ENG 3170 Modern Vehicle and Design

Mechanical Engineering 3rd Year

Department of Mechanical Engineering Sciences
Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences
University of Surrey
Dr. Aldo Sorniotti
2015
Members of the League:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Muhd Zamani Dawam

Manveer Singh Chander
Maen Abul-Khater
Nikhil Aman Kaulsay
Saifuddin Abdul Halim

6232122
6219263
6247446
6247826

(MZD)
(MSC)
(MK)
(NAK)
(SAH)

Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1
Q1a Specification/Selection of the braking system components (SAH) .............................................. 2
Given information ............................................................................................................................... 2
Assumptions........................................................................................................................................ 2
Calculations of the diameter of the rear disc calliper, DWC, R .............................................................. 3
Calculating boost ratio, B for laden vehicle (MLADEN = 1635kg) ........................................................... 3
Brake Saturation Point ........................................................................................................................ 4
Q1b Estimation of the braking system characteristics (NAK) .............................................................. 5
Braking efficiency as a function of tyre-road friction coefficient ....................................................... 5
Brake pedal force as a function of vehicle deceleration..................................................................... 6
Brake pedal displacement as a function of vehicle deceleration ....................................................... 6
Q2 Formulation and implementation of a simulation model (MSC and MK) ...................................... 7
Analysis of the simulation (MK) ........................................................................................................ 10
Velocity ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Braking Torque .............................................................................................................................. 11
Vertical loads................................................................................................................................. 11
Analysis of tyre relaxation length on simulated manoeuvres (MSC) ................................................ 12
Q3 Formulation and implementation of an Electronic Brake Distribution (EBD) algorithm ............. 14
Actual Implementation of the Electronic Brake Distribution (SAH) ................................................. 14
Analysis of the graph (SAH)............................................................................................................... 15
Formulation and Implementation of an EBD algorithm (NAK) ......................................................... 15
Q4 Selection of the front and rear springs, anti-roll bars and shock absorbers; (MZD) .................... 16
Selection of the front and rear springs ............................................................................................. 16
Anti-roll bar selection ....................................................................................................................... 17
Shock absorbers selection ................................................................................................................ 18
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 19
Reference .............................................................................................................................................. 20
Appendix ............................................................................................................................................... 21
Appendix A1- Front braking efficiency as a function of tyre-road friction coefficient ..................... 21
Appendix A2- Rear braking efficiency as a function of tyre-road friction coefficient ...................... 21
Appendix A3- Braking efficiency/tyre-road friction coefficient values ............................................. 21
Appendix A4- Brake pedal force as a function of vehicle deceleration ............................................ 22
Appendix A5- Brake pedal displacement as a function of vehicle deceleration............................... 23
Appendix B1 EBD signal values as a function of time for each case studied ................................. 24
Appendix C1 Full calculations of the brake force at the front and the rear wheels ...................... 24

Appendix C2 Full calculations of the brake force at the front and the rear wheels ...................... 24
Appendix D1 Diagram of a brake booster ...................................................................................... 24
Appendix D1 3 main components of the EBD ................................................................................ 25
Appendix E1 Simulation model ...................................................................................................... 26
Appendix E2 Torque due to rolling resistance ............................................................................... 31
Appendix E3 Pacejkas magic formula ........................................................................................... 32

Introduction
A car maker contacted our firm for a consultation in coming up with a preliminary design of a
braking system and analysis of the dynamics performance of a front-wheel-drive passenger car.
The first deliverable of the project is the specification of the braking system component where the
fundamental values were calculated and then used to design more complex part of the braking
system. This first deliverable of the report, which consisted of two parts, was carried out by two
members of the group, Nikhil and Saifuddin. The main point of this part was to calculate the boost
ratio of the brake system, which indicates the amount of amplification of the input by the brake
pedal force to give the output braking force. Most of the values of the characteristics of the car were
already given by the client while the remaining necessary values were assumed based on a typical
passenger cars or components available on the market in order to work out the desired values. The
next output was the analysis of the booster saturation point, which produced a graph that shows the
output braking force as the function of the brake pedal force and the boost ratio. The analysis gave
an idea for the safe operating range of force that can be applied by the driver in order to avoid
saturation of the brake force.
Second part of the first deliverable is the estimation of the braking system characteristics; this part
contained the analysis showing the behaviour of the braking system in certain aspects such as the
relation between the pedal force/displacement with the vehicle deceleration and the braking
efficiency as a function of the tyre-road friction coefficient. The analysis was significantly influenced
by the boost ratio and by the brake distribution of the car calculated in the previous part.
The second deliverable of the project required the formulation and implementation of a simulation
model for the longitudinal vehicle dynamics, braking system and non-linear tyre slip dynamics of a
front-wheel driven passenger car. Characteristics such as the vehicles velocity, vertical loads and
brake torques were observed. Two separate inputs, simulating different brake pedal forces, were
introduced into the simulation and their effects on the different parameters were analysed and
compared. Investigation into the effects of tyre relaxation on the vehicles simulated manoeuvres
were carried out, where the effects of tyre relaxation length on front and rear slip ratios of the
vehicle and vehicle acceleration were then analysed and compared. A step input was used for the
brake pedal force for the investigation of the tyre relaxation length.
This deliverable was carried out by two members of the group, Manveer and Maen. The formation
of the simulation model was carried out by both members. The analysis and comparison of the
vehicles velocity, vertical loads and brake torques with both ramp and step inputs was carried out
by Maen while the investigation of tyre relaxation length on the vehicles simulated manoeuvres was
carried out by Manveer.
The third deliverable required from the client was the formulation and implementation of an
Electronic Brake Distribution (EBD) algorithm. The investigation for this deliverable was carried out
by two group members, Saifuddin and Nikhil. Firstly, the method of implementation of the EBD was
described to provide a simplified understanding of how the EBD works.
The way in which the EBDS functionality performed for different payloads and tyre-road friction
conditions needed to be investigated. The inputs of the controller modelled were the wheel speed
signals and the brake pedal switch signal. 3 different cases were investigated for testing of the EBD
designed. These were the cases of the driver braking in a straight line motion, the driver braking
while the vehicle was cornering, and the driver suddenly braking at a high speed due to a hazard
ahead. A comparison of the angular velocities of the front and rear wheels were produced as a
1

function of time for all 3 different cases. Each case represented different payloads which the vehicle
would experience due to the different driving conditions assumed in each case.
By then assuming a bicycle model to represent the vehicle described by the client, relative slip
between the front and rear axles were studied for each of the cases across a range of velocities. This was
done to obtain values of the EBD signal for each case at any particular vehicle velocity. Thresholds were
then set as a function of the EBD signal to understand the action the EBD would perform according to a
particular value of the EBD signal received. The thresholds designed would cause activation of the EBD,
increase brake pressure or reduce brake pressure. These were the outputs of the EBD model designed by
our group, as required by the client to be the pressure demands for the rear callipers. Flag values were
then assigned from 0 to 3 to show whether the EBD was off, activated/maintaining brake pressure,
increasing brake pressure or reducing brake pressure. To produce this, the EBD signals received from
each case was studied. This was done to make a comparison and to eventually produce plots of the flag
values in each case as a function of time.
For the fourth deliverable, a calculation was made to validate a selection of springs, anti-roll bars
and shock absorbers. In order to obtained a reliable value for all the element, several assumptions
based on engineering judgement has been made due to the lack of information supplied. Firstly, to
obtain a value in determining spring stiffness design, a value of suspension stiffness need to be
properly calculated for front and rear suspension. For the anti-roll bar selection, the calculations that
have been made are based on the roll gradient of semi-firm based passenger car. To acquire the
value of anti-roll bar stiffness, the spring-roll stiffness calculation was made based on the suspension
stiffness value that has been calculated. Last element is damping coefficient of shock absorbers.
Installation ratio is the ratio of suspension and shock absorbers coefficient, since the installation
ratio value is available; the calculation are focusing on the calculation of critical damping coefficient
based on optimum damping design.

Q1a Specification/Selection of the braking system components (SAH)

From the question given, the following information was extracted and assumptions were made in order to
calculate the bore diameter of each of the rear floating callipers, DWC, R, which is then used to calculate the
boost ratio, B for a laden vehicle.

Given information
Front-to-rear mass distribution in static
condition = 55:45
Centre of gravity height of the car (both
laden/unladen), CG = 0.52m
Wheelbase, L = 2.75m
Unladen mass = 1300kg
Wheel radius, RW = 0.3m
Aerodynamic drag coefficient = 0.2
Frontal area, S = 2.0m2
Figure 1 Front wheel drive car

Assumptions
The followings are the assumptions made in order to calculate the diameter of the rear wheel calliper and
the brake booster. In the laden vehicle, there will be 5 passengers where the 2 front passengers weigh 70kg
each and the remaining 3 rear passengers weigh 65kg each. This will give the vehicle a laden mass of
1635kg. Next, when the pedal force, FP, of 290N is applied, a vehicle deceleration, aX , of 1.0G is achieved.
The typical brake pedal ratio, LP is 5:1 (Master Power Brakes, 2013). This ratio is the ratio between the
brake pedal force applied by the driver and the output force by the brake system acting on the wheel. The
bore diameter of each of the 2 front floating callipers, DWC, F are equal to 56mm and the equivalent radius of

each of the 2 front discs, RDISC, F are 135mm while the 2 rear discs, RDISC, R are equal to 110mm each. The
diameter of the tandem master cylinder, DTMC is 23.8mm and the friction coefficient between the brake
pads and discs, PAD DISC is 0.3. Finally, the centre of gravity of the front passenger will be equal
longitudinally at the same coordinate as the centre of gravity of the vehicle (where it stays constant
regardless if it laden or unladen) and the centre of gravity of the rear passenger is equal to 1.5m
longitudinally from the centre of gravity of the car.

Calculations of the diameter of the rear disc calliper, DWC, R

Theoretically, to achieve vehicle stability in braking, the actual brake distribution must be equal to the ideal
brake distribution. In this case the vehicle, Error! Reference source not found., is expected to achieve
stability in braking up to a deceleration of 1.3G.

The front mass = 0.55, therefore b = 0.55*2.75 = 1.513m

(1)

The rear mass = 0.45, therefore a = 0.45*2.75 = 1.238m

FBRAKING, F, IDEAL = aX (

(2)

) = 13180.34N

(3)

and
FBRAKING, R, IDEAL = aX (

) = -3381.66N

(4)

Hence, the brake distribution, BD% = 79.6: 20.4 80.0: 20.0

BD% =

,
, + ,

100

|, | = 2( , ),

(5)

and |, | = 2( , ),

(6)

With simplifications, PO, F = PO, R, PF = PR (before the intervention of electronic brake distribution) and
BFF = BFR,
BD% =

, ,
, , + , ,

100 =

2, ,
2, , + 2, ,

100

(7)

2
4

Where A =

2
(100%), ,

DWC, R =

BD% ,

, BD% = 80 as calculated above

(8)

DWC, R = 31.0mm
Calculating boost ratio, B for laden vehicle (MLADEN = 1635kg)
m(aX) = |, | + |, |

(9)

Before intervention of EBD,

PF = PR =

(10)

and as vehicle decelerate with acceleration, aX, of -1.0G when pedal force, FP = 290N is applied.
m(aX) = 2

[, ,
+ , ,
]

(11)
3

P & TMC are neglected. Therefore,

B=

| |
2 (, , + , , )

= 2.96

(12)

The braking factor, BFF can be calculated by doubling the friction coefficient between the brake pads
and discs, BFF = 2* PAD DISC.

Brake Saturation Point

The calculation of the area of the piston which separates the channels (see Figure in Appendix) is given by,
A=

2
4

, where the diameter of the chamber, D = 11 or 279.4 mm (Right Stuff Detailing, 2012) and the

difference between the atmospheric pressure and the vacuum area in the booster, p, is typically 0.30.4bar for petrol engine (Sorniotti, 2015). The value of the brake booster, B is the same as the value of B
calculated above, B = 2.96.

FOUTPUT = FIN + FS1 + FS2 , where FS1 = p1-2A1 and FS2 = p3-4A2.

(13)

FOUTPUT = FIN + p1-2A1 + p3-4A2

p1-2A1 = p3-4A2 = P. Note that A1 and A2 represent area of piston separating channel 1&2 and 3&4
respectively.
FOUTPUT = FIN + Kp*APNEUMATIC but for an approximation, the equation is reduced to equation 14 below

FOutput

FOUTPUT = FIN + p*APNEUMATIC B*FINPUT

(14)

Brake Booster Characteristic

5000

4000

Saturation point

3000

Booster saturation
(boost ratio approx. 1)

Approx. nominal
boost ratio

2000
1000
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

FINPUT, SAT

1600

1800

2000

2200

2400

2600

FInput

Figure 2 Brake Booster Characteristic

Graph in Figure 2 shows an approximation of the brake booster characteristic, beginning from the initial
point when there is no force applied, FINPUT = 0, until a certain amount of input force on the brake pedal by
the driver. From the graph, it can be seen that the saturation point of the brake begins when FINPUT =
1251N. Saturation point is the point where the boost ratio is approximately 1 as booster no longer helps in
braking. This saturation force can be calculated manually by equating the equation of the booster and the
force balance in the brake booster.

FOUTPUT = FIN + p*APNEUMATIC B*FINPUT

(15)

FINPUT (B-1) = p*APNEUMATIC

4

FINPUT, SAT =

p
(1)

0.4 105 0.0613

(2.961)

= 1251.0N

One important thing to note when designing a brake system using a brake booster is that the force where
the saturation point occurs must always be bigger than the typical maximum force applied by the driver
which is 450N. (Limpert, 2011)
For more accurate representation of the real characteristic of a brake booster, the jump-in, where the input
force is used to keep the vehicle stationary and also the points where there is no output force although
force is applied, must be taken into consideration. The latter occurs due to the gap between the plunger
and the disc.

Q1b Estimation of the braking system characteristics (NAK)

Braking efficiency as a function of tyre-road friction coefficient
Braking efficiency is defined as the ratio of maximum wheels-unlocked vehicle deceleration to tyre-road
friction coefficient, . Braking efficiency expresses the extent to which a specific tyre-road friction
coefficient to a vehicle is transformed into maximum wheels-unlocked deceleration (Limpert, 1992).
In formulas, it is known that:

(16)

Where is the front tyre-road friction coefficient, aX is the longitudinal vehicle deceleration, and the
other vehicle parameters are the same assumptions made previously. , is the front braking
force of the vehicle and is defined in Equation 17 according to the definition of real brake distribution.
, =

(17)

100

By referring to Appendix A1- Front braking efficiency as a function of tyre-road friction

coefficient, substitution and rearrangement of the above equations, as well as substitution of the
vehicle parameters assumed and calculated previously, can then define the front braking efficiency, EF, in
terms of as shown in Equation 18.

+
100

1.51
80
(2.75)( )0.52
100

1.51
2.20.52

(18)

By referring to Appendix A2, the rear braking efficiency, ER, can be expressed in terms of the rear tyreroad friction coefficient, , in the same way. This is shown in Equation 19.

100%

100

1.24
20
(2.75)( )+0.52
100

1.24
0.55+0.52

(19)

In braking conditions, the value of is considered to be negative. Therefore, values of substituted into
Equations 18 and 19 were negative. The value of the braking efficiency for the vehicle, E, is given by
Equation 20.
= min( , )

(20)

Three plots of , and were then plotted as a function of different values of . The values used for
and the values obtained from Equations 18, 19 and 20 used to produce these plots are shown in
Appendix A3. The plots produced are shown on the next page.

It is known that only numerical values

less than unity are meaningful (Limpert,
1992). If a value greater than unity is
calculated, e.g, for the front axle, then
the corresponding braking efficiency of
the rear axle will be less than unity,
meaning that it is the limiting axle and
will lock up first. This can be observed in
Figure 3. It shows that up to values of
friction coefficient of 1.3, the limiting
axle is the front one. For values of
friction coefficient after this point, the
opposite can be observed and the
limiting axle is found to be the rear one.

Brake pedal force as a function of vehicle deceleration

Calculations of FBRAKING,F and FBRAKING,R can be determined through using Equation 6. Before the
intervention of the EBD, the front and rear push-out pressures, pO,F and pO,R respectively, can be
considered equal to each other. The pressure on the front and rear brake callipers, pF and pR respectively,
could also be considered as equal to each other under these conditions. The front and rear braking
factors, BFF and BFR respectively, are also considered equal to each other before EBD intervention.
Equation 11 was then used to express aX in terms of the brake pedal force, FP. The simplified expression
for this is shown in Equation 21. The detailed calculations required to derive this expression are shown in
Appendix A4. Values of and were neglected for these calculations. The mass of the laden vehicle,
a value of 1635kg, was also used. Previous vehicle parameters listed and calculated have also been
carried forward for these calculations.

= 0.0338

(21)
As suggested by Limperts book, maximum
values of 445-489 N are normally experienced
for FP of a typical passenger vehicle (Limpert,
1992). A maximum value of FP at 450 N has
been chosen for investigation of the pedal
force as a function of aX. The values of FP
used, along with values of aX obtained by
using Equation 21, are tabulated in Appendix
A4. The plot produced for FP as a function of
aX is shown in Figure 4.

In practice, it is known that wheels tend to

lock at values of aX ranging from 10-12 m/s2
(Limpert, 1992). Results obtained for
Figure 3: Braking efficiency as a function of the tyre-road friction
coefficient
values of aX beyond this point have been
Figure 4: Pedal force as a function of vehicle deceleration
shown for conservative design purposes.

Brake pedal displacement as a function of vehicle deceleration

When calculating the brake pedal displacement, dP, pF must first be calculated as a function of FP. To
calculate these values, Equation 22 was used. Values of LP, B and ATMC were obtained from previous
calculations.

(5)(2.96)
2
(23.8103 )
4

= 33267.3

(22)

As before, values of FP ranged from 0 up until a chosen maximum value of 450 N. By using Equation 22, a
plot of pF as a function of FP was plotted. This is shown in Figure 5. Pressure values were calculated using
the units of Pascal. It has been converted to the unit of bar for presentation purposes. All data obtained
for this plot is shown in
Appendix A5.

Figure 5: Pressure on the front brake callipers as a function of brake pedal force

(0.00001)

Additionally, it was also

necessary to know the value
of the ratio between the
volume displaced of the brake
pedal, VDIS, and the pressure
on the brake disc, pDISC. As a
pDISC value of 100 bar
normally corresponds to a
VDIS value of 10 cm3, the ratio
between these values could
be used for calculation
purposes. The equation used
to calculate dP as a function
of pF is shown in Equation 23.

= 10000000 0.000445 5 = (11.24 109 )

(23)

From the results obtained

through Figures 4 and 5, it
was possible to combine
this with Equation 17 to
plot values of dP as a
function of aX. The plot of
the results obtained is
shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Displacement of the brake pedal as a function of vehicle deceleration

Q2 Formulation and implementation of a simulation model (MSC and MK)

Based on the bicycle model, the simulation model consisted of five major sections; longitudinal vehicle
dynamics; braking system model; vertical loads; front and rear longitudinal slip ratios; front and rear
wheel dynamics and a non-linear tyre model. An overview of the simulation with a breakdown of the
individual blocks is provided in appendix E1. The model has only one input, the braking force, which was
introduced into the braking system model. Scopes were placed in specific parts of the model to observe
the effects of front and rear braking torques; front and rear longitudinal forces; acceleration; velocity;
front and rear vertical loads and slip ratios. Equations used to model the five sections can be found
below.
Front and Rear Wheel Dynamics (MSC)
The front and rear wheel dynamics block was design to obtain the angular velocities of the front and rear
wheels from the braking torques, longitudinal forces, velocity of the vehicle and the vertical loads. The
equations used to find the front and rear angular velocities were derived using Newtons second law for
rotation about the front and rear wheel. As show below;

, , , , = ,,
, , , = ,

(24)
(25)

, is the engine torque and was assumed to be 300Nm; is the braking torque; , and
, are the longitudinal forces; , is the radius of the wheel in laden conditions; and are
the angular accelerations; ,, and , are the moments of inertia for both front and rear wheels.
Details of calculating torques due to rolling resistance , and , can be found in appendix E2.
Equations 24 and 25 were then rearranged to give the angular accelerations. These were then integrated
with initial conditions to give the front and rear angular velocities ( and ) as shown below.
= dt + F,INITIAL
= dt + R,INITIAL

(26)
(27)

F,INITIAL and R,INITIAL were determined using the initial velocity of the vehicle, which was taken to be
30ms-1, and the wheel radius, which was taken to be 0.3m. As results values of 100rads-1 were calculated
for both front and rear wheels.
The values for ,, and , were determined using the moment of inertia formula for a solid cylinder.
( =

1
2

2 ). The mass used to determine the moment of inertia was calculated using the load

distribution on the front and rear axle for a laden passenger vehicle carrying 5 passengers. Values
obtained for both ,, and , were 1.4 and 1.8 respectively.

Front and Rear Longitudinal Slip Ratios (MSC)

The front and rear longitudinal slip ratio block used the angular velocities, obtained from the front
and rear wheel dynamics block, and the velocity of the vehicle to obtain the longitudinal slip ratios
( and ). An additional constant was also introduced into this block, the tyre relaxation length
(, ), which was used with the longitudinal slip ratios to obtain slip ratio delay values. The equations
used to obtain the longitudinal slip ratios can be seen below.
=
=

(28)

(29)

was taken to be the same value as the wheel radius.

Equation 28 and 29 indicate that the slip ratios are positive in traction and negative in braking. These
equations were then manipulated with the tyre relaxation length to obtain front and rear slip ratio
delays. Since tyre behaviour was approximated as a first order system, a set of differential equations
were obtained and modelled.
,
= ( , )

(30)

, = ,
+ ,,0

,
= ( , )

(31)
(32)

, = ,
+ ,,0

(33)

The values for ,,0 and ,,0 were assumed to be 0 and , was taken to be 0.2m

Non-linear tyre model (MSC)

The non-linear tyre model uses Pacejkas magic formula with the vehicles vertical loads and slip ratios to
calculate the longitudinal forces. The short form of the formula can be seen below.
, = sin( { (1 )( + , ) + [ ( + , )]}) +
, = sin( { (1 )( + , ) + [ ( + , )]}) +

(34)
(35)

The equations for , , , , , , , , , and can all be found in appendix E3.

Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics (MK)

The longitudinal vehicle dynamics block uses the front and rear longitudinal forces, calculated from
the non-linear tyre model, to obtain acceleration and velocity values. The equations modelled within
the block can be seen below.

, + , =
=

, +,

= +

(36)
(37)
(38)

, and , are the front and rear longitudinal forces respectively, is mass of the vehicle (1300
Kg) , is the velocity of the vehicle, is the initial velocity taken to be 30 m/s, and
is the aerodynamic drag force acting on the vehicle which is calculated as follows
1

= 2 2

(39)

Is the aerodynamic drag coefficient (0.3), is the air density (1.2 kg/m3) , and is the frontal
area of the vehicle (2 m2).
Vertical loads (MK)
The vertical loads bock uses the acceleration and velocity values, calculated from the longitudinal
Vehicle Dynamics model, to obtain the front and rear vertical forces. The equations modelled within
the block can be seen below.
, =

, =

0.5

(40)

+ 0.5

(41)

, and , are the front and rear vertical forces respectively, m is the mass of the vehicle (1300
Kg), is the gravity (9.81 n), a (1.2m) and b (1.5m) are the front and rear semi wheel base lengths
respectively, Is the aerodynamic drag coefficient (0.3), is the air density, is the wheel base
(2.7 m), is the frontal area of the vehicle (2 m2) and HCG is the height of the centre of gravity (0.5m)
.
Braking System model (MK)
The braking system model uses the pedal braking force and the angular velocities of the front and
rear wheels, calculated from the Front and Rear Wheel dynamics model, to obtain the front and rear
braking toques. The equations modelled within the block can be seen below.
9

, = 2(

0, ), , tanh( )

(42)

, = 2( 0, ), , tanh( )

(43)

is the pedal force which is modelled as step and ramp input, is the brake pedal ratio (0.5), is
the booster ration (2.96) and are the brake factors of the front and rear brakes and have an
equivalent value of 0.6, , and , are the areas of the front (0.00246 m2) and rear (0.000755
m2) wheel callipers, , and , are the radius lengths of the front (0.135 m) and rear
(0.11m) brake disk, is the area of the pistons (0.0238 m2) , 0, and 0, are the push out
pressures of the front and rear brakes respectively which were assumed to be 0. The values and
assumptions used in part 1 were incorporated into the design of the braking system model.
K is a constant which can be assumed to be 1, though any value would work. The tan omega function
is a mathematical assumption which is used to simulate the wheels locking in order to prevent a
counter motion of the wheel.

Analysis of the simulation (MK)

Two separate inputs for the pedal force were used in the simulation to test how parameters such as
the vehicle velocity, braking torques and vertical loads vary according to the selected input. The two
inputs that were used included a step input, and a ramp input. The step input was assumed to
represent an abrupt increase in the brake pedal force, while the ramp input was considered to be a
gradual increase.

Velocity

Figure 7 a) Velocity with Step input

b) Velocity with Ramp input

The above graphs show how the velocity of the vehicle is affected when subjected to a step and
ramp input. In both graphs, the velocity starts at 30 m/s as assumed in the parameters. From the
graphs above, it can be seen that the velocity of the vehicle decreased to 22 m/s and 23 m/s in 5
seconds for a step and ramp input respectively. This signifies that the deceleration rate is higher
when a step input is used, which is logical, as when the pedal force increases abruptly, the velocity is
expected to decrease at a faster rate than if the pedal force was to increase gradually (ramp input).
This is also shown and proved by the step input graph, as from 1 second onwards, an increase in
gradient, which is not present in the ramp input graph, is observed.

10

Braking Torque
The front and rear braking torques were compared when subjected to different pedal force inputs.
The braking torqueses were inspected by running the simulation with a ramp and step input
separately. The results were then plotted using the scopes, however only the graphs related to the
front braking torque are shown below, as similar behaviour was observed for the rear braking torque
results.

Figure 8 - a) Front Braking Torque with Ramp input

b) Front Braking Torque with Step input

As seen from the graph above, the braking torque increased linearly when subjected with a ramp
input. Whereas when a step input was used in the simulation, an impulsive step increase of the
breaking torque was observed at one second which then remained constant after. The braking
torque produced in 5 seconds for a ramp input was very insignificant (1.23 N) compared to the
braking torque obtained with a step input (48 N). Similar behaviour can be seen for the rear braking
toques but on a smaller scale.

Vertical loads
The effect of the selected input on the front and rear vertical loads was examined. The vertical load
was firstly examined, and the graphs below show how the vertical load behaviour varies when
subjected to ramp and step inputs respectively.

Figure 9 - a) Front Vertical Load with Ramp Input

b) Front Vertical Load with Step Input

In both input cases, the front vertical loads both show underdamped characteristics; however for
the step input case, an abrupt increase that is followed by another underdamped behaviour is seen
at a time of 1 sec. As for the ramp input, the vertical load remains stable after 0.48 seconds.
11

Figure 10 - a) Rear Vertical Load with Ramp Input

b) Rear Vertical Load with Step Input

Similar behaviour, but on a smaller scale, is seen between the front and rear vertical loads. Although
the vertical load behaviour is similar when subjected to both inputs. With the step input, the rear
vertical load tends to decrease rather than increase at one second.

Analysis of tyre relaxation length on simulated manoeuvres (MSC)

The analysis of tyre relaxation length on slip ratios was carried out using a step input signal with a step of
200N. A simulation was carried out with and without relaxation length and the following results were
obtained.

Figure 11: Front slip ratios with and without tyre relaxation length

12

Figure 12: Rear slip ratios with and without tyre relaxation length

A simulation stop time of 5 seconds was chosen for this simulation model. In both figures 11 and 12, the
yellow lines represent the slip ratios without a tyre relaxation length and the purple lines represent slip
ratios with tyre relaxation lengths. Initially, in both cases, between 0 and 1 second the front and rear slip
ratios, both with and without relaxation, showed underdamped characteristics which eventually became
stable. Once the step was introduced at 1 second, all the slip ratios dropped and showed underdamped
characteristics again. Again the slip ratios levelled out; in the case of the front slip ratios, the slip ratios
dropped from -0.0103 and became stable at -0.0116. In the case of the rear slip ratios, the slip ratios
dropped from -0.00159 and became stable around -0.00205. Generally the slip ratios were greater for the
front wheels than for the rear wheels but, on the whole, they were all relatively small as they were all
close to 0. From figures 11 and 12, it can be observed that the relaxation lengths resulted in delays in the
slip ratios, as shown by the gaps between the yellow and purple lines. Moreover it can also be observed
that there are larger fluctuations in the slip ratios without tyre relaxation length in comparison to the slip
ratios with tyre relaxation length, in both front and rear cases, and hence it takes longer for the slip ratios
without relaxation lengths to reach a steady state.
Further analysis was carried out on the effects of relaxation length on the acceleration of the vehicle and
the following graphs were obtained.

Figure 13: Deceleration behaviour during the initial stage of the simulation with tyre relaxation length

13

Figure 14: Deceleration behaviour during the initial stage of the simulation without tyre relaxation length

The behaviour of the deceleration was similar in both cases of with and without tyre relaxation length. It
can be seen that, in both cases, prior to the input of the step (between 0 and 1 seconds), the initial
decelerations were stable around 1.43ms-2. These deceleration values suddenly increased to 1.63ms-2
when the step input was introduced and started to gradually increase over the five seconds. The
differences in the behaviour can clearly be seen by comparing figures 13 and 14; in the case of
deceleration with tyre relaxation length, the deceleration showed underdamped characteristics between
0 and 1 seconds and once again when the step input was introduced. In the case of deceleration without
tyre relaxation length, no such underdamped characteristics were present.

Q3 Formulation and implementation of an Electronic Brake Distribution (EBD) algorithm

Actual Implementation of the Electronic Brake Distribution (SAH)
During braking, the wheel of a vehicle that carries the least weight is more susceptible to skid. Skidding or
wheel lock occurs when the momentum of a car causes it to move forward at a speed significantly faster than
the angular speed of the wheels. EBD takes into consideration the fact that the overall weight of the vehicles
is not evenly distributed to each wheel as a result of the condition of the road, cornering or even the
alignment of the wheels. Wheels carrying heavier load will require more brake force to slow it down and the
opposite for the wheel with lighter load. Even during the braking process, the weight distribution can vary,
resulting in a rapid change of force required at each wheel.
With normal braking, without EBD, the uniform brake force applied to each wheel will result in uneven
braking which can lead to brake lock up as each wheel carries different amount of load than the other. With
EBD, it will sense the wheels with lighter load and reduce the braking power to those wheels in order to
prevent the wheels from skidding while the wheels carrying the higher load will maintain higher braking
power corresponding to the load it carries. The combination of the EBD and the adjusted braking power will
result in an effective braking system to stop the car. (Allegoracing, 2011)

14

Analysis of the graph (SAH)

Figure 15 shows comparison between the
angular velocities of the rear wheels and
the front wheels in 3 different cases. The
angular velocities of both wheels
contribute to the EBD signals which
correspond to the initiation of EBD,
maintaining, reducing or increasing the
brake pressure carry out by the
components in EBD (see Appendix D1).
The rear angular velocities are assumed
based on different braking conditions
while the front angular velocities is
assumed to be the same and decelerate
at a constant acceleration for all cases.

Figure 15: Angular velocities vs time

For Case 1, R 1, the line represents the

condition where the driver is braking on a straight line. In a straight line, the driver is assumed to apply force
and release alternately to slow down the vehicle at different deceleration until it comes to a complete stop.
Hence, explaining the fluctuation of angular velocities of the rear wheel.
For Case 2, R 2, the driver is braking while taking a corner until the vehicle stops at the end. As it can be
seen that the vehicle is already slowing down at the start of the analysis, t = 0s and decelerate gradually until
the angular velocities for both wheels become zero.
For the final case, Case 3, R 3, the driver had a sudden brake while at high speed due to hazard. The graph
kicks off at very high rear angular velocities and had a significant sudden drop of velocities within the 5
seconds of braking.

Formulation and Implementation of an EBD algorithm (NAK)

To calculate values of the EBD signal, F:R, relative slip between the front and rear axles needed to be
studied across a range of velocities. In the 3 cases mentioned of the vehicle undergoing different
conditions of motion, Equation 36 was used to calculate the EBD signal at a particular vehicle velocity
(Sorniotti, 2015). The values of F:R obtained for each case is shown as a function of time under Appendix
B1. The assumption made was that each wheel along the same axle was rotating at equivalent angular
velocities, so LF = RF and LR = RR. This was done so that calculations could be simplified with regard to
each axle as opposed to each wheel, as with the bicycle model.
+ +

2
2

: = max(

, , ,

, )

100 = max(
)

100

(44)

Where R was found to be larger than F, the EBD was not necessary as the rear wheels are not at risk of
locking. For values where R approaches F, the EBD intervenes beforehand to prevent rear wheel
locking. Most passenger cars experience R values consistently above F values. For investigation
purposes, thresholds were set according to EBD signal values. These were values of the EBD signal which
would cause activation of the EBD, increase brake pressure or reduce brake pressure. These values of
EBD thresholds were set at -7, 17 and -35 respectively. Plots of the EBD signals in each case as a function
of time is shown in Figure 16.

15

Figure 16: EBD signals as a function of time for each of the 3 cases, with EBD thresholds labelled.

Plots of flag variables were also made to provide an idea as to how the EBD was actually implemented.
Each flag would represent a certain action of the EBD. The way the EBD was activated was when it
reached a value higher than its activation threshold. This was denoted as a flag value of 1. This would be
the point for which the EBD maintained brake pressure. When it reached a value larger than the pressure
reduction or increase thresholds, the EBD would then reduce or increase brake pressure. This was
denoted as Flags 3 and 2 respectively. This can be observed in Case 1. From the points of which the EBD
was activated up until the action of another flag, brake pressure was maintained at Flag 1. This can be
seen in Case 3. For the case where the EBD was never activated, a flag value of 0 was denoted. This can
be seen in Case 2. Plots of the flag values, in reference to the EBD signals in each case, were plotted as a
function of time. This is shown in Figure 17.

Figure 17: Flag values in reference to the EBD signals found for each case, plotted as a function of time.

Q4 Selection of the front and rear springs, anti-roll bars and shock absorbers; (MZD)
In this particular section, a calculation was made to validate a selection of springs, anti-roll bars and shock
absorbers.

Selection of the front and rear springs

mf = 0.55 1300=715 kg

(45)

mR = 0.45 1300 = 585kg

(46)

16

Natural frequency is equal to 1Hz for front and rear and using optimum damping ratio 0.3

1 2

ksuspension_axle_F

F =

mf

(47)

Rearrange:
Front suspension stiffness
k

(48)

suspension_axle_F=

fF 2
1 2

k suspension_axle_F =

715(21)2
10.32

71539.48
0.91

= 31020 m

There is two suspension on front axle:

k suspension_F =

ksuspension_axle_F
2

= 15510

N
m

(49)

Rear suspension stiffness

k

(50)

m
suspension_axle_R= R 2R
1

k suspension_axle_R =

585(21)2
10.32

58539.48
0.91

= 25380

N
m

There is two suspension in rear axle:

k suspension_R =

ksuspension_axle_R
2

= 12690 m

(51)

For a spring stiffness selection of the car

Front
k spring_F =

ksuspension_F
IR2

15510
0.72

= 31653 m

12690
0.72

= 25897 m

(52)

Rear
k spring_R =

ksuspension_R
IR2

(53)

Anti-roll bar selection

There is several assumption that has been made

We assume that the height of roll center, RCH is 0.12 above ground for front and rear.
Roll gradient value is semi firm based on Race car vehicle dynamics (William Douglas L. Milken)
giving a value of 6.0deg/g. But it can be derived by:
, + , = (, + , )
(54)
+ = (, + , )
(55)
By using above equation using iterative procedure, roll angle can be solved to derive roll gradient
but not accurately. Another method in calculating roll angle is by using first approximation
estimation of vehicle body roll angle as below.

, +,

(56)

From the equation we can derive roll gradient, RG

17

= =

RG =

, +,

(57)

Neglect unsprung mass and lateral displacement of CG

mHROLL
kROLL TOTAL

(58)

Rearrange of the equation, since we need a value of total rolling stiffness

k ROLL TOTAL =

mHROLL
RG

m(CGRCH)
RG

1300(0.4)

6.0
1809.8

Nm

= 48663 rad

(59)

To calculate rolling stiffness for front and back

Fz,F,ay
Fz TOTAL,ay

may bRCH kROLL,F HROLL

(
+
)
T
L
kROLL TOTAL
may HCG
T

=H

bRCH
L
CG

kROLL,F HROLL
kROLL TOTAL

) = 0.55

(60)

Therefore
k ROLL,F = (

Fz,F,ay
Fz TOTAL,ay

HCG

bRCH kROLL TOTAL

L

HROLL

= (0.55 0.52 0.55 0.12)

48663
0.4

= 26764

Nm

k ROLL,R = k ROLL TOTAL k ROLL,F=48663-26764=21889rad

Nm
rad

(61)
(62)

The calculation that has been made is based on front to rear mass distribution in static condition is the
same with the load distribution while cornering, which mean that the suspension system is rigid.

k ROLL SPRING F = k SUSPENSION,F

T2
2

= 15510

1.62
2

= 19852 rad

k ROLL SPRING R = k SUSPENSION,R

T2
2

= 12690

1.62
2

= 16243 rad

Nm

(63)

Nm

(64)

To select anti-roll bars in term of roll gradient is:

Nm

k ROLL,ANTI ROLL BAR,F = k ROLL,F k ROLL,SPRING,F = 26764 19852 = 6912 rad

Nm

k ROLL,ANTI ROLL BAR,F = k ROLL,F k ROLL,SPRING,F = 21889 16243 = 5646 rad

(65)

(66)

Shock absorbers selection

Usually the damping ratio of vehicle is best describe by FBD as below

18

Figure 18: Free body force diagram of mass, spring and damper

Damping ratio=

SUSPENSION
CRITICAL

= 0.3 for optimum damping design govern by

1
22

Rearrange of the equation SUSPENSION = CRITICAL

(67)
(68)

1
22

To calculate damping for shock absorbers

SHOCK ABSORBERS =

SUSPENSION
IR2

(69)

First we can find CRITICAL for front and rear by

N

CRITICAL,F = 2mk SUSPENSION,F = 2715 15510 = 6660 m

N

CRITICAL,R = 2mk SUSPENSION,R = 2585 12690 = 5449 m

(70)
(71)

FromCRITICAL, we can derive SUSPENSION by

N

SUSPENSION,F = CRITICAL,F *0.3=6660*0.3=1998m

(72)

SUSPENSION,R = CRITICAL,R *0.3=5449*0.3=1634m

(73)

Lastly SHOCK ABSORBERS can be calculated for shock absorbers selection purposes
SHOCK ABSORBERS,F =
SHOCK ABSORBERS,R =

SUSPENSION,F
IR2
SUSPENSION,R
IR2

1998
0.72

= 4077 m

(74)

1634
0.72

= 3334

N
m

(75)

Conclusion
From the design, we managed to calculate the required boost ratio of the brake system, which was
found out to be 2.96 for the specific car requested by the client. The boost ratio was used in the
analysis of the booster saturation point and a graph which indicates the input force where the
saturation point occurred was produced. This is one of the step to designing a braking system with
better efficiency and more importantly safe enough to be a part of the cars function. As for the
second part of the deliverable, the breaking efficiency characteristics were successfully plotted for a
tyre road friction coefficient range of 0 to 1.6. The brake pedal force/displacement as a function of
vehicle deceleration plots were also produced for a braking pedal force range from 0 to 450N.
19

The Simulink model produced proved to be effective as all results obtained seemed reasonably
acceptable since velocities were decreasing as the pedal force increased. The model also showed
differences in behaviour in velocities, vertical loads and braking torques for the two separate inputs.
With regards to the effect of tyre relaxation length on simulated manoeuvres, according to the
results obtained for front and rear slip ratios, the introduction of a tyre relaxation length resulted in
delays in the slip ratios but did not have any significant effects on the magnitudes of the slip ratios.
Moreover similar to the case without tyre relaxation length, the front and rear slip ratios, with tyre
relaxation lengths, also showed underdamped characteristics but the fluctuations were significantly
smaller. In terms of deceleration, it can be said that the introduction of a tyre relaxation length had
little impact on the decelerations; the magnitudes of the decelerations still remained similar, the
only differences were that the deceleration behaviour with tyre relaxation showed underdamped
characteristics.
Regarding the formulation and implementation of the EBD algorithm, a simplified understanding of
the method of implementation was provided. 3 different cases of the vehicle experiencing different
payloads were successfully investigated, as requested by the client. The resultant EBD signals
according to the different front and wheel angular velocities as a function of time, in each case, were
also successfully plotted as a function of time. Each case demonstrated how the EBD would react
differently under the effect of different payloads. In Case 1, all functions of the EBD were tested. In
Case 2, the intervention of the EBD was not even necessary. In Case 3, vehicle payload conditions of
where only activation of the EBD without increasing or reducing brake pressure was shown.
Furthermore, flag variables were also assigned to represent each action of the EBD. This was done to
successfully study the actions of the EBD as a function of time for each case which was modelled.
Overall, a detailed demonstration of the implementation of the EBD for different payloads was
studied and successfully presented.
All required values were calculated and from the values, the appropriate components can be
selected and used on the car.

Reference
1) Master Power Brakes. (2013). How To Series: Correctly Calculating Brake Pedal Ratio. Available:
http://www.mpbrakes.com/techtalk/how-to-series/correctly-calculating-pedal-ratio. Last accessed
06/05/2015.
2) Sorniotti, A. (2015). Braking System Components. ENG3170: Modern Vehicle Systems Design. Available
at: https://surreylearn.surrey.ac.uk/d2l/le/content/116688 /viewContent/776895/View Last accessed:
06/05/2015.
3) Right Stuff Detailing. (2012). Booster Assemblies: Model: G10030572.Available:
http://www.getdiscbrakes.com/g10030572. Last accessed 06/05/2015.
4) Sorniotti, A. (2015) Tutorial Modern Vehicle Systems Design [Tutorial for 3 rd Year Mechanical Engineering],
ENG 3170: Modern Vehicle Systems Design. University of Surrey]. 07/05/15.
5) Limpert, Rudolf. (2011). Brake Design and Safety (3rd Edition). SAE International. Online version available
at: http://app.knovel.com/hotlink/toc/id:kpBDSE0003/brake-design-safety-3rd/brake-design-safety-3rd.
Last accessed 07/05/2015.
6) Allegroracing. (2011). How Electronic Brake force Distribution (EBD) works. [Online Video]. 14 Sep 2011.
Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= UpP6WYKrtS4. Last accessed: 11 May 2015.
7) Lampton, Christopher. (2009). How Electronic Brake Force Distribution Works. Available:
http://auto.howstuffworks.com/car-driving-safety/safety-regulatory-devices/electronic-brake-forcedistribution.htm. Last accessed 11/05/2015.
8) Limpert, R., 1992. Brake Design And Safety. 2nd ed. s.l.:Society of Automotive Engineers Inc.
9) Sorniotti, A., 2015. Example of Electronic Brake Distribution Algorithm for Conventional Braking Systems
(ENG3170), s.l.: University of Surrey.

20

Appendix
Appendix A1- Front braking efficiency as a function of tyre-road friction coefficient
By substituting Equation 2 into Equation 1:

%
100

%
100

Rearranging equation above:

=
(

%
100

%
100

+ ) =

Appendix A2- Rear braking efficiency as a function of tyre-road friction coefficient

Similar to the derivation of EF, can be defined with respect to the rear braking force,
FBRAKING,R, and the rear vertical load, FZ,R. This is shown below.
=

,
,

Where:

, =

100%
100

Substituting these equations, followed by simplifying and rearranging gives:

100%
100

100%
100

+ =

100%

100%
)
100

100

Appendix A3- Braking efficiency/tyre-road friction coefficient values

21

F
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6

EF
0.686364
0.70298
0.72042
0.738748
0.758032
0.778351
0.799788
0.82244
0.846413
0.871824
0.89881
0.927518
0.958122
0.990814
1.025815
1.06338
1.103801

R
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6

ER
2.254545
2.059801
1.896024
1.756374
1.635884
1.530864
1.438515
1.356674
1.283644
1.218075
1.158879
1.105169
1.056218
1.011419
0.970266
0.932331
0.89725

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6

E
0.686364
0.70298
0.72042
0.738748
0.758032
0.778351
0.799788
0.82244
0.846413
0.871824
0.89881
0.927518
0.958122
0.990814
0.970266
0.932331
0.89725

Appendix A4- Brake pedal force as a function of vehicle deceleration

As shown in Equation 6:
m( ) = 2

[,

+ ,

Neglecting and , as well as using the values calculated of mLADEN as m and other parameters
from Question 1:
1635( ) = 2

(562 )
(312 )
(5)(2.96)
135
[
(2 0.3)
+
(2
444.9
4
300
4

0.3)

110
300

1635( ) = 0.0665 (665.01 + 166.05)

Rearranging to solve for aX:
=

55.265
1635

= 0.0338

22

Table of values used and calculated for plot of aX against FP

ax (m/s2)
0
1.69
3.38
5.07
6.76
8.45
10.14
11.83
13.52
15.21

FP (N)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450

Appendix A5- Brake pedal displacement as a function of vehicle deceleration

Table of values used and calculated for plot of pF against FP

pF (Pa)
0
1663365
3326730
4990095
6653460
8316825
9980190
11643555
13306920
14970285

FP (N)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450

pF (bar)
0
16.63365
33.2673
49.90095
66.5346
83.16825
99.8019
116.4356
133.0692
149.7029

Table of values used and calculated for plot of dP against aX

dP (m) ax (m/s2)
0
0
0.018297
1.69
0.036594
3.38
0.054891
5.07
0.073188
6.76
0.091485
8.45
0.109782 10.14
0.128079 11.83
0.146376 13.52
0.164673 15.21

FP (N)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450

23

Appendix B1 EBD signal values as a function of time for each case studied

Time, t (s) F:R (Case 1) F:R (Case 2) F:R (Case 3)

5.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.50
-40.00
25.93
8.33
4.00
-25.00
39.81
5.56
3.50
0.00
41.36
7.41
3.00
16.67
37.50
-26.78
2.50
20.00
35.19
-27.03
2.00
5.56
36.73
-29.57
1.50
-8.70
35.19
-28.68
1.00
-11.11
32.87
-24.87
0.50
-12.90
29.01
-22.86
0.00
-14.29
25.93
-20.00

17
17
-35
-35
-7
-7

Appendix C1 Full calculations of the brake force at the front and the rear wheels
Braking force at the front and the rear wheels

FBRAKING, F, IDEAL = aX (

= (1.3 9.8) (1300 0.55

13000.52(1.39.8)
)
9.82.75

= 12.74 (715 (319.56364)

= 13180.34N

FBRAKING, R, IDEAL = aX (

= (1.3 9.8) (1300 0.45 +

13000.52(1.39.8)
)
9.82.75

= 12.74 (585 + (319.56364)

= -3381.66N

Appendix C2 Full calculations of the brake force at the front and the rear wheels
Boost ratio, B
B=

| |
2 (, , + , , )

| |

B = 2 ( +

,
,
, , )

B=

23.82 0.316359.8
2

22905(20.3)(56 135 + 312 110)

B = 2.96

Appendix D1 Diagram of a brake booster

24

Brake booster

Figure 19 Brake booster for a Premium Passenger Car (Sorniotti, 2015)

Appendix D1 3 main components of the EBD

Electronic Control Unit (ECU) will determine the suitable slip ratio for each wheel based on
the input given by the speed sensors, which will reduce, maintain or increase the brake
pressure using the brake force modulators to keep the slip ratio of each wheel within the
safe operating range.

Speed sensors are used to monitor the speed of the vehicle and the rotational speed of each
wheel. Using this information, the slip ratio can be calculated and adjusted if necessary. Each
wheel will be equipped with one sensor to supervise the speed individually and the average
speed from all four wheels will be the approximation of the vehicles speed. The slip ratio is
then determined by these values.

The principle behind brake force is the application of brake fluid to each wheel hydraulically,
where brake fluid is pumped through the lines and pneumatically runs the brake cylinders.
Brake force modulator is an electronic valves controlled by the ECU to modulate the brake
fluid flowing to each wheel or simply control the brake pressure that push the brake fluid.
(Lampton, 2009)

25

Appendix E1 Simulation model

Overview

Figure 20: Simulation model

26

Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics

Figure 21: Longitudinal Vehicle Dynamics model

Vertical Loads

Figure 22: Vertical Loads model

27

Braking System Model

Figure 23: Braking System Model

Front and Rear Wheel Dynamics

Figure 24: Front and Rear Wheel Dynamics model

Figure 25: Rolling resistance model

28

Figure 26: Front and Rear rolling resistance torques model

Front and Rear Longitudinal Slip Ratios

Figure 27: Front and Rear Longitudinal Slip Ratios model

Figure 28: Front longitudinal Slip ratio model

29

Figure 29: Frontal tyre slip model

Figure 30: Frontal slip delay model

Figure 31: Rear longitudinal slip ratio model

Figure 32: Rear tyre slip model

30

Figure 33: Rear slip delay model

Non-linear Tyre Slip model

Figure 34: Non-linear Tyre slip model

Figure 35: Front non-linear tyre model

Figure 36: Rear non-linear tyre model

Appendix E2 Torque due to rolling resistance

, and , were calculated using the following equation
= ,

31

 is the vertical load, , is the radius of the wheel in laden conditions and is the rolling
resistance determined by the equation below
= 0 + 2 2
Where V is the velocity of the vehicle and 0 and 2 are the rolling resistance coefficients with values;
0 = 0.010
2 = 6.5*10-6 s/m2

Appendix E3 Pacejkas magic formula

, = sin( { (1 )( + , ) + [ ( + , )]}) +
, = sin( { (1 )( + , ) + [ ( + , )]}) +
Where
= (1 , + 2 ),
= (1 , + 2 ),
= (3 , 2 + 4 , ) 5 ,
= (3 , 2 + 4 , ) 5 ,
= 6 , 2 + 7 , + 8
= 6 , 2 + 7 , + 8
, = 9 , + 10
, = 9 , + 10
= 0
Where
1 = -7.6118
2 = 1122.6
3 = -7.36*10-3
4 = 144.82
5 = -7.6614*10-2
6 = -3.86*10-3
7 =-8.5055*10-2
8 = 7.5719*10-2
9 = 2.3655*10-2
10 = 2.3655*10-2

32