Chap 2.

PL/SQL Transactions and Cursors

2. PL/SQL Transactions And Cursors

1.

What is a transaction?
A transaction is a series of one or more SQL statements that are logically related or a series of
operations performed on an Oracle table.
This logical unit is treated as an entity by Oracle. All changes to the data table are viewed as a
two-step process. Step 1: Make the changes requested, and Step 2: This must be followed by
the COMMIT statement. A ROLLBACK statement given at the SQL prompt can be used to
undo a part of or the entire transaction.
A transaction begins with the first executable SQL statement after a COMMIT, ROLLBACK,
or connection made to the Oracle engine.
A transaction is a group of events that occur between any of the following events:
1. Connecting to Oracle
2. Disconnecting from Oracle
3. Committing changes to the database table
4. Rollback
Closing transaction: a transaction is closed by either a commit or a rollback statement.
COMMIT statement: This statement ends the current transaction and changes are made
permanent.
Syntax:
COMMIT
ROLLBACK statement: This statement does exactly the opposite of the COMMIT statement.
It ends the transaction but undoes any changes made during the transaction. All transactional
locks are released from the tables.
Syntax:
ROLLBACK [TO [SAVEPOINT] <savepointname>];
SAVEPOINT is optional and is used to roll back a transaction partially.
savepointname is a savepoint ceated during the current transaction.

2.

Write a note on ROLLBACK and SAVEPOINT clauses.

ROLLBACK statement: This statement does exactly the opposite of the COMMIT statement.
It ends the transaction but undoes any changes made during the transaction. All transactional
locks are released from the tables.
Syntax:
ROLLBACK [TO [SAVEPOINT] <savepointname>];
SAVEPOINT is optional and is used to roll back a transaction partially.
savepointname is a savepoint ceated during the current transaction.
Creating a SAVEPOINT:
SAVEPOINT is used to mark and save the current point in the processing of a transaction. If a
SAVEPOINT is used with a ROLLBACK statement, parts of a transaction can be undone. An

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Chap 2. PL/SQL Transactions and Cursors

active SAVEPOINT is one that is specified since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK.
Syntax:
SAVEPOINT <savepointname>;
A ROLLBACK command can be given even without giving the SAVEPOINT clause.
If the ROLLBACK command is given without the SAVEPOINT option, the following take
place:
1. It ends the current transaction.
2. Undoes all the changes in the current transaction
3. Erases all the savepoints in that transaction
4. Releases the transactional locks.
If the ROLLBACK command is given with the TO SAVEPOINT option, the following take
place:
1. A predetermined portion of the transaction is rolled back
2. Retains the save point rolled to but loses those created after the savepoint.
3. Releases all transactional locks
3

Write a PL/SQL block of code that first withdraws an amount of Rs 1000. Then deposits
an amount of Rs 1,40,000. Update the current balance. Then check to see that the current
balance of all the accounts in the bank does not exceed 2,00,000. If the balance exceeds
2,00,000, then undo the deposit just made.
DECLARE
mBAL NUMBER(8, 2);
BEGIN
/* insert a record into TRANSMSTR for withdrawls */
INSERT INTO TRANSMSTR (TRANSNO, ACCTNO, DT, TYPE, TDETAILS,
DR_CR, AMT, BALANCE);
VALUES (T100, SB10, 07-OCT-2010, W, Mobile Bill, W, 1000, 30000);
/*Update the current balance of this account no, in the ACCTMSTR table */
UPDATE ACCTMSTR
SET CURBAL = CURBAL 1000
WHERE ACCTNO = SB10;
/* Define a savepoint */
SAVEPOINT no_update;
/*insert a record into transactionmaster for deposits */
INSERT INTO TRANSMSTR (TRANSNO, ACCTNO, DT, TYPE, TDETAILS,
DR_CR, AMT, BALANCE);
VALUES (T101, SB10, 07-OCT-2010, C, Deposit, D, 14000, 171000);
/* update the current balance of account no SB10 in the ACCTMSTR table */
UPDATE ACCTMSTR SET CURBAL = CURBAL + 140000 WHERE ACCTNO =
SB10;
/*store the total current balance from the ACCTMSTR table into a variable */
SELECT SUM(CURBAL) INTO mBAL from acctmstr;

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/* Now check if the current balance exceeds 200000 */

IF mBAL > 200000 THEN
/* undo the changes made to the transaction master table */
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT no_update;
END IF;
/* make the changes permanent */
COMMIT;
END;
4

Explain the modes of processing PL/SQL block.

A PL/SQL block can be run in one of the two modes:
1) Batch processing mode in which records are gathered in a table and are manipulated at
regular intervals.
2) Real-time processing in this, records are manipulated as they are created.
Batch processing is a PL/SQL block that is run at the SQL prompt at regular intervals to
process the table data. This can be done in Oracle using the technique called cursors.
Processing of SQL statements by Oracle:
Whenever an SQL statement is executed, Oracle engine performs the following tasks:
a) Reserves a private SQL area in memory.
b) Populates this area with data requested in the SQL sentence.
c) Processes the data in this memory area as required.
d) Frees the memory area when the processing of data is completed.

What is a cursor? State and explain the different types of cursors.

1. The Oracle engine uses a work area for its internal processing in order to execute an SQL
statement. This work area is private to SQL and is called a cursor.
2. The data that is stored in the cursor is called the active data set.
3. The size of the cursor in memory is the size required to hold the number of rows in the
active data set. But the actual size depends on the Oracle engines built in memory
management capabilities and also on the amount of RAM.
4. Oracle has a pre-defined area in main memory and cursors are opened in this area.
5. The values retrieved from a table are held in a cursor in memory by the Oracle Engine. Thi
data is transferred to the client over the network. A cursor is opened at the client end so
that data can be held at the client end.
6. If the number of rows returned by the Oracle engine is more than the area available in the
cursor at the client end, the cursor data and the retrieved data are swapped between the
operating systems swap area and RAM.
7. When a cursor is loaded with multiple rows, the Oracle engine opens and maintains a row
pointer. This row pointer will be relocated within the cursor area if the user changes the
view.
8. Oracle also maintains multiple cursor variables which indicate the status of processing
being done by the cursor.
TYPES OF CURSORS:
Oracle uses two types of cursors: these are called the implicit cursor and the explicit cursor. If
the Oracle engine opens a cursor for its own internal processing, it is known as the implicit
cursor. A cursor can also be opened on demand and such a cursor is called an explicit cursor.

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Chap 2. PL/SQL Transactions and Cursors

Attributes of Cursors:
1. When the Oracle engine creates an implicit or explicit cursor, it also creates cursor control
variables.
2. These variables are used to control the execution of the cursor.
3. There are four system variables that keep track of the current status of the cursor. These
cursor variables can be used in a PL/SQL block.
4. The four attributes of all cursors are:
Attribute Name
Description
%ISOPEN
Returns TRUE if the cursor is open, FALSE otherwise
%FOUND
Returns TRUE if record was fetched successfully, FALSE
otherwise
%NOTFOUND
Returns TRUE if record was not fetched successfully, FALSE
otherwise
%ROWCOUNT
Returns number of records processed from the cursor

Write a note on Implicit cursor.

1. The Oracle Engine implicitly opens a cursor on the server to process each SQL statement.
2. This cursor is opened and managed by the Oracle engine internally and therefore the
functions of reserving an area in memory, populating this area with proper data, processing
the data in memory, and releasing the memory when the processing is complete, is taken
care of by the Oracle engine.
3. The resultant (processed) data is then passed to the client through the network.
4. A cursor is now opened in the memory of the client machine to hold the rows returned by
the Oracle engine. The number of rows held in the cursor on the client machine is managed
by the clients OS and its memory area.
5. Implicit cursor attributes: These can be used to get information about the status of the last
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE or single row SELECT statements.
6. The values of the cursor attributes always refer to the most recently executed SQL
statement.
7. If an attribute value is to be saved for later use, it must be assigned to a boolean memory
variable.
8. The implicit cursor attributes are as follows:
Attribute Name
%ISOPEN

%FOUND

%NOTFOUND

%ROWCOUNT

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Description
The Oracle engine automatically opens and closes the SQL
cursor after executing the INSERT, DELETE, SELECT, or
UPDATE operations. Thus, the SQL%ISOPEN attribute of an
implicit cursor cannot be referenced outside of its SQL
statement. Hence, SQL%ISOPEN always evaluates to FALSE.
This evaluates to TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
affected one or more rows, or a single-row SELECT returned
one or more rows. Otherwise it evaluates to FALSE. This
attribute can be accessed as follows: SQL%FOUND.
This is the logical opposite of the %FOUND attribute. It
evaluates to TRUE if the INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE did
not any rows. Otherwise it evaluates to FALSE.
Returns number of records affected by an INSERT, UPDATE,
or DELETE statements. Syntax is : SQL%ROWCOUNT
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Example 1: A bank manager has decided to transfer employees across branches. Write
PL/SQL code to accept an employee number and the branch number followed by updating the
branch number of that employee to which he belongs. Display an appropriate message using
SQL%NOTFOUND based on the non-existence of the record in the EMP_MSTR table.
BEGIN
UPDATE EMP_MSTR SET BRANCH_NO = &BRANCH_NO
WHERE EMPNO = &EMPNO
IF SQL%FOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (Employee successfully transferred);
END IF;
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE (Employee number does not exist);
END IF;
END;
Example 2:
The bank manager of Bandra branch decides to activate all those accounts which were
previously marked as inactive for performing no transactions in the last 365 days. Write a
PL/SQL block to update the status of accounts. Display an appropriate message based on the
number of rows affected by the update fired.
DECLARE
Rows_Affected char(4);
BEGIN
UPDATE ACCT_MSTR SET STATUS = A WHERE STATUS = S AND
BRANCH_NO IN (SELECT BRANCH_NO FROM BRANCH_MSTR WHERE
NAME = Bandra);
Rows_Affected := TO_CHAR(SQL%ROWCOUNT);
IF SQL%ROWCOUNT > 0 THEN
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(Rows_Affected || accounts activated
successfully);
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(Currently there are no inactive accounts in the
Bandra branch);
END IF;
END;
Example 3: In this code, we use implicit cursors to display a message stating whether or not
employees salaries were updated.
DECLARE
var_rows number(5);
BEGIN
UPDATE employee
SET salary = salary + 1000;
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
dbms_output.put_line('None of the salaries where updated');
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ELSIF SQL%FOUND THEN

var_rows := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
dbms_output.put_line('Salaries for ' || var_rows || 'employees are updated');
END IF;
END;

Write a note on Explicit cursor.

1. Explicit cursors must be created when you are executing a SELECT statement that returns
more than one row. Even though the cursor stores multiple rows (or records), only one row
can be processed at a time and this row is called the current row.
2. When individual records in a table have to be processed inside a PL/SQL code block, a
cursor is used. This cursor will be declared and mapped to a SQL query in the DECLARE
section of the PL/SQL block and used within the executable section. A cursor created in
this way is called an explicit cursor.
3. Steps involved in using an explicit cursor:
a. Declare a cursor mapped to a SQL SELECT statement that retrieves data for
processing.
b. Open the cursor.
c. Fetch data from the cursor, one row at a time into memory variables.
d. Process the data held in the memory variables as required using a loop.
e. Exit from the loop after processing is completed.
f. Close the cursor.
4. Cursor Declaration: A cursor is define din the DECLARE section of the PL/SQL code
block. This is done by naming the cursor and mapping it to a query. When a cursor is
declared, the Oracle engine is informed that a cursor needs to be opened. This declaration
does not allocate memory. The three commands used to control the explicit cursor are :
open, fetch and close.
5. Working of the Open, Fetch and Close commands:
a. The initialization of a cursor takes place through the open statement. This
statement defines a private area named after the cursor name. It also executes the
query associated with the cursor, retrieves the table and populates the area in
memory i.e., it creates the Active Data Set. It also sets the cursor row pointer to the
first record in the Active data Set. Syntax: OPEN cursorname;
b. The fetch statement then moves the data held in the Active Data Set into memory
variables. The fetch statement is placed inside a LOOPEND LOOP structure and
through this data can be fetched into memory variables and processed until all rows
in the Active Data Set are processed. The fetch loop then exits. Syntax: FETCH
cursorname INTO var1, var2, Note that there must be a variable name for each
column value of the active data set and the data types must match. These variables
used for the fetch statement are declared in the DECLARE section.
c. After the fetch loop exits, the cursor must be closed with the close statement. This
will release the memory occupied by the cursor and its Active Data Set both on the
client and the server. Syntax: CLOSE cursorname. Once a cursor is closed, the
reopen statement is used to reopen the cursor.
6. Syntax of declaring cursor is: CURSOR cursorname IS SELECT statement;
7. Explicit cursor attributes: The four attributes are similar to those used for implicit cursor.
The attributes can be used in PL/SQL block for processing of data or for exiting. The
cursor name is appended to the attribute name when referring to an attribute.
8. The general format of using an explicit cursor is as follows:

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Chap 2. PL/SQL Transactions and Cursors

DECLARE
variables;
create a cursor;
BEGIN
OPEN cursor;
FETCH cursor;
process the records;
CLOSE cursor;
END;
Example 1: The bank manager has decided to mark all those accounts as inactive (I) on which
there are no transactions performed in the last 365 days. Whenever any such update takes
place, a record for the same is maintained in the INACTIVE_MSTR table which contains the
account number, the opening date and the type of account. Write a PL/SQL block to implement
this.
We first create the INACTIVE_MSTR table as follows:
CREATE TABLE INACTIVE_MSTR
(ACCTNO VARCHAR2(10),
OPENDT DATE,
TYPE VARCHAR2(2));
Now we write the PL/SQL code block:
DECLARE
CURSOR Crsr_NoTrans IS
SELECT ACCTNO, STATUS, OPENDT, TYPE FROM ACCT_MSTR
WHERE ACCTNO IN (SELECT ACCTNO FROM TRANS_MSTR
GROUP BY ACCTNO HAVING MAX(SYSDATE OPENDT) > 365;
/* declare memory variables to hold data fetched from the cursor */
str_ACCTNO ACCTMSTR.ACCTNO%TYPE;
str_STATUS ACCTMSTR.STATUS%TYPE;
dt_OPENDT ACCTMSTR.OPENDT%TYPE;
str_TYPE
ACCTMSTR.TYPE%TYPE;
BEGIN
OPEN Crsr_NoTrans;
/* if the cursor is open, continue with the data processing else display an appropriate
error message */
IF Crsr_NoTrans%ISOPEN THEN
LOOP
FETCH Crsr_NoTrans INTO str_ACCTNO, str_STATUS, dt_OPENDT,
str_TYPE;
EXIT WHEN Crsr_NoTrans%NOTFOUND;
IF Crsr_NoTrans%FOUND THEN
/*update status to I and insert each record into the INACTIVE_MSTR
table */
UPDATE ACCTMSTR SET STATUS = I WHERE ACCTNO =
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str_ACCTNO;
INSERT INTO INACTIVE_MSTR VALUE (str_ACCTNO,
dt_opendt, str_TYPE);
END IF;
END LOOP;
/*make the changes permanent */
COMMIT
ELSE
Dbms_output.put_line (Error: Unable to open cursor);
END IF;
CLOSE Crsr_NoTrans;
END;
In the above example, the %TYPE means that the data type of these variables will be as that
from the table.
Since the query may return more than one row, a loop is created which does the following:
(i)
Fetch the data retrieved by the cursor into the variable.
(ii)
Check if any data is retrieved
a. Update the status field of the AACT_MSTR table to indicate that the account is
inactive.
b. Insert a record in the INACTIVE_MSTR table
(iii) Repeat the above steps until the data retrieval process is completed.
(iv)
Finally, the COMMIT statement is executed to make the changes permanent.
Example 2: Write a PL/SQL block that will display the customer name, the fixed deposit
number and the fixed deposit amount of the first 5 customers holding the highest amount in
fixed deposits.
DECLARE
CURSOR Crsr_HiFD IS
SELECT Fname || || LNAME, FDNO, AMT
FROM CUST_MSTR C, ACCT_FD_CUST_DETAILS A, FD_DETAILS F
WHERE C.CUSTNO = A.CUSTNO AND A.FDNO = F.FDSRNO
ORDER BY AMT Desc;
str_NAME VARCHAR2(40);
str_FDNO FD_DETAILS.FDNO%type;
num_AMT FD_DETAILS.AMT%type;
BEGIN
OPEN Crsr_HiFD;
dbms_output.put_line (Name
FD No.
Amount);
dbms_output.put_line (-------------------------------------------------------------);
LOOP
FETCH Crsr_HiFD INTO str_NAME, str_FDNO, num_AMT;
EXIT WHEN (Crscr_HiFD%ROWCOUNT-1) = 5 OR
Crscr_HiFD%NOTFOUND;
dbms_output.put_line (str_NAME || || str_FDNO || || num_AMT);
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Chap 2. PL/SQL Transactions and Cursors

END LOOP;
END;
To retrieve the records, both the tables have to be linked on the basis of common columns
using join as follows:

C.CUSTNO = A.CUSTNO; this means the CUSTNO field of CUSTMSTR table is

joined with the CUSTNO field of ACCT_FD_CUST_DETAILS table.

Explain Cursor For Loops in PL/SQL.

The FOR loop is used in PL/SQL to control the looping in PL/SQL block.
The general syntax of this construct is :
FOR memoryvariable IN cursorname
The keyword FOR automatically creates the memory variable of the %rowtype. Each record
in the opened cursor becomes a value for the memory variable of the %rowtype. We also do
not open, fetch and close the cursor because these functions are done by the FOR statement
automatically.
Thus, the cursor FOR loop does the following automatically:
1. Implicitly declares its loop index as a %rowtype record.
2. Opens a cursor.
3. Fetches a row from the cursor for each loop iteration.
4. Closes the cursor when all the rows have been processed.
The general syntax for using FOR LOOP is :
FOR record_name IN cusror_name
LOOP
process the row...
END LOOP;
Example 1:
DECLARE
CURSOR emp_cur IS
SELECT first_name, last_name, salary FROM emp_tbl;
emp_rec emp_cur%rowtype;
BEGIN
FOR emp_rec IN sales_cur
LOOP
dbms_output.put_line(emp_cur.first_name || ' ' ||emp_cur.last_name || ' '
||emp_cur.salary);
END LOOP;
END;
In the above example, when the FOR loop is processed a record emp_rec of structure
emp_cur gets created, the cursor is opened, the rows are fetched to the record emp_rec and
the cursor is closed after the last row is processed. By using FOR Loop in our program, we can
reduce the number of lines in the program.

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Chap 2. PL/SQL Transactions and Cursors

Example 2: The bank manager has decided to marks all those accounts as inactive (I) on
which there are no transactions performed in the last 365 days. Whenever any such update
takes place, a record for the same is maintained in the INACTIVE_MSTR table. This table
consists of the fields account number, opening date and type of account. Write PL/SQL code
block to do the same.
First we create the INACTIVE_MSTR table.
CREATE TABLE IANCTIVE_MSTR (
ACCTNO VARCHAR2(10),
OPENDT DATE,
ACCTYPE VARCHAR2(2));
Now we write the PL/SQL code block:
DECLARE
CURSOR Crsr_NoTrans IS
SELECT ACCTNO, STATUS, OPENDT, ACCTYPE FROM ACCTMSTR
WHERE ACCTNO IN (SELECT ACCTNO FROM TRANSMSTR
GROUP BY ACCTNO
HAVING MAX(SYSDATE OPENDT) > 365;
BEGIN
/* we use the cursor FOR loop */
FOR NoTransRec IN Crsr_NoTrans
/* update the inactive status and insert each record into the INACTIVE_MSTR table */
UPDATE ACCT_MSTR SET STATUS = I
WHERE ACCTNO= NoTransRec.ACCTNO;
INSERT INTO INACTIVE_MSTR
VALUES(NoTransRec.ACCTNO, NoTransRec.OPENDATE, NoTransRec.ACCTYPE);
END LOOP;
COMMIT;
END;
Since a FOR loop is used in this example, we did not declare any variables. The cursor closes
automatically when all the records have been processed. This is because there are no more
records left to load into NoTransRec. Finally, the COMMIT statement is fired to make the
changes permanent.
9

What are parameterized cursors?

Parameters provide a way to pass information into and out of a module. PL/SQL allows us to
pass parameters into a cursor.
The reasons for using parameterized cursor are:
A parameter makes the cursor more reusable. Instead of hardcoding a value into the
WHERE clause of a query to select particular information, we can use a parameter and
then pass different values to the WHERE clause each time a cursor is opened.
A parameter avoids scoping problems. When we pass parameters instead of hardcoding
values, the result set for that cursor is not tied to a specific variable in a program or
block. If the program has nested blocks, we can define the cursor at a higher-level
(enclosing) block and use it in any of the sub-blocks with variables defined in those

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Chap 2. PL/SQL Transactions and Cursors

local blocks.
Most commercial applications will require that the query which defines the cursor, be general
in nature and the data that is retrieved from the table be allowed to change according to the
users need. Oracle permits the use of parameterized cursor. The contents of the parameterized
cursor will change depending upon the value passed to its parameter.
Since the cursor accepts user0-defined values into its parameters, thus changing the result set
extracted from the table, it is called as a parameterized cursor.
Declaring a parameterized cursor:
CURSOR cursorname (varname datatype) IS <SELECT statement>
Opening a parameterized cursor and passing values to it:
OPEN cursorname (vale/variable/expression)
The scope of the cursor parameter is confined to that cursor. You cannot refer to the cursor
parameter outside of the SELECT statement associated with the cursor.
Example 1:
Write a PL/SQL code block that will merge the data available in the newly created table
NEW_BRANCHES with the data available in the table BRANCH_MASTER. If the data in the
first table already exists in the second table, then that data should be skipped.
CREATE TABLE NEW_BRANCHES(
BRANCHNO VARCHAR2(10),
NAME VARCHAR2(30));
INSERT INTO NEW_BRANCHES (BRANCHNO, NAME) VALUES (B4, MAHIM);
INSERT INTO NEW_BRANCHES (BRANCHNO, NAME) VALUES (B5, MATUNGA);
INSERT INTO NEW_BRANCHES (BRANCHNO, NAME) VALUES (B6, DADAR);
INSERT INTO NEW_BRANCHES (BRANCHNO, NAME) VALUES (B7, KHAR);
Now WE WRITE THE PL/SQL CODE BLOCK:
DECLARE
/* This cursor retrieves all records of NEW_BRANCHES table */
CURSOR Crsr_Newbranches (str_BRANCHNAME VARCHAR2) IS
SELECT * FROM NEW_BRANCHES;
/* this cursor accepts the value of NAME from the current row of the cursor Crsr_Newbranches */
CURSOR Crsr_Branchchk (str_BRANCHNAME varchar2) IS
SELECT BRANCHNO FROM BRANCHMSTR
WHERE NAME = str_BRANCHNAME;
/* we create variables that hold the data from the cursor Crsr_Newbranches */
str_BRANCHNO BRANCH_MSTR.BRANCHNO.%TYPE;
str_BRANCHNNAME BRANCH_MSTR.NAME.%TYPE;
/* we create a variable that holds data from the cursor Crsr_Branchchk */
temp VARCHAR2(10);

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12

Chap 2. PL/SQL Transactions and Cursors

BEGIN
/* open the Crsr_Newbranches cursor */
OPEN Crsr_Newbranches;
LOOP
/* fetch the records from the Crsr_Newbranches cursor */
FETCH Crsr_Newbranches INTO str_BRANCHNO, str_BRANCHNAME;
EXIT WHEN Crsr_Newbranches%NOTFOUND;
/* open the Crsr_Branchchk cursor. Note that the value of variable passed to the
CrsrBranchchk cursor is set to the value of NAME in the current row of the cursor
Crsr_Newbranches */
OPEN Crsr_Branchchk(str_BRANCHNAME);
FETCH Crsr_Branchchk INTO temp;
IF Crsr_BRANCHCHK%FOUND THEN
dbms_output.put_line (Branch || str_BRANCHNAME || exists);
ELSE
dbms_output.put_line (Branch || str_BRANCHNAME || does not exist. Inserting
new branch in database);
INSERT INTO BRANCH_MSTR VALUES (str_BRANCHNO,
str_BRANCHNAME);
END IF;
CLOSE Crsr_BRANCHCHK;
END LOOP;
CLOSE Crsr_Newbranches;
COMMIT;
END;

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