjcts.
- horizonatlity
- overlapping of elementary plans (de stijl)
- Elements started to be combined beyond functions of
buildings to show assimilation of 20s experiences.
- Elements used for factories+hosueing, now being used for
shops, interiors etc.
- from urban plan to interior
E. mendelsohn, Schocken Department Store, Chermnitz, 1928-29
- process fo abstractionn of certain ideals. Medelsohn traveled
w/ author of metropolis, studied for long time us factories
+was deeply impressed by built landscape of us cities+
published book introducing these experineces in EU.
- 1 unique curved surface which=adaptation fo linera surfaces
- emphasis on horizontality
- connections to rst sketches of silos, emphasizing dynamism
manifesto fo Purism- Le Cobusier Ville Savoye 1928-1929
- expresses movement end/conclsion of vocab tht developed.
- Moves from mechanized approach+inuence to human
approach inuenced by local values+natural elements.
Mies Van Der ROher German Pavilion in Barcelona (1928-29)
- manifesto of van der rohe activity, EU part of his work
- reps achievement of theoretical experiences (glass
skyscrapers+brick villa), all theoretical experineces arrive to
nal synthesis in project for pavilion.
- great oportunity to celebrate improtance of G. After
involvement w/ expressionism+De Stijl, arrives to show
combo of all these elements. Innovative, temporary structure
to show social program of WEimar republic.
- Concevived simple elementary structure based on two slabs
- diff partitionsconceived as partitions but plans in
travertine/onyx/glass, aimed@inuencing movement of
visitors in pavilion.
- Broke linearity w/ 2 swimming pools. 1 representing more
private space, 1 more public.
- inuences =FLW emphasizing sequence of spaces. Walls
internatl partitions but just inuence movment of ppl. small
pool emphasize improtance of replace+replace image
- grac work of elementarists in De Stijl work
- arrived at developing concept of totalwork of art
- plan=no intention of developing specic space but series of
open spaces. only 8 pillars for support/structure, linearity
- inuence of domino
- also theory of centripetal (frm palladio, start frm core) vs.
centrifugal (FLW). ex. Brick Villa w/ continuous lines used
to divide spaces+distribute them=centrifugal approach.
- cruciform column for structure bec gives idea that can go in
any direction. Compared use in his project bet I beam
+Cruciform. I beam gives direction, Cruciform doesnt.
- intro cncept of glass box, becmes central 4 his postwar work
became fundamental ref for international style experiences.
+=one of most publish projects. why project so important?
- emigrated to US (because of political reasons) bet 1934 and
39 left EU.
- achieved local role in unis
- 1939-1959 asked to design Illinois institute of tech.
classical refs.
- asplund since beginning of debate bet nationalist romantics
+nordic classicists tot refused+rejected attention for
vernacular arch, methods of construction etc.
- rst experiments=attempts to break local tradition
- layout of library=combo of 2 fundamental refs frm nordic
classicist experiences=square layout+dome. Dome revisited
+shows inuence of rotunda. other references: visionarist
experiences of 19thc- Boulee+ledoux elementary forms
- reading room= core of building+rep break w/ traditional
proportion=ref to Boullee library+maison metropole
- layout shows combo bet cilider= reading room w/ skin of
books to highlight function+simplication of classical lmnts
(rectangular windows etc.)+square.
- interesting=encounter bet visionary experiences+refs+
produce break in classicist lesson still circulate in sweden
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CORBUSIER
post-war period=weakness+rigid schematism of functionalism
strarted to be criticized. beginning 30s same authors of projects
started showing improtance of landscape+topography.
20s- radiant city, manifesto of mechanization+functional city=
most important LC projects starting to look at non EU ex in
other contextsts.
1929 for latin american cities, travelled w/aviator, SaintExupery
+while ying on latin american landscape, LC began to see
interest in landscape+began to sketch views+perspective
proposing radical innovations.
Lecture 17 - 5/6/2013
Latin American Context
end 20s to the rst half of the 40s.
big extension of land=diff geog, climatic, cultures, states,
political+econ situations. BUT is observed+described as totality.
during 30s especially US began to observe w/ great interest
countries of Latin America+began to consider it as whole=
region where some countries=more noticeable than others
observation frm US began after 1929 crisis=also contiousness of
latin america as part of continent but w/ diff position in scale of
possibilities+econ power w.r.t northern part of ocntinent.
beginnign 60s, rst years after cuban revolution, latin america
occupied special position in international image
History of arch latin america treated as big box w/diff countries,
v important archs+few perspectives to look at arch frm diff pov.
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ex new approach= UN
headquarters, NY Manhattan,
Harrison &Abramowits based on
idea of LC:
-based on monumentality tried to
create system of buidlings, unied
thnx to platform to create shared,
common space for social activities.
-platform become shared concept in
post-war US in 40s.
LC activity=improtnat shift,
attention paid to new materials,
intro+celebration fo concrete. Steel+iron=war so post-war=
importance to show aesthetic of concrete. Beton brut- bear
concrete- one of most important experinece of brutalism.
Tentative by LC to give an aesthetic to concrete+critique to
functionalist ideals:
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garden roof.
- ground oor dedicated to pilotis, vertical blocks+all these
elements applied 1920s+rep modernization of domestic
space. +standardization of facilities.
Collective housing= debate also in EU in 1920s.
Melnikov, Melnikov house Studio, Moscow,
1927-1929
-one of icons of 20th century arch.
-developed own approach+in own
house, can see importance of primary
forms,+refs to local vernacular houses.
-rev solutions, original layout, elegant
national arrangement +eng techs.
-layout shows importance of discourse
of elementary forms.
- used 2 circles intersect. Intersection=stairs which separate
house into private areas+studio place.
Also program about develop of new cities out of existing areas
Up to 1950s, Melnikov criticized+onsidered outsider. Many
people came to USSR to debate abt construction of new towns,
new urban sectors.
1930s, 2 approaches: urbanist (enlargement of cities)
+disurbanist (enlargement of cities out of Moscow) =shift; Eu
models ex. Garden city, started to be considered.
Milutin, Project for linear city
- ref=Madrid Ciudad Lineal by Soria Mata.
- proposed plan for entire city based on linear organization.
Idea=create diff industrial towns that=occasion to
participation of many archs in construction of new towns.
MoscowEl Dorado.
1933= Boris Iofan, Project for Palace of Soviet Union (Soviets).
- expected take place in centre of city.
- 1932=program of reorganization of art eld, unions started
to b decentralized.
- shift from 1920s-1930s=supporting historicism,
traditionalism. taking shape thnx to institutional programs.