The COST of Battery Maintenance

The COST of Battery Maintenance
Can you afford to be without it?
Why Batteries are Needed ?

Electric generating stations and substations for protection and
control of switches/breakers and relays
Telephone companies to support phone service
Back up of critical power dependant equipment (life support
systems, business information systems, data centres)
Industrial applications for protection and control
Industrial process control
How much money is lost when battery back up systems fail?
Failure is not an Option

www.artec-ingenieria.com
Battery Types
Primary Cells These
are non-rechargeable
batteries. These include
the standard Alkaline
battery and Lithium
batteries.
Secondary Cells
These are the rechargeable batteries.
These include lead acid
batteries, NiCD as well
as Lithium Ion.
Secondary Batteries
Cyclic Batteries These are
batteries that are used on a
regular basis. The most
common of these is automotive batteries or portable
battery operated devices.
Standby Batteries These
are batteries that remain
charged but are not used
unless needed.
Sub-stations (Relays)
Telecom (Communication)
Data Centers (UPS)
Basic Types
Lead-acid
Flooded
Sealed
Nickel-cadmium
Flooded
Sealed
Other chemistries
Li Ion
NiMH
Common Failure Modes
Positive Grid Corrosion

Normal failure mode in
flooded lead-acid and VRLA
batteries
Lead alloy turns to lead
oxide.
Plates grow
Designed into batteries
Acceleration due to:
Overcharging
Excessive cycling
Excessive temperature
Increase in internal
impedance
Sediment (Shedding)
Sloughing off of active material from plates into white lead
sulfate.
Small amount is normal
Can cause plate shorts
Due to overcharging and excessive cycling.
sulfation slough off - undercharging
Seen in flooded batteries, most common in UPS systems.
Plate Sulfation
Active plate material turns to lead sulfate.
Lead Sulfate = Inactive material
Occurs in both Flooded and VRLA batteries
Natural process during discharge.
Recharging reverses the process.
Undercharging causes sulfate crystals to form on the plate
surfaces.
Not enough current flowing to keep the battery fully charged.
Plate Sulfation
Sulfate crystals that harden
over a long period of time.
These will not go back in
solution when proper voltage
is applied.
Decreases total active
material/capacity
Result in a permanent loss
of capacity.
Increase in internal
impedance
Shorts
Shorts can occur in both Flooded and VRLA cells.
Hard sorts are typically caused by paste lumps pushing
through the matte and shorting out to the adjacent (opposite
polarity) plate.
Soft shorts, on the other hand, are caused by deep
discharges.
When the specific gravity of the acid gets too low, the lead will
dissolve into it. Since the liquid (and the dissolved lead) are
immobilized by the glass matte, when the battery is
recharged, the lead comes out of solution forming dendrites
inside the matte.
In some cases, the lead dendrites short through the matte to
the other plate.
Dry-Out (Loss of Compression)

VRLA batteries only
Dry-out is a phenomenon that occurs due to
excessive heat, over charging can cause elevated
internal temperatures as well as high ambient
(room) temperatures.
At elevated internal temperatures, the sealed cells
will vent through the PRV.
When sufficient electrolyte is vented, the glass
matte no longer is in contact with the plates, thus
increasing the internal impedance and reducing
battery capacity.
Thermal Run-away
Thermal run-away is when a battery internal components
melt-down in a self-sustaining reaction.
Failure mode VRLA batteries
Can end in complete and catastrophic failure
Primarily due to oxygen recombination cycle
Thermal run-away is relatively easy to avoid, simply by using
temperature-compensated chargers and properly ventilating
the battery room/cabinet.
Temperature-compensated chargers reduce the charge
current as the temperature increases.
Thermal Run-away
Flooded cell allows gas to
escape
VRLA recombines oxygen
and forms water
Reaction produces heat
Due to:
Overcharging
High ambient
Low air flow
High float voltage
Heating is a function of the

square of the current
Separator Deterioration
Separator Deterioration
Effects Ni-Cd cells
This will occur in all NiCd batteries as they
age.
The separator breaks
down allowing the
plates (electrodes) to
touch and short out the
battery.
Carbonation
Carbonation occurs as part of the aging process in NiCD cells.
The potassium hydroxide (KOH) electrolyte enters into
chemical combination with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2)
and forms potassium carbonate (K2CO3).
This removes the KOH ions from the electrolyte and makes
the cell less able to conduct electricity.
The decrease in electrolyte conductivity makes the cell reach
a lower voltage much more quickly under discharge.
As such, electrolyte carbonation appears to the cell's user as
diminished capacity.
This can be reversed by exchanging the electrolyte.
Loose Connections
Frequent Problem all battery types
Easily found with resistance measurement
High resistance = elevated temperature = higher resistance
When serving load high temperatures can melt lead posts
Watts Lost = (Current)2 (Resistance)
Why maintain batteries?

Several things can happen when batteries are
left un-monitored:
Battery terminals can become corroded
Ventilation systems can fail
Battery housing can build up pressure and crack
Batteries will not deliver when needed
Bad things can happen when Batteries do not

function properly
20MW Generator Damage after DC System

Failure Machine lost DC Oil Pumps and
Breaker Failed to trip. Unit motorized for 45
minutes. Shaft sheared in 3 places. Repairs
exceeded $3M and 6 months downtime.
Battery Explosion
Internal generated sparks and
extreme temperature rise
caused by high-resistance
internal parts, can lead to
dangerous cell explosion.
Damage: Battery explosion
damaged Battery Room and
caused hazardous battery
fumes to infiltrate the adjacent
Switchgear room causing
further damage.
Battery Explosion Results can be Catastrophic

This Battery room lost
ventilation and the
Hydrogen Monitors
were in Alarm Mode
for 3 days prior to the
explosion, but nobody
paid attention to them.
The resulting explosion
caused a 400 sq ft hole
in the roof.
Well Maintained & Clean Battery Installation
Poorly Maintained &

Corroded Battery Terminal
Battery Maintenance
Intro
No single test tells the whole story
Determine condition
Where condition is headed
How fast
Dont find out during an outage that your battery
failed
Gather as much test data as possible
Test Methods
Visual Inspection
Float Voltage
Float Current
Ripple Current
Specific Gravity
Temperature
Discharge Testing
Ohmic Testing
Strap Resistance
Visual Inspection
Check entire system

Battery Electrolyte Level (Flooded Batteries)
Ventilation system, floor & room clean
Battery support system
Check batteries for cracks, leaks and deformation
Strap corrosion
Record information
Visual inspection will locate such things as cracks, leaks
and corrosion can be found before they become
catastrophic failures. However, visual inspection tells us
nothing about the strings State of Charge (SOC), capacity
or State of Health (SOH).
Float Voltage
Measure across each cell
Measure at posts
During float conditions
Not during discharge or
recharge
Compare float voltage to
manufacturers
recommendation
Float Voltage
Applied voltage to cell from charger
Different voltages for different chemistries
Low float voltage > not fully charging
Cant supply full capacity
Plate Sulfation
High float voltage > Over charging
cooks the battery
higher temperature
Grid corrosion
Thermal runaway
Dry-out
Float Voltage will tells us if something is wrong but it will not
tells us anything about SOC, Capacity or SOH.
Float Current
Kirchhoff current law
Measure anywhere in the
string
Usually low value
Measure during float
conditions
Not during discharge or
recharge
Increase in float current
precursor to Thermal Runaway VRLA
Float Current
Current through each cell
Interaction between float voltage and internal resistance
Supplied by charger
Electrochemical process reversed
Lead sulfate on plates converted to sulfuric acid and active
material
High float current precursor to thermal runaway
Short circuits
Ground faults
High float voltages
Float Current will tells us if something is wrong but it will not tells
us anything about SOC, Capacity or SOH.
Ripple Current
By-product of charging system

Design, quality and age dictate
Internal heating of battery and overcharging
No more than 5A for every 100Ah
Specific Gravity
Ratio of density of liquid with
respect to density of water
How much sulfate is in
electrolyte lead acid
Gives SOC but not Capacity
or SOH.
Density is temperature
dependent
So Specific Gravity is also
Density =
Mass
Volume
Temperature
High temp = short life
Low temp = low capacity possible damage
10 C rise = life
120
30
110
25
100
20
90
15
80
10
70
60
50
0
47
62
77
92
Temperature (F)
% Capacity
Life (yrs.)
107
Battery Life (yrs.)
Capacity (%)
Temperature Effects
Discharge Testing
Single absolute test

Complexity & cost
Acceptance Test
Beginning of life based on design capacity
Performance Test
After two or three years when new then every five years
Based on design capacity also
Service Test
As needed to determine if battery will support existing load
Discharge Testing is the only test that will determine the capacity of the string, but not
necessarily the SOH.
P artial Load Test
Volts per Cell
2.3
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.5
0
10
15
30
45
60
75
90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240
Tim e (m in)
P as ses
B etter
Failure
Ohmic Test
Impedance, Conductance &
Resistance
IEEE uses term ohmic
DC based on V=IR : AC based on
V=IZ
As a battery ages it may corrode,
sulfate, dry-out or suffer a host of
other effects based on
maintenance, chemistry and usage.
All of these effects cause a
chemical change in the battery;
which in turn causes a change in
the batteries internal impedance /
resistance.
Ohmic testing measures the SOH.
Inter-Cell Resistance
If the torque not sufficient
this will cause a higher
resistance causing a voltage
drop that causes heat.
Measure across strap
Not on Strap
On Post
Inter-Cell Resistance
Must include all resistance
between posts
Multiple straps Multiple
measurements
Low resistance ohm meter or
device designed for batteries
Ohmic Testing
Ohmic Testing
Ohmic battery testing is a
method of testing batteries that
compliments discharge testing.
Discharge testing is an absolute
way of measuring battery
capacity. Ohmic testing is a
relative measurement used to
supplement discharge testing,
Discharge testing is expensive,
time consuming and can reduce
the overall total life of the battery
string.
Ohmic Testing
Ohmic testing; which
includes resistive testing,
impedance testing and
conductance testing is a
relative test. It compares an
ohmic measurement to a
previous ohmic
measurement as well as the
average ohmic
measurement of the string.
When performing ohmic
measurement a baseline
should be established.
Ascending Impedance with Corresponding End Voltage

2.5
Impedance (mOhms) & End Voltage
2.25
2
1.75
1.5
1.25
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Imp
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.56
0.61
0.63
0.65
0.68
0.71
0.72
0.74
0.75
0.79
0.8
0.82
0.84
0.89
0.9
0.91
0.94
0.96
1.17
1.19
2.1
End V
2.03
2.04
2.03
1.98
1.97
1.94
1.9
1.91
1.88
1.89
1.9
1.89
1.89
1.84
1.82
1.84
1.81
1.84
1.8
1.73
1.82
1.74
1.33
0.1
Cell #
11
15
16
18
22
13
24
10
14
23
20
21
12
17
19
Type of Ohmic Testing

Resistance Measures only the resistive value of a
battery, The battery also has capacitive and
inductive values as well.
Conductance (Actually Admittance) This is the
reciprocal of impedance.
Impedance Testing Measures the resistive,
capacitive and inductive qualities of the battery.
NOTE: Ohmic testing is a relative test NOT an
absolute test. We do not test against an absolute
value. We test and compare that data to a previous
test result.
Repeatability is KEY.
Impedance Test
Impedance testing has a distinct advantage over resistive type testing. When
we look at a schematic representation of a battery there are more than just
resistive components to that battery. There are also capacitive and inductive
characteristics.
This means that impedance testing will be able to detect certain

problems that resistive measurements can miss; these include negative lug
rot as well as negative plate corrosion. These failures will show themselves as
changes in inductance and capacitance, not in resistance. In addition many
chemical changes in a battery will be seen as impedance changes before
they are seen as resistive changes.
Impedance Test
Provides SOH rather than just SOC
As the battery ages and sulfates the impedance of the battery
will increase as the capacitance decreases.
Ascending Impedance with Corresponding End Voltage
Impedance (mOhms) & End Voltage
2.5
2.25
2
1.75
1.5
1.25
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Imp
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.56
0.61
0.63
0.65
0.68
0.71
0.72
0.74
0.75
0.79
0.8
0.82
0.84
0.89
0.9
0.91
0.94
0.96
1.17
1.19
2.1
End V
2.03
2.04
2.03
1.98
1.97
1.94
1.9
1.91
1.88
1.89
1.9
1.89
1.89
1.84
1.82
1.84
1.81
1.84
1.8
1.73
1.82
1.74
1.33
0.1
Cell #
11
15
16
18
22
13
24
10
14
23
20
21
12
17
19
BITE2P
Advantages
Works with batterys up to
7000Ah
Measures Ripple Current,
Float Voltage, Impedance
and Strap Resistance.
3 Second Measurements
Built in printer
Works with NiCD batteries
with stainless steel
hardware.
Works with PowerDB

BITE3
The ORIGINAL
IMPEDANCE Tester!
Battery-operated
Measures impedance, dc voltage,
strap resistance
Measures float and ripple currents
and harmonics
Stores 1 million cells
Superior on-board data analysis: %
C, % D, % V
Deviation from average
Health of the CELL
Variation from baseline
Health of the STRING
Change from last test
Battery LIFE
BITE3
Warning and Failure cells are
displayed during
measurements.
Harmonic Analysis allows
you to test the health of the
charger.
NO ONE ELSE DOES
On-board data analysis with
optional printer.
The BITE3 can test parallel
strings without disconnecting
them!
SAVES TIME
Discharge Testing
Discharge Testing is a direct measurement of a
battery strings capacity.
It is a long test that requires the string to be taken
off line most times.
Why perform discharge testing?
IEEE requires it and it is the only true measurement
of capacity.
Temperature must be taken into account during
testing.
Discharge Testing
Calculating a Batteries Capacity from a Discharge Test
Use the equation below to determine the battery or cell/unit capacity
for a discharge test that runs 1 h or longer.
C
tA
tS
KT
Is the % capacity at 25 C
is the actual time of the discharge test.
is the calculated time of the discharge test.
is a correction factor for the cell temperature.
Discharge Testing
This table is based on flooded lead acid batteries with a
nominal 1.215 specific gravity. For cells with other specific
gravities or chemistries refer to the manufacturer.
Megger Discharge Testers

Torkel This is a battery
load tester.
This allows the user to
directly test the capacity of a
battery string.
Three different types of
Torkel units for sub-station,
Telecom and Data Centers.
Portable
Can test strings down to
12VDC
Can test strings down to
80% without taking them
off line.
Power DB Software
Uploads data to
PowerDB
Database Data
Create Custom Reports
Insert your own
company LOGO.
Operate with virtually all
Megger units.
ONE DATABASE FOR
ALL DATA
Conclusions
Regular Battery Maintenance is essential for the
safe and reliable operation of a DC System
Maintenance needs to include Load Testing and
Impedance Testing.
Online Load Testing is an option for determining
battery capacity when offline is not practical.
Impedance Testing is used to compliment
discharge testing and is the only way to determine
battery state of health.
Thank you

The COST of Battery Maintenance

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The COST of Battery Maintenance

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The COST of Battery Maintenance

Can you afford to be without it?

Why Batteries are Needed ?

Failure is not an Option

Common Failure Modes

Positive Grid Corrosion

Dry-Out (Loss of Compression)

Heating is a function of the

Watts Lost = (Current)2 (Resistance)

Why maintain batteries?

Bad things can happen when Batteries do not

20MW Generator Damage after DC System

Battery Explosion Results can be Catastrophic

Well Maintained & Clean Battery Installation

Poorly Maintained &

Check entire system

By-product of charging system

Battery Life (yrs.)

Single absolute test

Ascending Impedance with Corresponding End Voltage

Impedance (mOhms) & End Voltage

Type of Ohmic Testing

This means that impedance testing will be able to detect certain

Impedance (mOhms) & End Voltage

Works with PowerDB

Megger Discharge Testers

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