Cells Scidim2cb

5
Cells
Learning focus
expand their knowledge of science to include
abstract concepts, theories, principles and
models
develop an understanding of themselves as
organisms composed of different cells and
systems working together
explore how scientific work has led to
the discovery of new knowledge and
understanding about the natural world
LEVEL 5
Students:
discuss and elaborate theoretical knowledge

in areas of personal and public concern.
Standards:
Science knowledge and understanding
Students explain the structure and function
of cells and how different cells work together.
from a man about to fertilise an egg from a

woman. A new life is about to start. How are
photographs like this obtained?
2 What type of creatures can you find lots of

in a drop of water?
3 What have humans and plants got in

common?
4 Are mushrooms a plant?

5 Why dont you ever catch chickenpox twice?
6 Why are you given injections called
Getting started
1 The photograph on this page shows a sperm
vaccinations?
SciDim2CB_Ch05.indd 127
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UNIT
.
51
The microscope is an incredibly important tool
that has allowed scientists to explore the tiny
building blocks of life called cells. The microscope
has also allowed scientists to discover germs,
what they do, their structure, weaknesses and
what diseases they cause. All this information is
vital to your health, and to the development of new
drugs and treatments that will combat disease.
Light microscopes
A microscope is an instrument that gives magnified
images of small objects, usually too small to be seen
by the naked eye. If an object is so small that the only
clear way of seeing it is by using a microscope, then
it is referred to as microscopic. A light microscope
relies on light passing through the object or reflecting
off it.
A magnifying glass is an example of a simple
microscope. It contains one plastic or glass lens and
uses light to give magnified views of small objects
such as ants. If you want to see things even smaller
than ants, however, then you need to use a more
powerful microscope.
A compound microscope contains two or
more lenses and is the type of microscope that
you will probably use in the school science
laboratory. These microscopes allow you to view
objects far too small to be seen normally, even with
a magnifying glass. Compound microscopes can
allow you to see:
the crystal structure of materials such as rocks
or metals
the cells that make up living things
the tiny and normally invisible living things called
microbes that live everywhere around us, on us
and even in us.
The object you place under a microscope is
called the specimen. What you see when you look
through the eyepiece is called the image. Compound
microscopes commonly magnify specimens up to 1500
times their original size.
>>>
Parts of the microscope

A monocular microscope is a type of compound
microscope with a single eyepiece, like that shown
in Figure 5.1.1. Monocular microscopes create their
images by focussing light that passes through a thin
slice of the object.
A stereo microscope is a compound microscope
that has two eyepieces. These are more expensive
than single eyepiece microscopes, but provide a
more three-dimensional image. Stereo microscopes
create their images by focussing light that reflects
off the specimen.
eye piece
(ocular lens)
barrel
coarse
focussing
knob
fine
focussing
knob
objective lens
clips
stage
arm
diaphragm
mirror
base
Fig 5.1.1
A compound
light microscope
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11/1/06 4:19:34 PM
Fig 5.1.2
A stereo microscope
7 To obtain higher magnification, swap the

eyepiece with another one or rotate an
objective lens of higher magnification into
place. Then repeat steps 4 to 6.
UNIT
5.1
Prac 1
p. 136
Calculating magnification
To calculate the total magnification of a microscope,
multiply the magnification of the eyepiece by the
magnification of the objective lens being used.
Eyepiece
magnification
Objective lens
magnification
Total
magnification
10
20
10 20 = 200
20
15
20 15 = 300
An ant, magnified 125 times
Fig 5.1.3
Using a microscope
Microscopes are expensive and easily damaged, so
using one correctly is vital. Correct microscope use
can also help you see fantastic images.
1 Place the specimen on the stage and secure it using
the clips.
2 Some microscopes have a built-in lamp. If your
microscope doesnt, then face it towards a light
source (e.g. a microscope lamp or window). Adjust
the mirror to project light through the stage to
the specimen.
3 Choose the objective lens so that you are using the
one with the lowest magnification. (It is easier to
start viewing with low magnification.)
4 Look at the microscope from the side and adjust
the coarse focussing knob to position the objective
lens just above the specimen. Take note of which
way you must turn the knob to move the objective
lens away from the specimen.
5 Look through the eyepiece and, if necessary, adjust
the mirror to obtain adequate light through the
specimen. Turn the coarse focussing knob to move
the objective lens away from the specimen until
you obtain a clear image.
6 Turn the fine focussing knob to make the image
sharper.
Preparing a specimen
Sometimes you need to prepare the specimen before
it can be viewed under a monocular microscope.
Take a thin section from the object by scraping,
squashing, peeling or slicing it. This allows
as much light as possible to pass through the
specimen into the microscope and to your eye.
Place the specimen on a glass microscope slide.
Stain the specimen with a drop of potassium
iodide or methylene blue to make the features
of the specimen darker and easier to see.
Wet mounts
A specimen may move on its glass slide unless it
is fixed in place. One way of fixing it in place is
by using a wet mount. Place the specimen on a
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>>>
The microscope
microscope slide with a drop of water and gently
lower a thin glass cover slip onto it. The best way to
do this is to place one edge of the cover slip down
first and then drop it onto the specimen. Use a piece
of filter paper or tissue to soak up any excess water.
Fig 5.1.6
A sketch of the cells

shown in Figure 5.1.5
sample
Prac 2
p. 136
drop of water
Fig 5.1.4
Prac 3
p. 136
Lowering a cover slip for a wet mount
Sometimes air bubbles can become trapped under

a cover slip; they will appear as circles when viewed
under a microscope. Be careful not to confuse air
bubbles with what you are really trying to observe.
Sketching images
The area that can be seen through the eyepiece of a
microscope is called the field of view. Rather than
attempt an exact copy of the field of view, draw a
simplified version of what you see. Include only the
important objects, main lines and features and dont
worry too much about shading. You must label your
drawing with the magnification used and write a brief
description.
An actual view of material scraped from the inside
of a human cheek is shown in Figure 5.1.5. The sketch
of its main features in shown in Figure 5.1.6.
Human cheek cells, magnified 100
Electron microscopes
Instead of light, an electron microscope uses tiny
negatively charged particles called electrons to create
its images. There are two types of electron microscopes.
Transmission electron microscope

(TEM)
In a transmission electron microscope (TEM), beams of
electrons are passed through a thinly sliced specimen.
An image is then produced and either printed out or
projected onto a screen for viewing. The TEM was
invented in 1930 as a tool to help scientists study
the structure of metals. Later it was found that the
electrons did not destroy plant and animal specimens.
This allowed biologists to use the TEM to gather details
about living things that were impossible before.
A transmission electron microscope or TEM
Fig 5.1.7
Fig 5.1.5
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The TEM can magnify up to around a million

times, so it can reveal the delicate internal structure of
cells and other specimens.
science magazines are usually obtained using a SEM.

Although an SEM produces only black and white
images, an computer can add colour to them to make
features more distinguishable. Colour SEM pictures
obtained this way are called false colour images.
A black and white SEM image of a
knotted human hair
Fig 5.1.8
UNIT
5.1
Fig 5.1.10
A TEM image of Giardia protozoa, magnified

1200 times, found in contaminated water and
guaranteed to make you ill
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

The scanning electron microscope (SEM) moves a
beam of electrons across a specimen and reconstructs
an image showing details about its surface.
Specimens viewed with an SEM require less
preparation than those viewed with a TEM, but the
images are not as detailed. (Compare the images
shown in Figures 5.1.8 and 5.1.11.) The impressive
super-magnified images of insects you find in
magnetic deflectors (condensing lenses)
focus the electron beam (like glass lenses
focus light)
electron 'gun'
scan coils move the
electron beam across
the surface of the
specimen
computer
display screen
objective
lens
black and white

image
specimen
placed
here
computer
used to
colourise
images
detector and amplifier

electron impacts converted to electrical
signal and sent to a display screen
How a scanning electron microscope works
Fig 5.1.9
Fig 5.1.11
This shows a false colour SEM image of Giardia

protozoa magnified 1100 times. Compare it with
the TEM image in Figure 5.1.8.
From microscope to cells

Invention of the microscope
Sometimes people invent exactly the same things at
exactly the same time. This was the case with the
compound microscope. In 1607, Hans Janssen and his
son Zacharias invented it and so did Hans Lippershey.
(Some historians suggest, however, that the Janssens
invention may date back to 1590.) In 1665, a prototype
of the modern compound light microscope was
unveiled by Robert Hooke.
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>>>
The microscope
Discovery of microbes and

animal cells
A model of Hookes microscope and lamp
Fig 5.1.12
In 1673, a Dutch amateur scientist, Anton van

Leeuwenhoek, wrote about amazing discoveries
he had made with simple, hand-held microscopes.
Although only having a single lens, his microscopes
were able to magnify 50 to 100 times, far more than
the compound microscopes commonly available, which
could only manage a magnification of 40 to 50.
Leeuwenhoek made the
first drawings of sperm cells
and red blood cells (in 1673),
single-celled animals which he
called animalcules (1676) and
Sperm-people!
bacteria (in 1683). His success
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
was due to the quality of the
also investigated
gunpowder, nearly
single lenses he used. They
blinding himself when it
produced much clearer images
exploded at close range.
than compound microscopes
At about the same time,
using multiple lenses of poorer
Dutch scientist Nicolaus
Hartsoecker convinced
quality and whose images were
himself that he saw tiny
often blurred or had colour
undeveloped men in a
distortions.
sample of sperm cells.
Discovery of plant cells

Hooke used his invention to study all sorts of things,
including thin strips of cork. There he saw box-like
shapes that he imagined were like the small rooms, or
cells, occupied by monks of the time. Logically,
he called the boxes cells.
Fig 5.1.13
Hookes original sketch showing obvious

cells in cork.
Fig 5.1.14
A Leeuwenhoek single-lens
microscope
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Cell theory of life

In 1839, German biologists Theodor Schwann and
Matthias Schleiden proposed their cell theory of life
which stated that:
all living things, or organisms, are made up of cells
new cells are created by old cells dividing into two
all cells are similar, but not identical.
UNIT
5.1
Cells can be thought of as the building blocks of

life, from whales to germs and from giant trees to
pond slime. They come in an amazing variety of types
and sizes.
UNIT
5.1
7 List three differences between a monocular and a

stereo microscope.
8 State one advantage and one disadvantage each of
a monocular and stereo microscope.
[ Questions ]
Using a microscope
9 Specimens are often stained. Why?
Revision questions
10 List as a set of dot points how to make a

wet mount.
Light microscopes
11 What is a field of view?
1 Define the word microscopic.

2 What is the difference between a simple and a
compound microscope? Which gives finer details?
12 Why are bubbles a nuisance in microscope

specimens?
3 What is the object called that you place under a

microscope?
Electron microscopes
4 What is an image?
14 What does TEM and SEM stand for?
13 List what must be included when you sketch images.
15 List the advantages and disadvantages when using

a TEM and SEM.
Parts of the microscope

5 What is another name for the eyepiece?
6 A different microscope is shown in Figure 5.1.15. Identify
the parts labelled A to H.
16 What is a false colour image and what type of

electron microscope makes it?
From microscope to cells

17 Who did the following and in what year did they do it?
a invented the microscope
b invented the modern compound microscope
c first saw cells in cork
d first saw animalcules
e first saw bacteria
f proposed the cell theory of life
Thinking questions
B
C
G
D
18 Can the following be classified as a microscope?

Explain your answers.
a a magnifying glass
b spectacles
c a drop of water
19 The objective lens should never be moved downwards
while looking through the eyepiece. Suggest why.
20 Construct a table to compare the way a TEM and an
SEM produce images with the way a monocular and
a stereo microscope produce images. Which show
similarities?
Fig 5.1.15
21 Compare the magnifications of Anton van

Leeuwenhoeks magnifying glass, the first
microscopes, modern compound microscopes
and electron microscopes.
>>
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>>>
The microscope
Analysis questions
22 Construct a flow chart to show how to use a
microscope.
27 Sketch the microscope specimens in Figures 5.1.17

and 5.1.18.
a
Onion cells
Fig 5.1.17
Muscle cells
Fig 5 .1.18
23 A microscopes eyepiece has a magnification of 20

and its objective lens is labelled 40. What is the total
magnification?
24 Copy and complete this table of magnifications:
Eyepiece
magnification
Objective lens
magnification
10
200
20
300
20
100
30
Total
magnification
1000
600
b
25 What size would these specimens appear to be if:
a the specimen was 1.1 mm long and was magnified
200 times
b the specimen was 0.2 mm long and was magnified
1000 times
c the specimen was 0.8 mm long and was magnified
300 times?
26 An image of a specimen obtained using a magnification
of 50 is shown in Figure 5.1.16. Sketch how it would
appear if the magnification was 200.
Fig 5.1.16
28 Suggest whether the image in Figure 5.1.19 was made

by a magnifying glass, light microscope, TEM or SEM.
Explain your answer.
50
Fig 5.1.19
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UNIT
5.1
UNIT
5.1 SCIENCE at work

Surfing
Designing
Companion Website
Find out more about electron microscopes
by connecting to the Science Dimensions 2
Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting Chapter 5 and clicking on the Web Destinations
button.
Present your findings in one of the following ways:
a poster
a pamphlet
a PowerPoint presentation
a web page with links to relevant pages you have
surfed.
Companion Website
The confocal microscope is currently being developed by
an Australian company. Find out what it is and how it may
be used to observe skin cells while still on the human body
by connecting to the Science Dimensions 2 Companion
Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools, selecting
Chapter 5 and clicking on the Web Destinations button.
Present your findings in one of the following ways:
Safe use of a microscope

Prepare a guide explaining how to correctly and safely use a
microscope to students who have never seen one.
Present your work in one of the following ways:
a poster
a pamphlet
a PowerPoint presentation
an instructional video.
Constructing
A mini microscope
Use Figure 5.1.20 to help you construct a simple
microscope.
drop of
water
plastic
a brochure or promotional video from the company

developing it
a website for the company
a video segment for a TV science show like Beyond
Tomorrow.
Researching microscopes
vaseline
ring
sticky tape
object
matchbox
sleeve
Surf your available resources (textbooks, encyclopaedias,

Internet, etc.) to answer these questions.
1 What other key people were involved in the use and
development of early microscopes and what did they
do? Anton van Leeuwenhoek and Giovanni Amici might
be a good start.
2 What is a micrometre? What is the symbol for one?
When are they used?
3 How are specimens prepared for viewing by an electron
microscope?
4 What is cytology?
Present your work as a set of answers to the questions.
matchbox tray
Fig 5.1.20
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>>>
The microscope
UNIT
5.1
[ Practical activities ]
Viewing prepared slides
You will need
Prac 1
Unit 5.1
Prepared slides of various specialised plant and

animal cells, microscope, microscope lamp (if not
attached)
What to do
1 Carefully follow the instructions on page 129 on how to
use a microscope.
3 Sketch each image, labelling what it is.
Questions
1 Describe any similarities or differences between the
prepared slides.
2 What advantages are there to using prepared slides
rather than obtaining your own specimens?
2 Obtain focussed images for each of the prepared slides.
Focus on the news

Prac 2
Unit 5.1
You will need

Monocular microscope, microscope lamp (if not
fitted), section of newspaper containing small
print, eye dropper, microscope slide, cover slip
What to do
1 Cut out a small section of newspaper filled with
small print.
2 Carefully follow the instructions on pages 129 to 130
to prepare a wet mount containing a small piece of
newsprint.
3 Set the microscope to the lowest magnification.
4 Obtain a focussed image of the newsprint.
5 Sketch what you see. How many letters fit in the field
of view?
6 Slowly move the slide containing the newsprint to
the left, and note which way the image appears to
move. Also determine how the image moves when
the slide is moved to the right, away from you and
towards you.
7 Repeat steps 3 and 4 with a higher magnification.
Using a microscope
Prac 3
Unit 5.1
You will need

Monocular microscope, stereo microscope,
microscope lamp (if not attached), microscope
slides, cover slips, eye dropper, small samples
suitable for viewing under a microscope
(e.g. sugar crystal, salt, copper sulfate, hair,
clothing fibres, leaf, coin, insect, ball-point pen
writing sample)
What to do
1 Place a small specimen of each item on a microscope.
Some may require a wet mount to fix them in place.
2 Carefully follow the instructions on page 129 on how
to use a microscope to obtained focussed images of
each specimen.
3 Sketch what you see in each case and record the
magnification that gave you the clearest image.
4 Use a stereo microscope to obtain focussed images
of the specimens.
Questions
1 Describe in words how each specimen appeared.
Questions
2 Did any observations surprise you? Why?
1 How many letters fitted into the field of view at each

magnification?
3 Which type of microscope gave the best images?

Explain your answer.
2 How does the movement of the image compare to that

of the actual specimen?
4 Suggest how a microscope could be used to

solve crimes.
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UNIT
5. 2
Plants are living things. They need water and
nutrients, they use gases from the air and they
produce waste materials. They grow, they reproduce
and they die. Like all living things, plants are made
up of cells.
The cell wall of a plant cell contains a tough fibrous

material called cellulose. The cell wall needs to be
thick and rigid to provide the plant with support. Plant
cells contain a large vacuole filled with sap.
Fig 5.2.2
A typical plant cell
Structure of a plant cell

Although animals must eat to survive, plants do
not. Plants make their own food in a process called
photosynthesis. Energy from sunlight combines
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air and water (H2O)
from the soil to make a type of sugar called glucose
(C6H12O6) and oxygen gas (O2). The word equation and
unbalanced formula equation for photosynthesis is:
carbon dioxide + water + sunlight glucose + oxygen gas
CO2 + H2O + sunlight C6H12O6 + O2
cytoplasm
large vacuole
containing
cell sap
cell wall
chloroplast
cell nucleus
cell membrane
mitochondrion
The plant then uses the glucose produced as its food

and energy source.
Sun
carbon dioxide
(from air)
light energy
chlorophyll
in cells
water (from soil)
glucose
+
oxygen
to all parts of
the plant
Typical plant cells
Fig 5.2.3
released into the air
Fig 5.2.1
The process of photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs in structures called

chloroplasts inside cells on the surfaces of leaves.
Chloroplasts can be seen using a light microscope.
Chloroplasts contain a green chemical, chlorophyll,
which traps the light energy plants need to run the
photosynthesis reaction.
Prac 1
p. 142
Specialised plant cells

Plants contain different types of cells, each performing
a different job. Plants need cells to stand upright, cells
to suck water from the soil, cells to reproduce and cells
to allow photosynthesis to take place. Following are
some of the specialised plant cells that plants need.
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>>>
Plant cells
Photosynthetic cells: These cells make up a
layer near the surface of a leaf. Most of a plants
photosynthesis happens here.
chloroplasts
Fig 5.2.4
Fig 5.2.7
A single stomata, properly called a stoma
nucleus
A photosynthetic cell
Conducting cells: Special conducting cells form

tubes or vessels that transport water and nutrients
to all parts of the plant.
Root hair cells: Plants and photosynthesis need

water, which is absorbed from soil by specialised
root hair cells.
A root hair cell
water-conducting
tube
Fig 5.2.8
root hair
sieve
cell in root
food-conducting
tube
Conducting cells
Fig 5.2.5
nucleus
soil
Guard cells: Plants take in carbon dioxide and

give out oxygen, but they lose some valuable water
when they do so. Special guard cells lie on the
underside of leaves. Their job is to open and close
small openings called stomata
and so reduce water loss.
Cunning cactus
guard
cell
Fig 5.2.6
A guard cell
Cactus plants have

needles for leaves.
The needles have little
space for the stomata
through which water
is lost. This adaptation
allows the cactus
to survive in desert
conditions.
Root hairs increase the surface area through

which water is absorbed into a plant.
Fig 5.2.9
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Plant systems
The cells of plants group together to form organs and
systems. Leaf cells group together to form the organ
that you would know as a leaf. Several leaves form the
food-making system for the plant. Some other plant
systems are:
the reproductive system consisting of the parts of
a flower
the food storage system, often in the form of a bulb
or tuber
the root system for securing the plant in the
ground and obtaining water and nutrients
the food and water transport system consisting of a
network of veins.
Plant pathways
There are two types of tubes that transport food and
water inside plants.
Xylem tubes carry water and minerals
(e.g. phosphorous, potassium, nitrogen, sulfur,
calcium, iron and magnesium) from the soil,
up into the stems and leaves. Xylem tubes are
made of dead cells strengthened with a woody
substance. Unlike animals, a plant does not
have a heart to pump liquid through its tubes.
Instead, water is pushed upwards by pressure
glucose
made by
photosynthesis
UNIT
5.2
in the roots. Evaporation through the stomata
(tiny holes in the leaves) further assists by sucking
the water upwards.
Homework book 5.1 Water movement in trees
Phloem tubes are made from living cells. Their

function is to transport the food (glucose) that is
produced by photosynthesis in the leaves to the
stem and roots. Some plants store glucose directly
for use when required (e.g. to produce new buds
in spring). Lettuce and cabbage can store glucose
in their leaves and celery can store it in its stem.
A carrot plant stores glucose in the carrot. Other
plants store the food in the form of starch. A
potato plant stores starch in potatoes, which is
why potatoes are not as sweet as carrots and
other vegetables.
Xylem and phloem tubes are
grouped together in vascular
bundles, separated by a layer
of cambium cells.
Cambium cells are able
to become either new
xylem or new phloem
cells as required.
Prac 2
p. 143
Ripening bananas
A green banana contains

starch. This starch
changes into glucose
as it ripens, making the
banana sweeter.
cambium
phloem
water evaporates
out of stomata
water travels
through xylem
vessels
vascular bundle
water enters
root hairs
xylem
Fig 5.2.10
Water flow through a plant
Cross-section of a stem, showing

vascular bundles
Fig 5.2.11
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>>>
Plant cells
Plant skeletons
Wood
Animals have skeletons to hold them upright. Plants

use other means.
Firm or floppy
The soft parts of a plant are supported by water in
its cells. The plant will be upright and its cells firm
(turgid) if enough water is present. The plants stem
and leaves may droop and become flaccid if the water
content in the cells falls.
Stomata control the flow of oxygen and
water vapour out of a leaf, and also control
carbon dioxide intake.
cell magnified
guard
cells
Trees are just big plants and so they too contain

xylem and phloem cells. Vascular bundles in the
stem eventually link up to form a vascular cylinder.
Phloem cells stay in the outer layer of a tree, just
under the bark. These phloem cells are the pathways
for nutrients to reach all parts of a tree. The tree may
die if they are damaged. Ringbarking removes a layer
of phloem cells and will quickly kill a tree. Each year
a new layer of xylem cells is produced, and the inner
layers of old xylem cells combine with other plant
substances to form wood. A cut cross-section of a tree
trunk can reveal these yearly rings of growth.
Fig 5.2.12
underside
of leaf
stoma
in open
position
cell magnified
straight
guard
cells
wilted
leaf
closed
stoma
Fig 5.2.13
A
vascular
bundle
Growth rings in mature trees
many annual rings
cambium
joins up
xylem
phloem
cambium
phloem
xylem
vascular
cylinder
formed
Formation of growth rings in a tree
Fig 5.2.14
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11/1/06 4:20:20 PM
UNIT
5.2
UNIT
5.2
[ Questions ]
Revision questions
Structure of a plant cell
1 Why do plants need photosynthesis?
21 Plants are usually green. Suggest why.

22 Study the plant diagram in Figure 5.2.15 and state which
part contains each of the following systems.
2 What is the chemical formula for:

a carbon dioxide
b oxygen gas?
3 What chemicals do these formulas represent?
a C6H12O6
b H2O
4 For the photosynthesis chemical reaction, write its:
a word equation
b unbalanced chemical equation.
5 What is the green substance in plant cells and what
does it do?
flower
6 Which part of a plant cell contains:

a sap
b fibrous material
c chlorophyll?
leaf
Specialised plant cells

7 Which type of plant cell is:
a hairy
b the gatekeeper
c a transporter?
bulb
roots
8 Construct a table that shows what each type of plant

cell does.
Plant systems
Fig 5.2.15
9 List four systems that a plant has.

10 A leaf is really an organ of a plant. Explain why.
Plant pathways
11 Name the two types of plant transport tubes and
describe what they do.
12 Plants need minerals. List five of them with their
element symbols.
13 What gets fluid moving through a plant?
14 What is a vascular bundle?
15 State two ways plants store energy for future use.
16 What is so special about cambium cells?
Plant skeletons
17 Why do some plants wilt in hot weather?
18 What provides support for a tree?
Thinking questions
19 Suggest why photosynthetic cells are normally located
on the top of a leaf and not under it.
20 Animals do not need the ability to carry out
photosynthesis. Suggest why.
a
b
c
d
e
reproductive system
food-making system
food and water transport system
root system
food storage system
23 What would happen to a plant without:

a cellulose in its cells
b chlorophyll in its cells?
24 A plant would die if it did not have the following cells.
Suggest how it would die if it had no:
a guard cells
b photosynthetic cells
c conducting cells
d root hair cells.
25 Growth rings are produced because trees grow at
different rates during a year, producing different
patterns within the tree. Why do trees grow at different
rates during a year?
>>
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>>>
Plant cells
26 Which plant tubes are most at risk when a rabbit
nibbles the base of a small tree?
28 Suggest how removing the leaves from a plant might

affect it.
27 Putting cut flowers in a vase of water keeps them

fresh for longer. Suggest how.
29 Plants contain a large amount of carbon. Suggest

where this comes from.
UNIT
5.2 SCIENCE at work

Investigating
Geranium shoots
Ringbark one geranium shoot, cover the ringbarking with
Vaseline to prevent drying and place the shoot in a container
of water. Place a similar, non-ringbarked shoot in another
container of water. Leave them for two weeks and record any
observations made about root growth. Root growth requires
food that is produced in the leaves. What can you conclude
about food pathways in geranium shoots?
Present your work as an experimental report. Include all the
normal features, such as aim, materials, method, results and
conclusion.
Radish seeds
Place some radish seeds on moist cotton wool and observe
the roots that develop over a few days. What does this
arrangement allow you to observe that might be lost when
pulling a plant out of the ground?
UNIT
5.2
Present your work as an experimental report. Include all

the normal features, such as aim, materials, method, results
and conclusion.
Constructing
Plant cells
Use Plasticine to make a three-dimensional model of a
plant cell. Slice it to produce a two-dimensional (flat) view
similar to that shown in Figure 5.2.2 on page 137.
Surfing
Researching paper
Surf your available resources (textbooks, encyclopaedias,
Internet, etc.) to find out how paper is manufactured
from wood.
Present your work as a flow chart showing every major
stage in the process from tree to paper.
[ Practical activities ]
Onion, banana and rhubarb cells
Prac 1
Unit 5.2
You will need
4 Sketch a few of the onion cells that you see.
Microscope, potassium iodide stain, lamp, filter

paper, glass slide, eye dropper, water, cover slip,
samples of onion skin, banana and rhubarb,
wooden craft stick
5 Smear a thin layer of banana onto a clean slide and

stain the specimen.
What to do
6 Add a drop of water and a cover slip.

7 Obtain a clear image with the microscope and sketch
what you see.
1 Slice or peel a thin layer of skin from an onion.
8 Peel some of the outer layer from a piece of rhubarb.
2 Prepare a wet mount of the onion skin using the method

described on pages 129 to 130.
9 Prepare a wet mount and observe the rhubarb cells

under the microscope.
3 Obtain a clear image with the microscope and sketch

what you see.
10 Sketch its image.
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11/1/06 4:20:26 PM
Questions
2 Which cells were easier to observe. Why?
1 Why was stain recommended for viewing banana

cells, but not for onion cells?
3 Describe some of the similarities and differences you

saw between banana, onion and rhubarb cells.
UNIT
5.2
Water transport
Prac 2
Unit 5.2
You will need

Celery stick, two beakers, razor blade, dye
What to do
celery
1 Arrange the apparatus as shown in Figure 5.2.16.

2 Leave it overnight before observing the celery
stalk closely.
3 Cut the celery stick lengthways and across the stalk
and note the presence of any dye.
4 Design a modification to the set-up to investigate
what effect the leaves have on the movement of
the dye.
Questions
1 Where did the dye get to? In which direction did
it move?
2 Draw a diagram showing the dye and its movement.
dye
water
Water transport in celery
Fig 5.2.16
3 Suggest why one half of the celery stalk was placed

in water with no dye.
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>>>
UNIT
5. 3
Animals are made up of cells just like plants.
Animals are far more complex than plants, however,
and need a greater variety of cell types to allow
them to live, move and reproduce.
Specialised animal cells

The skin, muscles, organs and blood of animals are all
made up of different types of cells, most of them so
small that hundreds would fit inside a full stop.
Each animal cell is specialised to perform its
particular job. Whatever the job, there is a cell
specifically for it. Some of the more important cells
that animals need are:
blood cells to carry food and oxygen around
the body and to fight off infection from bacteria
and viruses
muscle cells to give
movement
nerve cells to send messages
from the brain to the
muscles and back from
Body cells
nerve receptors to the brain
Your body contains
over a hundred million
skin cells to cover bodies
million cells.
and to provide a barrier for
infection
bone cells to help support
Fig 5.3.1
Various types of human

cells, each specialised
for a different purpose
the body and protect internal organs

fat cells to insulate the body and store energy
specific cells to make up the different organs of an
animal such as the heart, brain, lungs and liver
sperm and egg cells that can combine to produce a
new animal.
Structure of an animal cell

Although there are similarities, animal cells are
usually more complex than plant cells. All animal
cells, whether they are from a human, pig or a frog,
have several characteristics in common.
red blood cell
fat cell
Fig 5.3.2
Red and white blood cells, magnified 3000 times
white blood cell
part of a skeletal muscle cell
bone cell
nerve cell
involuntary
muscle cells
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The cell membrane is a thin outer layer that

contains the cell and controls what goes in or
comes out. Animals have some form of skeleton
to hold them upright and so do not need the thick
cell walls that plants have.
The cytoplasm is a jelly-like liquid containing
hundreds of chemicals. It fills most of the cell.
New substances are made and energy is released
and stored here. The cytoplasm can be thought of
as the chemical factory of the cell.
Vacuoles are storage areas that may contain air,
water, wastes and food particles. Animal cells
often contain several small vacuoles.
The control room of the cell is the cell nucleus.
The nucleus controls all chemical reactions in
a cell and how the cell develops. The nucleus
contains instructions in chemical codes for
building new cells.
Mitochondria are small objects that can be
thought of as energy capsules. Each mitochondrion
contains sugar and oxygen, which can combine
to release energy. Mitochondria are so small
they cannot usually be seen using a light
microscope.
UNIT
5.3
UNIT
5.3
cell membrane
vacuole
cell nucleus
cytoplasm
mitochondrion
(not normally visible)
Fig 5.3.3
The structure of an animal cell
Fig 5.3.4
Stained human cheek cells

showing clearly the cell nuclei
[ Questions ]
Revision questions
Homework book 5.2 Cell diagrams
Specialised animal cells

1 Name a very big animal cell.
2 How many cells are in your body?
A less than 1000
C about 1 billion
B exactly 100 million
D over 100 million million
Thinking questions
3 List any five types of body cells and explain what

they do.
8 Muscle cells contain large numbers of mitochondria.

Why do you think this is so?
4 Which type of human cells:

a help keep out infection c carry oxygen
b send messages
d assist with movement?
9 Suggest why animal cells do not need the tough cell

wall that plant cells need.
5 Draw two different types of human cell.
Structure of an animal cell

6 What part of an animal cell:
a is so small it cannot usually be seen with a light
microscope
b is a jelly-like liquid
c contains coded instructions
d are energy capsules
e is the outside wall?
7 There are fewer types of plant cells compared to

animal cells. Suggest why.
10 Which cells do humans only produce after puberty?

11 Suggest what humans would look like if their cells
contained chloroplasts full of chlorophyll.
Analysis question
12 The digestive systems of animals like sheep, cows
and rabbits contain bacteria that help break down a
substance found in the cell walls of plants but not in
animal cells. Humans are unable to break down this
substance. Deduce what this substance is.
145
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SCIENCE at work
Cloning: Understanding technology
Cloning is the process of creating a copy of an
organism by placing the contents of a cell from
the original animal into a donor cell. This is then
implanted in a surrogate mother and allowed to
develop into a complete animal. Dolly the sheep
was created at the Roslin Institute, near Edinburgh
in Scotland, in 1997, after many years of research.
She was made using a body cell taken from the
udder of another sheep. Although sheep like Dolly
normally live for eleven or twelve years, she suffered
from arthritis and developed a deadly lung disease
when only six years old. She was put down and is
now stuffed and on display at the Scottish Museum.
Insects, cats and dogs have all been cloned since
Dolly and there have been claims of illegally
cloned humans.
Fig 5.3.5
stem cell from

donor sheep
embryo
How cloning works
donor nucleus
reprograms
cell
donor nucleus
injected into egg
implant in
surrogate
clone
unfertilised
sheep egg
remove DNA
The most famous cloned animal

Dolly the sheep
Fig 5.3.6
There are many arguments for and

against cloning. Cloned pigs could be
created in the future to produce hearts
that would be suitable for transplant into
humans suffering terminal heart disease.
Critics of cloning have suggested that
Dollys early death shows that it might be
dangerous to clone humans. There are also
ethical, moral and religious concerns with
cloning. In many cases the law is yet to
catch up and rule on these concerns.
Homework book 5.3 The history of cloning
[ Student activities ]
Debating
What do you think about cloning? Prepare a set of
arguments for and against cloning of humans.
Present your work in one of the following ways:

a class debate
a set of cards to be used in a debate
a hypothetical situation presented as a story, role play or
video where cloning has given new hope or has failed.
146
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SCIENCE at work
Stem cells: Understanding technology
Many scientists are currently researching special
types of human cells called stem cells, which offer
the possibility of curing many diseases. Many in the
Australian and international community are very
concerned, however, about this research since the best
source of stem cells is from a growing human embryo.
A growing embryo is the earliest stage of a human life
and extracting its stem cells will destroy it.
fertilised
egg
After 57 days
the egg grows
into a blastocyst
What is a stem cell?

A stem cell is an early form of cell that is capable of
dividing to become many different types of specialised
human cells. After birth, the number of stem cells in
human bodies reduces. In adults, the remaining stem
cells can grow only into cells that will repair injuries
to damaged tissues and broken bones.
Scientists believe that stem cells collected from
embryos could be grown into any form of specialised
cell, including nerve cells.
Inner stem cells

are collected
from blastocyst
Stem cells are

placed in
growth mediums
The future
Humans lose the last of the stem cells that are capable
of growing into new nerve cells soon after they are
born. This is why humans cannot repair damage to
their brain or spinal cord.
Many people strongly support embryonic stemcell research because these cells might be able to be
grown to repair nerves in the spinal cord, allowing
paraplegics and quadriplegics to recover some of their
skin cells
Fig 5.3.7
nerve cells
muscle cells
Stem cells taken from an embryo can be grown

into many types of specialised cells.
You started as a single fertilised egg and did not resemble a human in any way. The cells nucleus
contained all the genetic codes and instructions on how to build all the different forms of specialised cells,
tissues, organs and systems to make a human baby.
Fig 5.3.8
sperm
egg
zygote (first cell

of new organism)
blastocyst
foetus
human
stem cells
147
11/1/06 4:20:39 PM
SCIENCE at work
lost body function. These people have damaged spinal
cords. Their lost body function depends on where the
break has occurred. A break low in the spine results
in a loss of the use of their legs (paraplegics). A higher
break, particularly in the neck, leads to a loss of use
of both their legs and arms (quadriplegics). There are
currently no successful treatments for these injuries.
Scientists working on mice have already shown
that a cut spinal cord can be repaired and regenerated
using embryonic stem cells injected into its ends.
Stem cells might also have other medical applications.
They might allow scientists to:
grow new organs for someone who needs a
transplant
grow new body parts to replace those lost in an
accident
repair damage to the brain from diseases, such as
Parkinsons disease, that cause the brain to slowly
stop working
repair damage to the brain caused by stroke,
commonly caused by a blocked artery in the brain
Method 2
Healthy
normal
cell taken
DNA of cell
transferred
into an egg
Scientists are also researching whether adult stem

cells can be used for these purposes. Although they
are having some success, it is embryonic stem cells
that offer the most potential.
Fig 5.3.10
Stem cells are grown

in containers such as this.
Method 1
Adult stem
cells taken
patient
Stem cells
placed in
culture
Cell types
injected
into patient
Specific cell
types grown
Embryo grown
into blastocyst
Stem cells
placed in culture
Fig 5.3.9
repair damaged heart muscle after a heart attack

grow new skin for burns victims.
The process of using stem cells

to treat a human condition
Whats your opinion?

The Australian government has approved the use of
embryos for stem-cell research. Some well-known
Australian scientists comment on this type of
research:
Professor John White of the Australian Academy
of Science argues that we should use embryonic
stem cells because existing sources of stem cells
are unacceptable or insufficient for research to
continue. He argues that while much can be
learned from animal experiments, experiments in
human cells are now necessary.
IVF pioneer and stem-cell researcher Professor
Alan Trounson of the Monash Institute of
Reproduction and Development supports the use
of stem cells from embryos that were created for
in vitro fertilisation (IVF) but were not needed.
He thinks Australia should lead the way in
this research.
148
11/1/06 4:20:40 PM
Sir Gustav Nossal calls for more animal research.

He said there is a huge amount of learning to be
done in mouse experiments before embryonic stem
cells can be applied to humans. He expects it will
take at least ten to fifteen years before embryonic
stem-cell therapies become available.
Dr Peter McCullough, formerly of the
Australian National University, is a specialist
in transplantation and foetal development. He
believes a better future lies in finding ways to
take stem cells already in the patients body and
stimulate them to produce the different cells
needed. He does not agree with destroying human
embryos for research, not because of its ethical
concerns but because he believes it is unwarranted
on scientific grounds.
[ Student activities ]
Surfing
Fig 5.3.11
Sir Gustav Nossal
Companion Website
Investigate more about the debate about stem
cells by connecting to the Science Dimensions 2
Companion Website at www.pearsoned.com.au/schools,
selecting Chapter 5 and clicking on the Web Destinations
button. Use the Internet sites there and search for others to
complete the following tasks.
1 Gather reports on several different experiments being
carried out with stem cells and write an outline of what
is being studied.
2 Investigate why some people are concerned about
stem-cell research.
3 List the advantages and disadvantages of stem-cell
research.
4 Create a poster, pamphlet or cartoon strip to explain to
people what embryonic stem-cell research is about, its
advantages and disadvantages.
5 Produce a survey to analyse public opinion about
stem-cell research.
8 Evaluate the information you have collected and

make a decision. Do you support embryonic
stem-cell research?
9 Hold a class debate on the topic: Research into
embryonic stem cells can provide enormous benefits
and should continue.
Present your work in the manner indicated.
Researching adult stem cells

Medical research has shown that, even as an adult,
there may be some remaining stem cells that can be
stimulated to grow into any form of specialised cell found
in an adult body. Despite this there is still strong support
for research using embryonic stem cells to continue. Surf
your available resources (textbooks, encyclopaedias,
Internet, etc.) to:
6 Use your poster, pamphlet or cartoon strip to inform

your classmates, parents or local community about their
embryonic stem-cell research and then survey them
about their attitudes towards it.
research and list the advantages of embryonic stem

cells over adult stem cells
research and explain this statement: Using adult
stem cells, extracted from the person who has a
particular medical problem, has some advantages
over the use of embryonic stem cells.
7 Write a brief summary of your results.
Present your findings as a written or Word document.
149
11/1/06 4:20:42 PM

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5

discuss and elaborate theoretical knowledge

from a man about to fertilise an egg from a

2 What type of creatures can you find lots of

3 What have humans and plants got in

4 Are mushrooms a plant?

1 The photograph on this page shows a sperm

Parts of the microscope

7 To obtain higher magnification, swap the

An ant, magnified 125 times

A sketch of the cells

Lowering a cover slip for a wet mount

Sometimes air bubbles can become trapped under

Human cheek cells, magnified 100

Transmission electron microscope

The TEM can magnify up to around a million

science magazines are usually obtained using a SEM.

A TEM image of Giardia protozoa, magnified

Scanning electron microscope (SEM)

black and white

detector and amplifier

How a scanning electron microscope works

This shows a false colour SEM image of Giardia

From microscope to cells

Discovery of microbes and

A model of Hookes microscope and lamp

In 1673, a Dutch amateur scientist, Anton van

Discovery of plant cells

Hookes original sketch showing obvious

Cell theory of life

Cells can be thought of as the building blocks of

7 List three differences between a monocular and a

10 List as a set of dot points how to make a

11 What is a field of view?

1 Define the word microscopic.

12 Why are bubbles a nuisance in microscope

3 What is the object called that you place under a

14 What does TEM and SEM stand for?

13 List what must be included when you sketch images.

15 List the advantages and disadvantages when using

Parts of the microscope

16 What is a false colour image and what type of

From microscope to cells

18 Can the following be classified as a microscope?

21 Compare the magnifications of Anton van

27 Sketch the microscope specimens in Figures 5.1.17

23 A microscopes eyepiece has a magnification of 20

28 Suggest whether the image in Figure 5.1.19 was made

5.1 SCIENCE at work

Safe use of a microscope

a brochure or promotional video from the company

Surf your available resources (textbooks, encyclopaedias,

Prepared slides of various specialised plant and

3 Sketch each image, labelling what it is.

2 Obtain focussed images for each of the prepared slides.

Focus on the news

You will need

You will need

2 Did any observations surprise you? Why?

1 How many letters fitted into the field of view at each

3 Which type of microscope gave the best images?

2 How does the movement of the image compare to that

4 Suggest how a microscope could be used to