Edgar S Alvarado

Jul 27 2016
ANTH 1020
Teresa L Potter: Professor

The appearance of bipedalism and large brain size in the hominid line
After a study using two tailless macaques at the Department of Anthropology at the University of
Colorado, a strong probability was brought up, saying that these animals have close characters
related to the bipedal protohominids (Hewes, 1961). Protohominids evolved from the hominidae
that probably emerged from stem hominoidea during the Miocene (22.5-5.0 mya) or Pliocene
(5.0-2.0 mya) period (Tuttle, 1981).
The study was trying to determine what kind of corporal conditions made bipedal locomotion
possible in hominids. Studies have been done on several great apes; the common chimpanzee,
gorillas, bonobo (pan pansicus), orangutans and other lesser apes as well. All based on mere
speculations about the evolution of bipedalism, with primarily skeletal (fossil) information and
having not enough clear diagnostic from cranial remains available at the time.
A study done by the Department of Anthropology and Evolutionary Biology, University of
Chicago, concluded that bipedalism preceded the emergence of the hominidae. Hominids were
diurnal terrestrial bipeds that stood with full extended knee joints. Abundant fossils from Eastern
Africa, the Hadar Formation, Ethiopia, the Laetolil Formation, Tanzania, show that partial time
terrestrial, unequivocal evidence of bipedal hominids, had evolved from tree ancestors during the

Pliocene era, 4 mya. The study did not find enough evidence to conclude that by 3 mya hominids
were engaging in tool maneuvering.
Hypothetically they weighed between 20-30 lbs, and were stockier than the modern apes. Their
terrestrial bipedalism was well developed and constantly practiced. They did not have a pelvic
tilt mechanism of a human sort. The deep gluteal muscles were positioned to act as extensors
instead of abductors of the hip joints during bipedal locomotion. The best evidence of hominids
bipedalism, is the footprints (on average smaller than homo sapiens) of three individuals that
walked along probable muddy shore, right before a volcanic ash rein that cover and preserved
them; event has been dated 3.6 mya (Leakey & Hay, 1979). Another conclusion was that the
fossil of Hadar Formation was bipedal, proven by the development of the anterior iliac and
ischial spines, femoral intertrochanteric lines and other features that are hallmarks of human
bipedalism. The study found no features that suggest knuckle-walking, which establishes that
the Hadar hominids were fundamentally terrestrial bipeds.
The evolution of bipedalism preceded other human-like attributes; natural selection could have
acted rapidly among emergent hominids. Recent studies on fossil Australopithecinae, shows the
expansion of the braincase and reduction of the snout to human-like proportions (Hewes 1961).
Our ancestors walked first, later they managed to utilize tools, develop a large brain and
consequently the use of language. Some believe that bipedalism was the most important factor in
hominid evolution. But what cause bipedalism in hominids? Was it a mere accident, or a survival
tactic? (Mann 1972).
Darwin presented erect posture as a defensive tactic or intimidation, an advantage when coupled
with the use of a weapon against enemies, an attack to show superiority, or simply to obtain food.

An animal could no deliver a very effective blow while on all fours, jabbing with sticks or using
stones would be most effective while standing. Arms and hands were needed for far more than
locomotion; food and tool carrying ware a necessity at the time as it is in current times. The
development of bipedalism is most likely related to the increasing importance of culture (Gruber
1962).
Anatomical changes followed, and natural selection facilitated better bipedal locomotion for the
use of weapons, shifting the weight of apes from knuckles and buttock bones onto their feet.
Looks like hominid bipedalism did not come as a result of a few mutations, or by generic drift in
an isolated area. We could conclude that the origin of hominid bipedalism came from the need of
transporting goods from place to place after gathering. One more possibility is constant changes
of habitat, creating the prime biological evolution. More intelligent than today common apes, our
ancestors left the tree tops, to became bipedal. That also increased the visual range by elevating
their heads above usual heights, making daily relocation more secure and effective for the spatial
orientation.
Upright posture also brought better anatomical changes. Skull perched on top of the spine
ceased to be useful for the aggressive use of the jaws, diminishing mandibles and small canines
reduced the habit of leading with the head. Near-vertical posture gave better visual activity,
reducing the need of longer snout like most other mammals. Giving humans most complex and
advanced cerebral which is sharply distinguishable.
These and other changes came along. It is then important to mention dietary changes that would
bring physiological changes in bipedal hominids; natural selection will then work with different
pressures. Consumption of meats, including marrow, fat, and other internal organs will provide a

rich source of proteins and salts, increasing energy above that provided by sole consumption of
vegetable foods (Mann 1972). With the implementation of a new trend, bone or stone tools were
needed, either for carrying, cutting, processing, protecting or obtaining of goods. As a result of
discoveries in Africa (Olduvai Hominid 7-Homo Habilis) dated about 2.5-2.7 mya, had a large
brain and more advanced human-like teeth and feet, was considered to be the principal tool
maker. The shifting to tool dependency did not happened immediately; when it was
implemented in daily life, natural selection favored groups possessing biological structures
adapted to the new trend. Physical evolution; such as bipedalism, smaller teeth, brain changes,
etc., were advantageous once behaviors became successful. Therefore it is credited to homohabilis and not australopithecines, the making of tools during the plio-pleistocene roughly 2 mya,
on the assumption that the first stone toolmakers had relatively large brains; relatively short
straight fingers with broad fingertips and long thumbs with fleshy tips, useful for precision
grasp. First metacarpals are well represented in this fossil record (Susman 1994).
Neither of the papers read, has an approach on the possibility of bipedalism as a mode of
relocation, or food gathering in a rain-forest area (flooded) as is shown in the Amazon during
raining season every year. East Africa could have been a rain-forest area mya, constantly flooded
like we see in the Amazon every year, being a deserted area now, shows that possibility. Survival
would have had the need of moving from flooded area to a higher ground at times, bipedalism
was necessary for survival and food gathering. In rain-forest areas, with the tall wet grass,
animals need to protect their bodies by walking on two legs, avoiding the cooling of upper parts
of the body. Such actions will also strengthen lower limbs, as it is the common case of swimming
pool physical exercise recommended by doctors in special cases in today world. Lets think
about it and address that possibility in future discussions.

References cited
Tuttle R. H. 1981, Evolution of Hominid Bipedalism and Prehensile Capabilities. The Royal
Society publishing, Vol. 292, No. 1057, The Emergence of Man (May 8, 1981), pp. 89-94.
London. Accessed 19-07-2016.
Gruber, Abraham. 1962, Comments and Queries on the Origin of Hominid Bipedalism,
American Anthropological Association, Vol. 64, No. 3, Part 1 (Jun., 1962), pp. 605-606.
Wiley http://www.jstor.org/stable/667931 Accessed 19-07-2016.
Susman, Randall L. 1994, Fossil Evidence for Early Hominid Tool Use. Science, American
Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. 265, No. 5178 (Sep. 9, 1994), pp. 15701573. USA. Accessed 15-07-2016.
Mann, Alan. 1972, Hominid and Cultural Origins, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great
Britain and Ireland, Man, New Series, Vol. 7, No. 3 (Sep., 1972), pp. 379-386. Great
Britain. Accessed 15-07-2016.
Hewes, Gordon W. 1961, Food Transport and the Origin of Hominid Bipedalism, American
Anthropological Association, American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 63, No. 4 (Aug,
1961), pp. 687-710. USA. Accessed 19-07-2016.
Here is my e-portfolio link http://ahoraescuandovoy.weebly.com