Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
A THESIS
submitted by
M.P. JENARTHANAN
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
THESIS CERTIFICATE
Tiruchirappalli-620 015.
Date:
(Dr.R. Jeyapaul)
Research Supervisor
Associate Professor
Department of Production Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Tiruchirappalli-620 015.
India.
ii
ABSTRACT
iii
content, the fibre orientation and variabilities in the matrix material. Considerable
amount of literature is readily available on the machinability of conventional
metals/alloys and also polymers to some extent; with very limited work on GFRP
composites. However, machinability evaluation of glass fibre-reinforced polymer
(GFRP) composites in end milling has not yet received its due attention in the
research community despite the extensive industrial use of this process. This work
aims to elucidate the end milling machinability of GFRP composites with respect to
surface roughness, delamination and machining forces.
Milling GFRP composite materials is rather a complex task owing to its
heterogeneity and the number of problems, such as surface delamination, which
appears during the machining process, associated with the characteristics of the
material and the cutting parameters. Due to two phases of materials with drastically
distinguished mechanical and thermal properties, they bring in complicated
interactions between the matrix and the reinforcement during machining. Thus,
measuring and characterising surface properties represent one of the most important
aspects in manufacturing processes. For this study, workpiece material of GFRP
composites with five different fibre orientations are manufactured in the shape of
plates by means of hand lay-up technique.
This research was carried out in three phases. In the first phase, endmilling
experiments on GFRP specimens were carried out to evaluate the influence of fibre
orientation, cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut on surface roughness and
delamination factor using solid carbide tool coated with PCD by using Response
Surface Methodology (RSM). Milling experiments were designed based on four
factors, five level central composite, rotatable design matrix. Response surface
models were developed. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to check the
iv
validity of the model and for finding the significant parameters. Also, an analysis of
the influences of the entire individual input machining parameters on the responses
was carried out. An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model was developed to predict
surface roughness and delamination on the milled surface. In the development of
predictive models, cutting parameters of cutting speed, fibre orientation, depth of cut
and feed rate were considered as model variables. Good agreement was observed
between the predictive models results and the experimental measurements. The ANN
and RSM models for GFRPs milled surfaces were compared with each other for
accuracy and computational time. Cutting with minimum machining force is a prerequisite for endmill cutters, especially for those used for milling of composite
materials. Since the helix angle of the end mill cutter has a major influence on the
magnitude of the machining force, modifying its geometry produces improvements in
performance. In the second phase, milling experiments were performed on 15, 60
and 105 GFRP plates based on Taguchi L9 orthogonal array to evaluate the influence
of helix angle, spindle speed, feed rate and depth of cut on machining force.
Regression models were developed to predict the influence of each parameter on the
machinability of GFRP composites and examine which parameter has higher effect
and becomes more important using ANOVA technique. In third phase, Taguchi
method with fuzzy logic was employed to optimise the multiple performance
characteristics of the GFRP endmilling process. A Multi-Response Performance Index
(MRPI) was formulated for optimisation purpose. Experiments were conducted based
on L27 orthogonal array. The machining parameters viz., tool geometry (helix angle of
the endmill cutter), spindle speed, feed rate, depth of cut and work piece (fibre
orientation),
were
optimised
with
consideration
of
multiple
performance
characteristics viz., machining force, delamination, and surface roughness. The results
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the first place, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my Research
Supervisor Dr.R.Jeyapaul, Associate Professor, Department of Production
Engineering, National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli (NITT), for his
committed guidance, valuable suggestions, constructive criticisms and sustained help
from the very early stage of this research work that made me to look every nook and
cranny of this research work, for the successful completion.
I take the opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to the doctoral
committee
chairman,
Dr.T.Selvaraj,
Professor,
Department
of
Production
committee
member
Dr.S.P.Sivapirakasam,
Associate
Professor,
M.P. Jenarthanan
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
Page No.
ABSTRACT...
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT....
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS..
viii
LIST OF TABLES.
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES...
xvi
ABBREVIATIONS....
xviii
NOTATIONS..............
xx
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.1.1
Matrix phase .
1.1.1.1
1.1.1.2
1.1.2
Reinforcement ..
1.1.2.1
1.1.2.2
Woven roving
1.1.2.3
Woven fabrics
1.1.2.4
Reinforcing mat
1.1.2.5
Surfacing mat
1.1.2.6
Chopped fibres .
1.2
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES .
1.2.1
According to geometries ..
1.2.1.1
Fibrous composite
1.2.1.2
Particulate composite
1.2.2
1.2.2.1
1.2.2.2
1.2.2.3
viii
1.2.3
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
Rein mix
10
1.3.3
Processes ..
10
1.3.4
Economy ..
10
1.4
11
1.4.1
11
1.4.2
12
1.5
12
1.5.1
12
1.5.2
Conventional machining ..
13
1.6
13
1.6.1
13
1.6.2
14
1.6.3
14
1.6.4
15
1.6.5
Fuzzy logic
15
1.7
16
1.7.1
16
1.7.2
Aim
17
1.7.3
Scope .
17
1.8
OVERVIEW OF CHAPTERS .
18
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
INTRODUCTION
20
2.2
20
2.3
22
2.4
CONVENTIONAL MACHINING .
23
ix
2.5
MECHANICS OF MACHINING
28
2.5.1
Endmilling operation
29
2.5.2
Fibre orientation
30
2.5.3
31
2.5.4
36
2.5.5
38
2.5.6
40
2.6
42
2.6.1
Statistical tools .
43
2.6.2
Non-traditional techniques ..
43
2.6.2.1
45
2.6.2.2
46
2.6.2.3
Fuzzy logics .
47
2.7
SUMMARY .
48
CHAPTER 3
3.1
49
3.1.1
Introduction .
49
3.2
49
3.2.1
Glass fibres ..
50
3.2.2
Matrices
51
3.3
FABRICATION PROCEDURE .
51
3.3.1
51
3.4
54
3.4.1
Tensile testing ..
54
3.5
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP .
57
3.5.1
Design of experiments .
57
3.5.2
61
3.5.3
62
3.6
63
3.6.1
66
3.6.2
3.6.3
3.7
3.8
CHAPTER 4
73
COMPARISON
OF
RSM
PREDICTION
77
AND
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES
81
SUMMARY ........................................
82
4.1
INTRODUCTION
83
4.2
ARCHITECTURE
84
4.2.1
85
4.2.2
86
4.3
86
4.3.1
Supervised Training .
87
4.3.2
Unsupervised Training
87
4.3.3
Fixed-weight nets
87
4.4
ACTIVATION FUNCTION
88
4.5
88
4.6
MODEL DESCRIPTION .
91
4.6.1
Data normalisation ..
91
4.7
92
4.8
92
4.9
97
4.10
98
4.11
SUMMARY ..
100
CHAPTER 5
xi
5.1
INTRODUCTION
5.2
102
ACQUISITION
103
5.3
104
5.4
TAGUCHI
EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
AND
SELECTION OF PARAMETERS .
105
5.5
106
5.6
108
5.6.1
112
5.6.2
112
5.6.3
115
5.6.4
115
5.6.5
115
5.7
117
5.8
VALIDATION TESTS ..
117
5.9
SUMMARY .
118
CHAPTER 6
6.1
INTRODUCTION .
6.2
119
FUZZY LOGIC .
119
6.3
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
120
6.3.1
Experimental parameters
121
6.3.2
121
6.3.3
123
6.4
MEASUREMENTS .
123
6.5
TRANSFORMATION OF EXPERIMENTAL
RESULTS INTO S/N RATIO .
124
6.6
126
6.7
6.8
130
CONFIRMATION TEST
133
xii
6.9
DISCUSSION ..
134
6.10
SUMMARY .
135
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSIONS
137
7.1
139
REFERENCES
140
155
CURRICULUM VITAE.
157
DOCTORAL COMMITTEE.
158
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Title
No.
Page
No.
3.1
56
3.2
56
3.3
57
3.4
58
3.5
60
3.6
65
3.7
67
3.8
68
3.9
70
3.10
70
3.11
72
3.12
73
4.1
94
4.2
100
5.1
106
5.2
109
composite ..
5.3
xiv
5.4
composite ..
109
109
composite ..
5.5
ANOVA for the machining force for the three composite materials
116
5.6
118
6.1
121
6.2
122
6.3
125
6.4
MRPI values
129
6.5
131
6.6
Results of ANOVA .
132
6.7
134
machining parameters
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Title
No.
Page
No.
1.1
11
1.2
12
1.3
19
3.1
52
3.2
55
3.3
55
3.4
3.5
59
59
3.6
60
3.7
61
3.8
62
3.9
63
3.10
72
3.11
73
3.12
73
3.13
3.14
74
3.15
xvi
78
prediction ...
3.16
81
82
4.1
84
4.2
86
4.3
86
4.4
Flow diagram
90
4.5
91
4.6
96
4.7
97
4.8
99
5.1
103
5.2
104
5.3
105
5.4
5.5
5.6
111
111
5.7
113
5.8
5.9
5.10
113
114
114
6.1
127
6.2
128
6.3
128
6.4
129
6.5
132
xvii
ABBREVIATIONS
AFRP
AISI
ANN
ANOVA
Analysis of variance
ASTM
AWJ
BP
Back-Propagation
BPNN
CBN
CFRP
CMC
CNC
CVD
DOE
Design of Experiments
DOF
Degrees of Freedom
EDM
FEM
FRP
GA
Genetic Algorithm
GFRP
ISO
LEFM
MMC
MRA
MRO
Multi-Response Optimisation
MRPI
MSE
NTM
Non-traditional Machining
OA
Orthogonal Array
PCD
Poly-Crystalline Diamond
PMC
RSM
UD-CFRP
UD-GFRP
xix
NOTATIONS
d
Depth of cut
Fd
Delamination factor
Fm
Machining force
F- ratio
Variance ratio
Fx
Feed Force, N
Fy
Cutting Force, N
Fz
Thrust Force, N
Ra
Surface roughness, m
Width of cut, mm
Wmax
x1
Input variable
Xi
Xmax
Xmin
Response variable
Random error
xx
xxi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 COMPOSITES: A BRIEF HISTORY
The technologically advancing society is continuously challenging the limits
of conventional materials and is placing newer demands on material performance.
Extreme and sometimes conflicting requirements are forcing us to engineer materials
that are not possible to manufacture by conventional alloying methods. Composite
materials (or composites, for short) are engineering materials which are made from
two or more constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic
level while forming a single component. Composite materials form a material system
composed of a mixture or combination and are insoluble in each other. Composite
material comes under one class of engineered material developed specifically to meet
such a challenge. Mankind has been aware of composite materials several hundred
years Before Christ and since has been applying with innovations to improve the
quality of life. Contemporary composites resulting from research and innovation from
the past few decades have progressed from glass fibre for automobile bodies to
particulate composites for aerospace and to a range of other applications. The volume
and number of applications of composite materials have grown steadily, penetrating
and conquering new markets relentlessly. Modern composite materials constitute a
significant proportion of the engineered materials in the market ranging from
everyday products to sophisticated niche (hollow in a wall or statues) applications.
Glass fibre reinforced resin matrix composites were first introduced in the
early 1940s. Since then, the use of composites has grown rapidly in various industries
such as aircraft, marine, automobile, sporting goods, etc. While composites have
already proven their worth as weight-saving materials, the current challenge is to
make them cost effective. The efforts to produce economically attractive composite
components have resulted in several innovative manufacturing techniques which are
currently being used in the composites industry. Composites that form heterogeneous
structures which meet the requirements of specific design and function with desired
properties limit the scope for classification.
1
more resilient than epoxies. Moulding conditions for Vinylesters are similar to those
for polyesters. Epoxies are another family of thermoset resins used in
FRP/Composites. They have excellent adhesion properties and are suited for service
at higher temperatures some as high as 500F. Epoxy-matrix FRP/Composites are
processed by any of the thermoset methods. Epoxies are more expensive than
polyesters, have longer cure times, but their extended range of properties can make
them the cost/performance choice for critical applications. Epoxy/fibre structures
have generally higher fatigue properties than polyesters.
Polyurethanes are a family of resins that offer very high toughness, high
elongation, faster cure times and good coupling to a variety of reinforcements.
Polyurethanes are easily foamed in a controlled process to produce a wide range of
densities. Additives are easily incorporated into resin systems to provide
pigmentation, flame retardance, weather resistance, superior surface finish, low
shrinkage and other desirable properties. Gel coats consisting of a special resin
formulation provide an extremely smooth next-to-mould surface finish on
FRP/Composites. They are commonly applied in hand lay-up and spray-up processes
to produce a tough, resilient, weather-resistant surface. Gel coats, which may be
pigmented, are sprayed onto the mould before the reinforcement and resin are
introduced. Other thermosetting resin systems, generally formulated with chopped
strand or milled fibre reinforcement for compression or transfer moulding are:
Phenolics: Good acid resistance, good fire/smoke, and thermal properties.
Silicones: Highest heat resistance, low water absorption, excellent dielectric
properties.
Melamines: Good heat resistance, high impact strength.
Diallyl phthalates: Good electrical insulation, low water absorption.
1.1.1.2 Thermoplastic resins
Thermoplastic polymers can soften and become viscous liquids when heated
for processing and then become solid when cooled. The process is reversible allowing
a reasonable level of process waste and recycled material to be reused without
significant effect on the end product. Thermoplastic resins allow for faster moulding
cycle times because there is no chemical reaction in the curing process. Parts may be
formed as fast as heat can be transferred into and out of the moulding compound.
3
capability of contributing its properties to the composite. Fibres are very effective in
improving the fracture resistance of the matrix since a reinforcement having a long
dimension discourages the growth of incipient cracks normal to the reinforcement
that might otherwise lead to failure, particularly with brittle matrices. Man-made
filaments or fibres of non polymeric materials exhibit much higher strength along
their length since, large flaws, which may be present in the bulk material, are
minimised because of the small cross-sectional dimensions of the fibre. In the case of
polymeric materials, orientation of the molecular structure is responsible for high
strength and stiffness.
Fibrous composites can be broadly classified as single layer and multi layer
composites on the basis of studying both the theoretical and the experimental
properties. Single layer composites may actually be made from several distinct layers
with each layer having the same orientation and properties and thus the entire
laminate may be considered a single layer composite. Most composites used in
structural applications are multilayered; that is, they consist of several layers of
fibrous composites. Each layer or lamina is a single layer composite and its
orientation is varied according to the design. Several identical or different layers are
bonded together to form multilayered composite usable for engineering applications.
When the constituent materials in each layer are the same, they are simply called
laminates. Hybrid laminates refer to multilayered composites consisting of layers
made up of different constituent materials. Reinforcing fibres in a single layer
composite may be short or long compared to its overall dimensions. Composites with
long fibres are called continuous fibre reinforced composites and those with short
fibres, discontinuous fibre reinforced composites. The continuous fibres in single
layer composites may be all aligned in one direction to form a unidirectional
composite. Such composites are fabricated by laying the fibres parallel and saturating
them with resinous material. The bidirectional reinforcement may be provided in a
single layer in mutually perpendicular directions as in a woven fabric. The
bidirectional reinforcement may be such that the strengths in two perpendicular
directions are approximately equal. The orientation of discontinuous fibres cannot be
easily controlled in a composite material. So fibres can be either randomly oriented or
preferred oriented. In most cases the fibres are assumed to be randomly oriented in
the composites. However, in the injection moulding of a fibre reinforced polymer,
6
considerable orientation can occur in the flow direction and it is a case of preferred
oriented fibres in the composites.
1.2.1.2 Particulate Composites
As the name itself indicates, the reinforcement is of particle nature (platelets
are also included in this class). It may be spherical, cubic, tetragonal, a platelet, or of
other regular or irregular shape, but it is approximately equi-axed. In general,
particles are not very effective in improving fracture resistance but they enhance the
stiffness of the composite to a limited extent. Particle fillers are widely used to
improve the properties of matrix materials such as to modify the thermal and
electrical conductivities, improve performance at elevated temperatures, reduce
friction, increase wear and abrasion resistance, improve machinability, increase
surface hardness and reduce shrinkage. Also, in case of particulate reinforced
composites the particle can be either randomly oriented or preferred oriented.
1.2.2 According to matrix materials
Modern composite materials, depending on the matrix materials used, can be
classified as Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC), Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
and Metal Matrix Composites (MMC).
1.2.2.1 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
Polymer matrix composites are found to be the most commonly used
advanced composites because of their low cost, high strength, and simple
manufacturing techniques. These composites consist of a polymer reinforced by
smaller-diameter fibres. PMCs can be grouped into three different categories. The
grouping is based to a large degree, on the type of fibre reinforcement utilized in the
composite matrix. A variety of polymers may be used for each type of PMC. The
three groups are Glass Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP), Carbon Fibre-Reinforced
polymer (CFRP) and Aramid Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites (AFRP). Glass
fibre reinforced plastics are most commonly used materials in view of their relatively
high specific strength and low cost. Other materials provide higher specific strength,
higher specific stiffness and light weight. They are, however, expensive and are used
only for those applications where performance rather than cost is the major
consideration. Aramid is used instead of carbon where strength, lightness and
7
flexibility are major considerations and are not so important on stiffness and high
temperature performance. Polyester resins are lower in cost and are not as a strong as
the epoxy. Their use in composite includes boat hulls, structural panels, appliances,
etc. Epoxy, in addition, has a lower shrinkage after cure. It is used commonly in
carbon and aramid fibre composites. Maximum usable temperature of polymeric
matrix composites is relatively low, as the matrix materials is prone to softening or
chemical decomposition at moderate temperatures.
1.2.2.2 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
Ceramic matrix composites are on the rise mainly to improve fracture
toughness, in addition to their higher specific modulus and elevated temperature and
mechanical properties that are superior to metal. Continuous fibre, discontinuous
fibre or particulates can be used as reinforcing material. The common fibre materials
used are alumina and silicon carbide. Other CMCs include carbon/carbon composite
in which high strength carbon fibres are embedded in a graphite matrix. The low
density of carbon in combination with the extraordinary strength of carbon fibres
offers potential for the development of high specific strength material.
1.2.2.3 Metal matrix composites (MMC)
Metal matrix composites are used for applications which require higher
operating temperature than that are possible with polymer matrix composites. Most of
these alloys are developed especially for use in aerospace industry; but newer
applications are found in auto industry such as in automobile engine parts, brake
drums, brake shoes etc. Continuous fibres provide the highest stiffness and strength
for metal matrix composites.
The discontinuous and particulate MMCs are of low cost that provides higher
strength, stiffness and better dimensional stability over metal alloys. They provide
increased wear resistance and contribute towards the difficulty in machining these
materials. These alloys are used for sporting equipment, automobile engine parts,
missile guidance parts, etc. even though they are costlier today.
1.2.3
desired conditions and transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and
8
2. Flake composites
3. Filled composites
4. Particulate composites
The lay-up normally cures at room temperature but heating may be used to
accelerate care. The exposed surface is generally rough but it can be made smoother
by wiping on cellophane or other suitable releasing films such as Mylar or Polyvinyl
alcohol. Resins used in hand lay-up are usually polyesters epoxies.
11
fields of science and engineering because of their unique properties. As a result, there
is a strong need to understand issues associated with the manufacture of composite
components. The existing manufacturing technique of fabricating to near-net shape is
incomplete unless the component is subjected to secondary machining operations like
milling, trimming, finish grinding, drilling etc. based on the requirement.
Non-Traditional Machining (NTM) techniques were used in many of the
applications as a secondary machining operation. However, NTM techniques also
pose some limitations. As the equipment costs are very high, the process is
considered to be highly expensive for small-scale production. Moreover, they are
12
material oriented. Normally, NTM process cannot be used to work on any FRP
material. Aramid is the suitable material for laser machining, because of closeness in
properties of fibre and resin. To use Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) process,
the material should be electrically conductive. Abrasive water jet machining produces
higher noise levels. In laser machining problems like delamination, uneven kerfs and
thermal cracks are observed. These processes are incapable of producing blind
holes/cavities. As these processes are highly expensive, they are suitable for
application in industries where manufacturing cost is of secondary importance.
1.5.2 Conventional machining
Alternatively, conventional machining on FRP composite material plays a
vital role in meeting dimensional accuracy and good surface quality requirement. The
process is cheaper than NTM techniques. As a result of owing to the potential
application there is a strong need to understand the issues associated with
conventional machining of FRP composite materials.
Among the machining processes, milling is most frequently used in industries
due to the need for assembly components in mechanical structures. However, the
properties of FRP materials like anisotropy, non-homogeneity, and abrasiveness
provide problem like excessive tool wear, poor surface finish, delamination, fibre
pullout, dimensional variation, etc. These limitations motivated the present research
which revolves around the study on the problems of milling on FRP materials.
1.6 INTRODUCTION TO MODELLING AND OPTIMISATION TOOLS
1.6.1 Response Surface Methodology (RSM)
Response surface methodology is a series of mathematical and statistical
techniques used for modelling and analysing problems and has the objective of
optimising the responses. It is a sequential experimentation strategy for empirical
model building and optimisation. By conducting experiments and applying regression
analysis, a model of the response to some independent input variables can be
obtained. Based on the model of the response, a near optimal point can then be
deduced. RSM can determine and represent the effect of relationships among input
control factors that influence the responses as a two- or three-dimensional hyper
surface. Most of the work in RSM has been focused on the case where there is only
13
14
Middle, states that every proposition must either be true or false. Even when
Parmenides proposed the first version of this law (around 400 B.C.) there were strong
and immediate objections: for example, Heraclitus proposed that things could be
simultaneously true and not true. It was Plato who laid the foundation for what would
become fuzzy logic, indicating that there was a third region (beyond True and False)
where these opposites tumbled about. Fuzzy Logic has emerged as a profitable tool
for the controlling and steering of systems and complex industrial processes, as well
as for household and entertainment electronics, as well as for other expert systems
and applications like the classification of SAR data.
1.7 THE PRESENT WORK
1.7.1 Motivation for the Present Work
The performance of machine components, especially of Fibre Reinforced
Plastics (FRP) in high applications, is often critically dependent on the quality
produced by machining since the surface layer may drastically affect the strength and
chemical resistance of the material. The deterioration in the surface quality or the
damage caused by the machining operation is due to the anisotropic nature of the
fibrous composites. Milling of FRP composites to facilitate the assembly of parts is
one of the most important machining operations. Milling of composites poses
conditions and requirements that are not usually encountered in metal machining. The
mechanism of material removal in orthogonal machining of FRP is not completely
understood till date. Therefore the oblique cutting mechanism of fibrous laminated
FRP composites poses new set of problems which were never encountered earlier.
The major concern while milling the composites is the damage caused to the
workpiece. The principal mechanism of damage is largely delamination.
Delamination is generally regarded as a result of matrix dominated failure behavior,
which occurs in the interplay region. A number of research initiatives have been
undertaken for developing an up to date understanding of the milling process in the
context of FRP composite materials, but still a lot remain uncovered. The mechanism
of the material removal in an oblique cutting process such as milling, the variation or
the forces with time and their influence on accompanying damage, the optimal cutting
tool geometry for minimising the machining forces and the subsequent damage are
some of the key directions to which the research in the machining of composite
16
endmill cutter), spindle speed, feed rate, depth of cut and work piece (fibre
orientation), were
Chapter 5 discusses the effect of tool geometry (25, 35 and 45 helix angle
of the end mill cutter), fibre orientation, spindle speed, feed rate and depth of
cut on machining force and development of regression models.
60
90
120
Impregnation
Post curing
Finished GFRP composite plates
Tensile strength
Mechanical Testing
Youngs
modulus
Shear strength
Endmilling of GFRP
composites
INPUT PARAMETERS
RESPONSES
Tool geometry
Spindle speed
Feedrate
Depth of Cut
Fibre orientation
Machining Force
Surface
roughness
Delamination
Factor
19
Weight Wear
Ratio
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of literature review is to provide background information on the
issues to be considered in this thesis and to emphasize the relevance of the present
study. This treatise embraces various aspects of polymer composites with a special
reference to machinability characteristics. The present study focuses on machining
characteristics of Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastics (GFRP) which also includes the
application of statistics and various non-traditional techniques. This chapter deals
with the progress so far made in the selected directions. Literature survey was carried
out on machining of GFRP composites. This includes Design of Experiments,
Taguchi method, Response Surface Methodology, Artificial Neural Network,
machining process of GFRP, machining forces and optimisation using Fuzzy logic.
Motivation for the study and the objectives of this study are presented at the end of
the literature review.
2.2 MACHINING OF GFRP COMPOSITES
A few researchers carried out experimental investigations to analyse the
machining characteristics of GFRP composites. The related studies and their reports
are briefly presented in the following contexts.
Polymer matrix composite materials are increasingly used in high
performance applications because of superior strength to weight ratio and
stiffness to weight ratio. Everstine and Rogers (1971) reported that machining of
polymers/ composites was employed when the quantity of items not justify the cost
for moulds, or when a product needs accurate dimensional accuracy, better surface
finish. As high performance polymers have been increasingly used for a large number
of industrial applications, the machining quality is becoming a predominant factor for
the development of new processes and materials. Nevertheless, the knowledge about
the polymer behaviour under machining is very limited, as well as the definition of
suitable models for the prediction of cutting forces. In the scientific literature,
20
They reported that the process is suitable only when high finish and accuracy are
required and a little higher cost is acceptable. Jain et al. (1990, 1993) investigated on
electro chemical spark machining of Kevlar and glass fibre reinforced epoxy material.
They used copper as tool material and aqueous solution (NaCl) and sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) as electrolyte and showed that higher accuracy is feasible with this
technique.
2.4 CONVENTIONAL MACHINING
The NTM processes discussed so far are highly expensive and suitable for
specific composite. They are inadequate for general engineering products where
manufacturing cost is an important factor. Hence, a high degree of automation for
mass production of composite parts will be required to bring the costs down and
compete with other materials. Eric Persson et al. (1997) compared the performance of
KTH (Kungl Tekniska Hogskolata) method, PCD (Poly Crystalline Diamond) and
dagger type drill tools. Holes drilled by KTH method yielded highest strength and
fatigue life with line hole quality compared to the holes done by PCD and dagger
tools. Di llio et al. (1991) reported that large oscillations of the thrust force detected
during drilling of aramid composite can be interpreted in terms of non-uniform
distribution of thrust force along the tool cutting edge and poor inter-laminar strength
of composites. Sandvik Coromant (1987) reported that the time taken to drill critical
holes in resin impregnated carbon and glass fibre composite material at Westland
helicopters has been reduced from hours to minutes using long series Sandvik
Coromant delta drills. The H grade of carbide was selected as the best cutting
material for composite blades.
Jain and Yang (1994) reported that it is possible to reduce the thrust force
significantly by reducing the chisel edge width. The need to combine small chisel
edge with carbide and PCD materials is emphasized. Radhakrishnan and Wu (1981)
used the on line dynamic data to study the hole quality of composite materials. They
reported that change in the surface waviness can be used to monitor the drill
condition on-line, for appropriate replacement of the drill. Bhattacharya and Horrigan
(1998) performed drilling on Kevlar material with normal and modified tools under
cryogenic and ambient conditions. They reported that by introducing a negative point
angle and high clearance angle (Modified drill with-20 point angle), Kevlar Fibre
23
Reinforced Plastic (KFRP) could be successfully drilled with HSS bits. Application
of liquid nitrogen at the drilling site enhances the tool performance. Hoeheng and
Dharan (1990) reported that, as the end layers of the laminate has got less resistance
to deformation, maximum delamination occurs at the entry and exit side of the hole
mainly because of peel-up and push-out action of the tool. The model developed, is
useful in controlling feed rate and cutting speed in accordance with drill
displacement.
Singh and Khare (1975) performed drilling on PVC sheets; they presented a
relationship between error in hole diameter and drill speeds at different feed rates.
They revealed that very high feed rates result in large thrust and torque value. Sadat
et al. (1992) reported that the feed rate should be minimized at the exit part of the
hole with or without support; laminates get delaminated at a very small drilling load
if uncut portion is small. Wen-Chou Chen (1997) introduced the concept of
delamination factor in his experimental investigation on CFRP material. He reported
that delamination-free drilling is possible by proper selection of tool geometry and
drilling parameters. Furness et al. (1996) performed statistical analysis of the effects
of feed, speed and wear on hole quality in drilling hot rolled steel plates. The concept
of statistical analysis is utilised for the present investigation. Konig et al. (1989)
reported on the role of thrust force and torque on the surface quality.
Chandrasekharan et al. (1995) developed a model to predict force profile
along the cutting lips of the drill. Zhang et al. (2001) developed a model for
predicting mean values of thrust and torque in vibration assisted drilling of fibre
reinforced composite material. They reported that thrust and torque could be reduced
by vibratory drilling to a value of 20% - 30%. Face turning of filament wound GFRP
tubes using high speed steel tool was studied by Santhanakrishnan et al. (1989). They
found that during FRP machining, the HSS tool exhibits deformation at the nose and
cutting edge. Edge deformation was dominant on the primary cutting zone. Malhotra
(1990) reported that drilling fibrous composites presents many problems like
delamination, fibre/resin pull out, excessive tool wear etc. The author used HSS and
Carbide drills and reported the effect of cutting speed and feed on tool wear, thrust
force and torque. Optimisation of drilling process of graphite/ bismaleimide-titanium
alloy in terms of hole quality and cost was reported by Kim and Ramulu (2004).
24
Mathew et al. (1999) concluded that trepanning tools are found to give reduced thrust
while making holes in thin laminated composites.
Davim et al. (2003 and 2004) conducted experiments to select cutting
parameters for damage free drilling in carbon-fibre reinforced epoxy composite
materials. They established a correlation between cutting velocity and feed rate with
the delamination. Experimental investigation was also done on drilling Glass Fibre
Reinforced Plastic (GFRP) to study the effect of cutting parameters in a hand layup
GFRP material. (They also established a relation between cutting velocity and feed
rate with specific cutting pressure, thrust force, damage factor and surface roughness
in a GFRP material).
Tsao et al. (2003 and 2004) studied delamination factor by using twist drill,
candle stick drill and saw drill under various cutting conditions. They established a
relation between feed rate, spindle speed and drill diameter with delamination.
Analytically, the effect of various drill geometries on thrust force was predicted and
compared with twist drill. Abdul Budan and Vijayarangan (2002) conducted
experiments to study the effect of machining parameters and fibre concentration on
the surface finish, hole quality, and delamination. A finite element model was used to
predict the effect of fibre percentage on the thrust force causing delamination.
Murphy et al. (2002) conducted experiments to evaluate the effect of coatings on the
performance of Tungsten Carbide (WC) drills in the drilling of carbon fibre
reinforced epoxy. They used uncoated, Titanium nitride (TiN) coated and diamond
like material coated drills and concluded that the coatings were not found to reduce
either tool wear or damage to the composites.
Velayudham et al. (2005) investigated the dynamics of high volume fraction
glass fibre reinforced composite and correlated with peak drilling thrust, dimensions
of holes drilled and vibration induced during drilling. Aoyame et al. (1995)
investigated small diameter drilling in GFRP laminate and analysed hole quality and
the number of drilled holes. They concluded that the drilled hole quality is dependent
on the tool wear under the same drilling conditions.
25
et
al.
(2001)
conducted
experiments
on
drilling
Kim et al. (2005) proposed a critical thrust force at propagation of delamination zone
due to drilling of an infinite FRP/ metallic strip by the definition of energy release
rate. Lin et al. (1999) concluded that drill wear is the main problem to be overcome in
high speed drilling of glass fibre reinforced materials. They also reported (1996) that
increasing cutting speed on drilling of carbon fibre reinforced composite materials
accelerates tool wear. Dharan et al. (2000) proposed an intelligent machining scheme
to drill holes below critical thrust force to avoid delamination. Konig et al. (1990)
reported that high strength combined with low weight, are some of the characteristics
of new materials. Full exploitation of the outstanding properties requires machining
processes which are based on respective material features and which preserve the
advantages of the material as well as cost efficiency.
Mariatti et al. (2004) investigated the effect of hole drilling - technique on
tensile properties of Continuous Fibre Impregnated Thermoplastic (COFIT) plain
weave composite using circular hole. They concluded that the tensile properties of the
woven system decrease with increasing hole size. Moreover, the lamination drilled by
orbital techniques showed higher tensile properties. Mansour Mohamed et al. (1993)
evaluated 3D orthogonal woven carbon/epoxy composites with holes for joint
locations. Based on testing results, they concluded that 3D woven composites are not
sensitive for machining because the structure is well bound by Z yarns. They all
concluded that there is no reduction in tensile strength due to drilled hole.
Drilling tests were carried out by Caprino and Tagliaferri (1995) on GFRP
composites in order to verify the effects of machining parameters on the cut quality
and on the mechanical behavior of the material under examination. The experimental
data showed that the width of this damage zone is correlated to the ratio between
drilling speed and feed rate. Particularly, the higher the speed/feed value the better
would be the out quality. The tensile strength of specimens with holes (notched
laminate) is not influenced by the quality of the material at the edge of the hole,
whereas the bearing strength suffers a marked reduction with increasing damage zone
widths. For small damaged zone widths, no correlation seems to exist between the
bearing strength and the damaged zone.
27
29
Venu Gopala Rao et al. (2007) investigated the effect of fibre orientation, tool
parameters and operating conditions on fibre and matrix failure and chip size and
reported that the degradation of the matrix adjacent to the fibre occurs first, followed
by failure of the fibre at its rear side. The extent of sub-surface damage due to matrix
cracking and interfacial debonding was also determined in the study. Venu Gopala
Rao et al. (2003) simulated the orthogonal machining of UD-CFRP and UD-GFRP
composites using Finite Element Method (FEM). A two phase micro mechanical
model with fibre assumed elastic and the matrix elasto-plastic was used to estimate
the cutting force during machining. The model assumed plane strain and quasi-static
condition. The failure of fibre was found to be a combination of crushing and
bending, with the bending effect becoming more significant as the fibre orientation
changed from 90 to 15. Eriksen (1999) carried out experiments to study how the
surface roughness of short fibre reinforced thermoplastic machined by turning, was
influenced by variations of the feed rate, cutting speed, tool radius, the fibre
orientation and the interactions between them and finally concluded that the surface
roughness increased for an increasing feed rate, decreasing with the tool radius and
independent of the fibre orientation.
between down milling and up milling with regard to the cutting force, although the
difference between them regarding the surface roughness was large.
Paulo Davim (2002) presented an experimental machinability study of the
Metal- Matrix Composites (MMCs) A356/SiC/20p with brazed PCD tools or
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) diamond coated tools. The obtained results
showed that PCD tools were important in cutting these composite types of reduced
machinability. Actually, CVD diamond coated tools show short life, as tools wear
evolution becomes very fast after coating rupture.
Hooper et al. (1999) reported on the machining of the highly abrasive
composite system of aluminium reinforced by silicon carbide particles and/or alumina
fibres using PCD tools. The results indicated that PCD offered superior performance
over carbide, both in wear resistance and the quality of the surface finish produced.
Ding et al. (2005) reports on experiments carried out to study the performance of
various types of PCBN and PCD cutting tools during machining of aluminium alloy
reinforced by silicon carbide metal matrix composite. PCD tools exhibited better
performance than PCBN tools because they possessed higher abrasion and fracture
resistance, and lesser adhesion property with the work material.
El-Gallab et al. (1998) carried out a series of dry high-speed turning tests to
select the optimum tool material, tool geometry and cutting parameters for turning of
20% SiC/Al metal-matrix composite. Polycrystalline tools with zero rake angle and
large tool nose radii were recommended for the roughing operations.
Chung-Shin Chang (2006) studied the machinability of GFRP materials using
chamfered main cutting edge carbide tools. It suggests that K type tool is better than
P type of chamfered main cutting edge tools. Pramanik et al. (2007) analysed tool
particles interaction during orthogonal cutting using Finite Element Method (FEM). It
was found that the tool-particle interaction and stress-strain distribution in the matrix
were responsible for particle debonding, surface damage and tool wear. Hung and
Zhong (1996) developed models for cumulative wear for facing and turning tools.
Experimental data shows that flank wear does not depend on the order of different
cutting speeds. Santhosh Ranganath (2007) developed a model to calibrate and
predict forces in machining with honed cutting tools or inserts. The developed model
showed promising results. Alameda et al. (2005) investigated the performance of
CVD diamond coated ceramic tools on machining hard metal. The effect of tool edge
32
carbide (K15) cutting tools. The investigation revealed that the PCD tool performed
well compared to cemented carbide (K15) tool in terms of surface roughness and
specific cutting pressure. Praveen Raj and Elaya Perumal (2010) carried out a study
of surface roughness, precision and delamination factor in use of Ti-Namite carbide
K10 end mill, Solid carbide K10 end mill and Tipped Carbide K10 end mill on GFRP
composite material. The investigation revealed that, Ti-Namite coated carbide end
mill and tipped carbide end mill produced less damage on GFRP composite material
than the solid carbide end mill i.e., the delamination factor was smaller.
Suleyman et al. (2011) reported that the tool nose radius was the dominant
factor on the surface roughness in turning of AISI steel. Sakuma et al (1984) drilled
holes using four drill materials and investigated drill wear pattern, flank wear width
and cutting forces. They concluded that K10 drill material had the highest wear
resistance among the drill material investigated. They further studied (1978, 1981,
1983, and 1985) the temperature distribution along the cutting edge, and the relation
between the physical property (thermal conductivity) of tool material on cutting speed
and the temperature at the cutting edge. They also performed face turning test on the
CFRP pipes with several kinds of tool material, and the wear patterns and wear land
growth rates were analysed. They concluded that K10 is superior in turning of CFRP
pipes. Sakuma and Seto concluded that when cutting speed was increased, the rate of
wear on the nose in every tool material started to increase remarkably at a certain
speed. Thermal conductivity of the tool material increases the critical speed. Face
turning test was performed by Sakuma and Seto on GFRP cylindrical pipes which
contained uni-directional fibres. The cutting resistance and surface roughness were
measured to analyse the machinability and the tool wear mechanism in GFRP cutting.
Experimental investigation was carried out in drilling of GFRP using, HSS
drills, by varying cutting conditions and drill geometry namely cutting speed, feed
rate, point angle and helix angle by Gindy et al (1998). They developed a simple
monogram to predict drill wear level from the thrust level or the amount of material
removed. The effect of cutting speed and feed on drilling CFRP was studied by
Davim and Reis (2003) using standard twist drill and Spur drill.
The machinability of GFRP by means of tool materials and geometries was
investigated experimentally by Sang-Ook An (1997) and reported that by proper
selection of cutting tool material and geometry, excellent machining of the work
34
piece could be achieved. The surface quality related closely to the feed rate and
cutting tools. He also concluded that the surface roughness was not related to the
depth of cut and cutting speed with respect to various tools.
Lee (2001) investigated experimentally the machinability of GFRP by means
of tools made of various materials and geometries. Experimental trails were carried
out by turning using single crystal diamond, Polycrystalline diamond and Cubic
boron nitride cutting tools. The study also recommends single crystal diamond tool
for GFRP machining.
Ferreira et al. (2001) reported practical experiments on turning carbon fibre
reinforced composite materials to study the performance of different tool materials
such as ceramic, cemented carbide, Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) and PCD. The results
showed that only diamond tools were suitable for the finish turning. An optimisation
methodology was used to determine the best cutting conditions. The tests were
carried out with cemented carbide tool at various cutting speeds.
An attempt was made by Singh and Bhatnagar (2006) to correlate the drilling
induced damage with drilling parameters of uni-directional GFRP composite
laminates. The drill point geometry is a well known factor that influences the damage
during drilling. Among the drill point geometries tested, four facet drills were not
recommended. The results also reaffirm and agree with the earlier results that the
cutting speed to feed ratio being an important variable which influences drilling
induced damages.
Paulo Davim et al. (2004) presented a study with the objective of evaluating
the machining parameters (cutting speed and feed) and the influence of the matrix
under specific cutting force, delamination and surface roughness in two types of
matrix (Viapal VUP 9731 and ATLAC 382-05). A plan of experiments, based on the
orthogonal array, was established considering drilling with prefixed cutting
parameters in two hand lay-up FRPs materials. Finally the analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was performed to investigate the cutting characteristics of composite
material using a cemented carbide (K10) drill with appropriate geometry.
Sreejith et al. (2000) made a comprehensive study on machining carbon
phenolics ablative composites using coated carbide and PCD tools. Mathematical
models were also developed to describe the effects of cutting parameters. Paulo
Davim et.al (2003) studied the machinability on polyethere-therketone composites.
35
PCD cutting tool was used for machining and analysis of variance was preformed to
investigate the machining characteristics.
Ferreira et al. (2001) studied the machinability aspects of CFRP composites
using different tool materials like ceramics, cemented carbide, boron nitrate and PCD.
It concluded that diamond tool were suitable for finished turning and carbide tools
could be used for rough turning. Paulo Davim and Pedro Reis (2004) studied the
machinability on polyethere-therketone reinforced with 30% glass fibre using PCD
and cemented carbide (K20) tools. The investigation revealed that both PCD and K20
tools presented similar cutting characteristics and hence K20 grade cemented carbide
cutting tools were most preferred since the cost of carbide tools are much cheaper
than PCD tool.
2.5.4 Factors Influencing Surface Roughness
Ramulu et al. (1993) reported that surface roughness and delamination were
the characteristics that could influence the dimensional precision, the performance of
mechanical pieces and production costs. For these reasons there has been research
and development with the objective of optimising cutting conditions, to obtain a
determined surface roughness and delamination. Surface roughness has been received
serious attentions for many years. It has formulated an important design feature in
many situations such as parts subject to fatigue loads, precision fits, fastener holes
and aesthetic requirements. Jack fang and Wang (2002) reported that in addition to
tolerances, surface roughness imposed one of the most critical constraints for
selection of machines and cutting parameters in process planning. Sreejith et al.
(1994) mentioned that for achieving the desired surface finish, it is necessary to
understand the mechanisms of the material removal, and the kinetics of machining
processes affecting the performance of the cutting tool.
Palanikumar et al. (2003) highlighted machining of GFRP composite pipes for
cost effective implementation and the machinability became a major parameter. For
successful application of these composites, the surface finish and surface integrity
were seemed most important especially for surface sensitive parts subjected to fatigue
or creep.
Eriksen (1999) carried out experiments to study how the surface roughness of
short fibre reinforced thermoplastic machined by turning, was influenced by
36
variations of the feed rate, cutting speed, tool radius, the fibre orientation and the
interactions between them. He concluded that the surface roughness increased for an
increasing feed rate, decreasing tool radius and independent of the fibre orientation.
Santhanakrishnan et al. (1988) carried out face turning trials on GFRP, CFRP
and KFRP cylindrical tubes to study their machined surfaces for possible application
as friction surfaces. The surface roughness obtained and observed morphology of the
machined surface of FRP composites was compared and it is reported in this work.
Among the machined composite surfaces CFRP exhibited the best surface finish
value. The best surface structure of CFRP was due to the least fibre pull out with
insignificant loose fibres on the surface.
Palanikumar et al. (2006) made an attempt to assess the influence the
machining parameters on the machining of GFRP composites. Design of experiments
(full factorial design) concept has been developed to assess and optimise the chosen
factors to attain minimum surface roughness by incorporating (i) response table and
response graph (ii) normal probability plot (iii) interaction graphs (iv) ANOVA. The
results suggested that the feed rate was the factor, which had the greater influence on
surface roughness, followed by cutting speed. This was because of the nonhomogeneous microstructure of the GFRP composites.
Paulo Davim and Francisco Mata (2005) studied the machinability in turning
process of FRP using PCD tools. Controlled machining experiments were performed
with cutting parameters prefixed in the work piece. A statistical technique, using
orthogonal arrays and analysis of variance, was employed to investigate the influence
of cutting parameters on specific cutting pressure and surface roughness. The
objective was to evaluate the machinability of these materials as a function of the
manufacturing process (hand lay-up and filament winding). A new machinability
index was also proposed.
Paulo Davim and Francisco Mata (2007) carried out an optimisation study of
surface roughness on turning FRP tubes manufactured either by filament winding or
by hand lay-up, using PCD cutting tools. A plan of experiment was performed with
cutting parameters prefixed in the FRP tubes. The objective was to establish the
optimal cutting parameters to obtain certain surface roughness corresponding to
International dimensional precision (ISO) IT7 and IT8 in the FRP work pieces, using
Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA).
37
et al. (2003, 2004) studied delamination factor by using twist drill, candle stick drill
and saw drill under various cutting conditions. They established a relation between
feed rate, spindle speed and drill diameter with delamination. Enemuoh et al. (2001)
conducted experiments to select cutting parameters for damage free drilling in carbon
fibre reinforced epoxy material. They used Taguchi's experimental analysis technique
and a multi-objective optimisation criterion. A process map based on the results is
presented as a tool for drilling process design and optimisation for the investigated
tool/material combination.
Tsao et al. (2005) further concluded that saw drills and core drills produced
less delamination than twist drills by distributing the drilling thrust toward the hole
periphery. They also concluded that delamination could be effectively reduced or
eliminated by slowing down the feed rate when approaching the exit and by using
back-up plates to support and concentrate the deflection of the composite laminate
leading to exit side delamination. Drilling tests were carried out on GFRP composites
by Tagliaferri et al. (1991), in order to verify the effect of machining parameters on
the cut quality and on the mechanical behaviour of the material under examination. A
novel method was adopted to measure the width of the damage zone. The
experimental data showed that the width of the damage zone was correlated to the
ratio between drilling speed and feed rate, in particular, the higher the ratio value the
better the cut quality.
Mohan et al. (2007) carried out delamination analysis on GFRP composite
material and the main objective of the study was to determine the factors and
combination of factors that influenced the delamination using Taguchi and Response
Surface Methodology (RSM) to achieve the optimisation machining conditions that
would result in minimum delamination. From the RSM analysis it was evident that
among all significant parameters, specimen thickness and cutting speed have
significant influence on peel up delamination and the specimen thickness and the feed
rate have more significant influence on push down delamination.
Ramkumar et al. (2004) attempted a newer technique of superimposing
oscillatory vibration to minimise the damages during drilling of GFRP composites.
Compared to conventional drilling, this method resulted with reduced cutting forces,
damages and reduced tool wear. Machining of fibre reinforced composite differs
significantly from machining conventional metals and alloys, owing to the behaviour
39
varies non-linearly with all the control parameters, viz., speed, feed rate, and
diameter. Machining force also plays a key role in analyzing the machining process
of FRPs. The value of machining force in the work piece is determined using the
equation:
......................................................................... (2.1)
Where Fm- Resultant machining force, Fx- Feed force, Fy - Cutting force and Fz Thrust force. Generally, machining force increases with feed rate and it decreases
with cutting velocity. Evaluation of machining parameters of hand layup GFRP
related to machining force was also carried out by Paulo Davim et al. (2004) on
milling using cemented carbide (K10) end mill.
Paulo Davim et al. (2004) evaluated the cutting parameters (cutting velocity
and feed rate) related to machining force in the workpiece, delamination factor,
surface roughness and international dimensional precision in two GFRP composite
materials (Viapal VUP 9731 and ATLAC 382-05).
Won and Dharan (2002) conducted drilling experiments on CFRP to
determine quantitatively, the effect of chisel edge and pre drilling on thrust force.
They also developed semi-empirical relationships, between drilling forces and cutting
parameters and established critical feed rate for aramid and carbon fibre polymer
composites.
Mohan et al. (2005) used Taguchis optimisation methodology to optimise the
cutting parameters of GFRP materials in drilling. The effect of process parameters
was investigated using ANOVA. The results indicated that among all the significant
parameters, speed and drill size influence more on cutting thrust than the specimen
thickness and the feed rate. They also analysed the influence of machining parameters
on cutting force during drilling of GFRP composite with the help of a commercially
available software package MINITAB14.
Arul et.al (2006) reported that the defects in drilling of composites were due
to thrust force experienced by the work piece. The parametric influence on cutting
force was also experimentally evaluated. The experimental results showed that the
defects tolerance drilling could be attained by proper selection of cutting parameters
and tool material.
41
42
(2002). The experimentation was carried out with TiN-coated Tungsten carbide
(CNMG) cutting tools, for machining mild steel work pieces covering a wide range of
machining conditions. An attempt was also made to optimise the surface roughness
prediction model using Genetic Algorithms (GA) to optimise the objective function.
The GA program gives minimum and maximum values of surface roughness and
their respective optimal machining conditions.
Jeyapaul et al. (2006) presented the use of GA and ANOVA to the Taguchi
method for the optimisation of the gear hobbing process with multiple performance
characteristics. It has been demonstrated that a multiple response optimisation
problem can be effectively tackled by using GA to generate a single Weighted S/N
ratios (WSN) as a performance indicator. Statistical analysis is then carried out on the
WSN to identify the key factors which affect process performance and then determine
the optimal factor setting to optimise process performance.
Two models were developed to predict tool wear for different values of
cutting speed, feed and time. One of them was based on statistical regression, and the
other was based on a multilayer perception neural network by Ramon Quiza et al.
(2007). Parameters for the design and the training process for the neural network have
been optimised using the Taguchi method. Outcomes from the two models were
analysed and compared. The neural network model showed better capability to make
accurate predictions of tool wear under the conditions studied.
A hybrid technique based on an evolutionary search over the design space
defined by the experimental results was considered to optimise cutting condition by
Conceicao Antonio and Paulo Davim (2002). Optimal cutting conditions were
searched using a genetic algorithm based on an elitist strategy. The chromosomes
composed by random keys represented cutting conditions defined according to a
temporal scale. Franci cus and Joze Balic (2003) proposed a new optimisation
technique based on GA for the determination of the cutting parameters in machining
operations. It presented a new methodology for continual improvement of machining
conditions with GA. It performs the modification of recommended cutting conditions
obtained from a machining data and learning of obtained cutting conditions for those
learnt previously by a proposed GA. Experimental results show that the proposed GA
based procedure for solving the optimisation problem is both effective and efficient,
44
and can be integrated into an intelligent manufacturing system for solving complex
machining optimisation problems.
Sudarsana Rao (2005) presented the stress-strain response of Al2O3/SiC
ceramic composites using a back propagation neural network, which incorporates the
effect of interface shear strength in the analysis. The developed model is capable of
predicting the stress-strain relationship for new interface strength even with limited
information. Paulo Davim and Conceicao Antonio (2001) used GA for the optimal
search of cutting conditions. The chromosomes which represent cutting conditions
defined according to a temporal scale and were compared by random keys. The
evolution of the solutions is based on an elitist strategy.
2.6.2.1 Response Surface Methodology
Response surface methodology is a series of mathematical and statistical
techniques used for modelling and analysing problems and has the objective of
optimising the responses. It is a sequential experimentation strategy for empirical
model building and optimisation. By conducting experiments and applying regression
analysis, a model of the response to some independent input variables can be
obtained. Based on the model of the response, a near optimal point can then be
deduced. RSM can determine and represent the effect of relationships among input
control factors that influence the responses as a two- or three-dimensional hyper
surface. Most of the work in RSM was focused on the case where there was only one
response of interest. Khuri (1996) reported that in product or process development, it
is quite common that several response variables are of interest. In this case,
determination of optimum conditions on the input variables would require
simultaneous consideration of all the responses. This is called a multi-response
problem. As of now, several approaches have been proposed for Multi Response
Optimisation (MRO) including the desirability function approach by Derringer and
Suich (1980) and loss function approach [Pignatiello (1993), Vining (1998) and Ko et
al. (2005)]. A number of investigations using RSM were carried out by George et al.
(2004), Kansal et al. (2005) and Matoorian et al. (2008) determined the significant
factors affecting the response.
Sahin and Motorcu (2004) stated that in order to know surface quality and
dimensional properties, it is necessary to employ theoretical models for prediction
45
neural network to predict the delamination of CFRP composites. Karnik et al. (2007)
developed a ANN predictive model to predict the burr height and burr thickness
using a multilayer feed forward neural network, trained using back propagation
algorithm in high speed drilling of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastics (CFRP). The
performance of this ANN model was compared with
mathematical model and the accuracy of ANN prediction was clearly proved .
Palanikumar et al. (2006) predicted the tool wear using back propagation neural
network. This work has considerable implications in the real time monitoring of tool
wear. Stone and Krishnamurthy (1996) applied the neural network concept to
improve the hole quality and reported that drilling with desired thrust force profile
with acceptable error margin was possible with minimum delamination. Ezugwu et al.
(1995) developed a model for predicting tool wear using Artificial Neural Network
(ANN). The proposed model predicted 58.3% correctly the tool life and 87.5%
correctly the failure mode prediction.
Wong and Hamouda (2003) studied the feasibility of using neural network in
representing machinability data. The feed-forward neural network was used to predict
optimum machining parameters under different machining conditions. The Back
Propagation (BP) method was used to optimise the network component
representation. An object-oriented neural network handling library was developed
and implemented in the turning process. The proposed network unveils the possibility
of developing an expert system for machinability data selection based on neural
networks. Comparisons with fuzzy logic representation in the literature are also made.
Two models were developed to predict tool wear for different values of cutting speed,
feed and time. One of them was based on statistical regression, and the other was
based on a multilayer perception neural network by Ramon Quiza et al. (2007).
Parameters of the design and the training process, for the neural network were
optimised using the Taguchi method. Outcomes from the two models were analysed
and compared. The neural network model showed better capability to make accurate
predictions of tool wear under the conditions studied.
2.6.2.3 Fuzzy Logic
The theory of fuzzy logic, initiated by Zadeh (1965) has proven to be useful
for dealing with uncertain and vague information. Raghukandan et al. (2004)
47
explained that fuzzy theory has proved to be an effective means for dealing with
objectives that are linguistically specified. Linguistic terms, such as low, medium
and high may be defined by fuzzy sets. Ross (1992) revealed that since its
introduction, fuzzy set theory has attracted the attention of researchers in
mathematical and engineering fields.
Singh et al. (2009) highlighted modelling and analysis of thrust force and
torque in drilling GFRP composites by multi-facet drill using fuzzy logic using 8
facet solid carbide drills based on L27 orthogonal array. The process parameters
investigated were spindle speed, feed rate and drill diameter. Fuzzy rule based model
was developed to predict thrust force and torque in drilling of GFRP composites. The
results indicated that the model could be effectively used for predicting the response
variable by means of which delamination could be controlled. Latha and
Senthilkumar (2009) successfully applied fuzzy logic for the prediction of
delamination in drilling of glass fibre reinforced plastics.
2.7 SUMMARY
While a considerable amount of literature on the various aspects of
conventional machining of metals is available, only a limited amount of literature
exists on the machining of composite materials. However, from the above survey it is
observed that the investigations on the following few areas have been covered to a
lesser extent only. Experimental investigation on the effect of fibre orientation and
tool geometry on machining force and delamination factor during milling of GFRP
laminates is found inadequate. Experimental analysis on the surface roughness,
delamination factor and machining forces during endmilling of GFRP composites
with different fibre orientations has not been reported adequately. Endmilling
experiments on GFRP specimens to evaluate the influence of fibre orientation, cutting
speed, feed rate and depth of cut on surface roughness and delamination factor using
solid carbide tool coated with PCD by using RSM and ANN models has not been
attempted previously. Optimisation of the machining parameters using fuzzy logic
with Taguchi method has not been reported previously.
48
CHAPTER 3
ENDMILLING OF GFRP USING SOLID CARBIDE TOOL
COATED WITH POLYCRYSTALLINE DIAMOND (PCD)
3.1 PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMENS
3.1.1 Introduction
Major constituents in a fibre-reinforced composite material are the reinforcing
fibres and a matrix, which act as a binder for the fibres. Other constituents are
coupling agents, coatings, and fillers. Coupling agents and coatings are applied on the
fibres to improve their wetting with the matrix as well as to promote bonding across
the fibre-matrix interface. Both, in turn, promote a better load transfer between the
fibres and the matrix. Primarily fillers are used with some polymeric matrices to
reduce cost and improve their dimensional stability. In this chapter, the fabrication of
laminates is discussed along with some of their mechanical properties.
3.2 MATERIAL SELECTION PROCESS
Material selection is one of the most important and critical steps in the
structural or mechanical design process. If the material selection is not done properly
the design may show poor performance and may require frequent maintenance,
repair, or replacement; and in the extreme, may fail, causing damage or injuries. The
material selection process requires the knowledge of the performance requirements of
the structure or component under consideration. Usually materials are selected based
on type of loading, mode of loading, service life, operating or service environment,
cost, and so on. In this work, the type of loading is axial and the mode of loading is
low-velocity impact. The material properties to be considered in the material
selection process depend on the performance requirements (mechanical, thermal, etc.)
and the possible mode or modes of failure (e.g., yielding, brittle fracture, ductile
failure, buckling, excessive deflection, fatigue, creep, corrosion, thermal failure due
to overheating, etc.).
49
50
of the specimens varied in the range of 3 mm to 3.2 mm. The volume fraction of glass
fibres in all laminates were kept at 63%.
3.2.2 Matrices
The function of the matrix is to hold the fibres in their proper position, protect
the fibres from abrasion, transfer loads between fibres, and provide interlaminar shear
strength. The most prevalent thermoset resins used for composite matrices are
polyesters, vinyl esters, epoxies, bismaleimide, polyamides and phenolics. Matrices
or polymeric composites can either be thermoset or thermoplastics. Thermoset resins
usually consist of a resin (e.g., epoxy) and a compatible curing agent. When the two
are initially mixed, they form a low-viscosity liquid that cures as a result of either
internally generated exothermic or externally applied heat. Thermoset resins do not
soften on heating and cannot be remelted. Here, the epoxy resin Lapox L-12 grade
was used with Araldite LY 556 as binder. Epoxies are the most common matrix
materials for high-performance composites. They have an excellent combination of
strength, adhesion, low shrinkage and processing versatility. Hardener HY 951 grade
with diluent DY 021 was added to the mixture during fabrication of laminates. The
raw materials were procured from Hindustan Ciba Geigy, India. GFRP Laminates of
300 mm x 300 mm x 3 mm thick with 12 lay-up with desired fibre orientation (15,
30, 60, 90, 105 and 120) were prepared for the experimental analysis.
3.3 FABRICATION PROCEDURE
All laminates investigated in the present study were fabricated by dry hand
lay-up technique since it was ideally suited in manufacturing at low-volume with
minimum tooling cost. Fabrication of composite laminates involves four basic steps,
lay-up, wetting/impregnation, consolidation and solidification. All composites
manufacturing processes involve these same four steps although they are
accomplished in different ways.
successive layers of the fibre and resin mixture. The purpose of this step was to
achieve the desired fibre architecture.
52
elastic fibre deformation. During the consolidation process, applied pressure is shared
by both resin and fibre structure. Initially, however, the applied pressure is carried
solely by the resin (zero fibre elastic deformation). Fibres go through elastic
deformation when the compressive pressure increases and resins flow out toward the
boundary. A breather was placed onto the matrix and then a peel ply [nylon vacuum
bag] was placed over the lay-up. Vacuum of 550 /2 was applied through
vacuum valve at one corner of the system, to enable air evacuation between the plies.
The system was allowed for ambient cure along with vacuum pressure. The bagged
part was then placed in an oven and cured under the specified time, temperature and
pressure. The final step was solidification of the laminate. Vacuum and pressure were
maintained during this process for 24 hrs. In thermoset composites, the rate of
solidification depends on the resin formulation and cure kinetics. Heat [Post curing]
was supplied during processing to expedite the cure rate of the resin. In thermoset
resins, usually the higher the cure temperature the faster is the cross-linking process.
The temperature was maintained at 80C for the first 2 hrs and then at 120C for
another 2 hrs and later allowed to cool at room temperature.
3.4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF GFRP SPECIMENS
Mechanical test was performed in order to evaluate the mechanical properties
as well as the failure resistance properties of GFRP laminates. Mechanical properties
such as, tensile strength, Youngs modulus and shear strength were investigated with
a Universal Testing Machine (UTM) in accordance with ASTM standards.
3.4.1 Tensile testing
Tensile properties, such as tensile strength and tensile modulus of laminates,
were determined by static tension test in accordance with ASTM D309. The tensile
specimen was straight-sided and had a constant cross section with bevelled tabs
adhesively bonded at its ends (Figure 3.2). A complaint and straincompatible
material was used for the end tabs to reduce stress concentrations in the gripped area
and thereby promote tensile failure in the gauge section. Tensile specimens 250 mm
long and 2 mm thick with a gauge length of 50 mm and width of 25 mm were
prepared with end tabs. The tensile specimen was held in a servo- hydraulic universal
testing machine as shown in Figure 3.3 by wedge action grips and pulled at a
54
55
0.01-500 mm/min
Width * depth
1000 * 500 mm
Height
1800 mm
5 mm / min
Data acquisition
ASTM E 185
The strains were recorded with strain gauges. Three tests were carried out for
each case. From the tensile test results (Table 3.2), it was concluded that the tensile
strength of the 90 fibre oriented GFRP laminate was higher than the other fibre
orientations and shear strength of the 90 fibre oriented GFRP laminate was less than
the other laminates.
Table 3.2 Test results
Fibre
Tensile
Youngs
Shear
Orientation,
strength,
modulus,
strength,
(deg)
(MPa)
(GPa)
(MPa)
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
CODE
D3039-76
Sample No.
D3039-76 M D2344-84
15
153
8.164
7.513
30
112
12.105
8.127
60
109
12.475
10.054
90
229
14.412
9.17
105
117
12.941
11.014
120
133
13.169
11.968
56
Specification
Power
Maximum speed
Vertical machine
center
Hass-Us(Brand
New)
Hass No. 3 Machine
25 KW
12,000 rpm
X axis
Y axis
Z axis
Table area
1016 mm
520 mm
508 mm
520 x 1200
Make
was found to cause a large deformation rate of glass fibre and it produced
imperfection in surface and hence the cutting speed in the current study was fixed
between 50 and 100 m/min [Palanikumar et al. (2006)]. The fibre orientation angle
plays an important role for deciding the surface roughness. The previous results
indicated that fibre orientation angle was one of the important aspects, which affected
the surface roughness. For the present study, the fibre orientation angle was
considered between 15o and 120o. The depth of cut plays only a small role in
composite machining process compared to cutting speed and feed rate, but it affects
the machining process in a significant way. The depth of cut was fixed between 0.05
and 0.25 mm. Feed rate is the main parameter, which affects the machining process.
The increase in feed rate increases the chatter and it produces incomplete machining
at a faster traverse, which leads to higher surface roughness and hence low limit of
feed rates are advisable in machining GFRP composites. In the present study, the feed
rate was selected between 0.04 and 0.12 mm/rev. The identified parameters and their
lower and upper limits are given in Table 3.4. The cutting tool is made up of solid
carbide coated with polycrystalline diamond (PCD) as shown in Figure 3.6 and its
specifications are shown in Table 3.5.
Table 3.4 Process control parameters and their limits
Process parameters
Cutting speed
Fibre orientation
angle
Depth of cut
Feed rate
Units
m/min
o
(deg)
mm
mm/rev
Notation Variable
V
A
B
d
f
C
D
Levels
-2
-1
50
60
15
30
0
75
60
1
90
90
2
100
120
The fibre orientations are defined in clockwise with reference to the cutting
direction as shown in Figure 3.4. Fixation of GFRP composite material by using
clamps in the machining centre as shown in Figure 3.5. Figure 3.7 shows the milled
GFRP plates with the PCD tool.
58
Figure 3.4 Notation of the fibre orientation with respect to cutting tool
movement
59
Clearance angle 30
Helix angle
30
Flute length
5 mm
Overall length
50 mm
Tool diameter
3 mm
Manufacturer
60
61
quotient between the maximum width of damage (Wmax), and the width of cut (W).
The value of delamination factor (Fd) can be obtained by the following equation:
Fd =
........................................
(3.1)
Wmax being the maximum width of damage in m and W be the width of cut in m
=1
2
=1
=1
+ ....................................(3.3)
64
Trial
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Coded variables
A
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
B
-1
-1
1
1
-1
-1
1
1
-1
-1
1
1
-1
-1
1
1
0
0
-2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C
-1
-1
-1
-1
1
1
1
1
-1
-1
-1
-1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
-2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Average
Surface
roughness
(m)
Uncoded variables
D
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
V
60
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
60
90
50
100
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
30
30
90
90
30
30
90
90
30
30
90
90
30
30
90
90
60
60
15
120
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
60
d
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.05
0.25
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.15
f
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.11
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.04
0.12
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
Delamination
Factor
Ra
Fd
1.736
1.543
1.660
1.233
1.150
0.956
1.740
1.313
2.026
1.833
2.226
1.796
1.440
1.246
2.303
1.876
2.040
1.320
1.286
1.906
1.883
1.376
1.146
2.056
1.513
1.550
1.270
1.593
1.473
1.593
1.630
1.0420
1.0020
1.0844
1.0577
1.0011
1.0035
1.0825
1.1160
1.1445
1.0681
1.1482
1.0867
1.1020
1.0433
1.1416
1.1260
1.1054
1.0327
1.0135
1.1340
1.1300
1.1083
1.0020
1.1270
1.0673
1.0643
1.0632
1.0550
1.0571
1.0598
1.0692
For the convenience of recording and processing the experimental data, the
upper and lower levels of the parameters are coded as +2 and -2. The coded value of
any intermediate levels can be calculated by using the following expression.
65
Xi =
[2 + ]
2
.......................................... (3.4)
where, Xmax is the upper level of the parameter, Xmin is the lower level of the parameter
and Xi is the required coded values of the parameter of any value of X from Xmin to
Xmax.
66
Sum of
squares
3.32
F value
14
Mean
Square
0.24
40.25
p-value
(Prob>F)
<0.0001
Significant
Percentage
Contribution
97.41
0.64
0.64
109.06
<0.0001
Significant
18.67
0.50
0.50
84.60
<0.0001
Significant
14.56
0.39
0.39
65.55
<0.0001
Significant
11.43
1.14
1.14
194.00
<0.0001
Significant
33.43
AB
0.055
0.055
9.32
0.0076
Significant
1.41
AC
1.062E005
9.557E005
9.557E007
12.73
insignificant
0.00
0.9923
insignificant
0.00
<0.0001
Significant
12.90
6.250E008
5.263E007
5.625E007
0075
0.9974
BD
6.250E008
5.263E007
5.625E007
0.075
0.0026
Significant
2.19
CD
0.44
0.44
75.30
0.9923
insignificant
0.00
A2
0.075
0.075
12.73
0.0111
Significant
1.41
B2
9.557E007
3.96
insignificant
0.35
5.625E007
0.075
0.1788
C2
5.625E007
0.075
0.0640
insignificant
0.67
D2
0.013
0.048
2.23
0.1548
insignificant
0.38
Error
0.094
16
0.012
5.886E003
insignificant
2.59
Total
3.41
30
AD
BC
df
1
1
Effect
67
Sum of
squares
Model
0.061
df
Mean
square
F value
p-value
(Prob>F)
Effect
Percentage
contribution
14 4.358E003
101.96
< 0.0001
significant
98.84
6.285E003
6.285E003
141.03
< 0.0001
significant
10.14
0.019
0.019
447.61
< 0.0001
significant
30.64
1.552E004
1.552E004
3.63
0.0748
insignificant
0.25
0.022
0.022
507.07
< 0.0001
significant
35.48
AB
6.558E004
6.558E004
15.34
0.0012
significant
1.06
AC
1.726E003
1.726E003
40.38
< 0.0001
significant
2.78
AD
2.056E003
2.056E003
48.10
< 0.0001
significant
3.31
BC
2.395E003
2.395E003
56.04
< 0.0001
significant
3.86
BD
1.357E003
1.357E003
31.76
< 0.0001
significant
2.19
CD
1.666E004
1.666E004
3.90
0.0659
insignificant
0.27
A2
3.520E005
3.520E005
0.82
0.3776
insignificant
0.05
B2
1.492E004
1.492E004
3.49
0.0801
insignificant
0.24
C2
5.316E003
5.316E003
124.37
< 0.0001
significant
8.57
D2
2.236E008
2.236E- 5.231E008
004
0.9820
insignificant
0.00
68
Error
6.839E004
Total
0.062
16 4.274E005
0.004
insignificant
1.16
30
69
Sum of
square
3.288
df
74.1147
p-value
(Prob>F)
<0.0001
significant
Percentage
contribution
96.42
Cutting
speed(A)
0.64
115.4098
<0.0001
significant
18.77
Fibre
orientation
angle(B)
Depth of
cut(C)
Feed rate
(D)
AB
0.50
90.1639
<0.0001
significant
14.66
0.39
0.39
70.3279
<0.0001
significant
11.44
1.14
1.14
205.5738
<0.0001
significant
33.43
0.055
0.055
9.9180
0.0076
significant
1.61
BC
0.44
0.44
79.3443
<0.0001
significant
12.90
BD
0.075
0.075
13.5246
0.0026
significant
2.20
A2
0.048
0.048
8.6557
0.0111
significant
1.41
Error
0.122
22
0.006
Total
3.41
30
Model
Mean
square
0.411
0.64
0.50
F value
Effect
3.58
Sum of df
squares
0.0608
9
6.285E003
0.019
1
1
Mean
square
6.755E003
6.285E003
0.019
0.022
0.022
385
< 0.0001
significant
35.49
6.558E004
1.726E003
2.056E003
6.558E004
1.726E003
2.056E003
11.5
0.0012
significant
1.06
30.2
< 0.0001
significant
2.78
36.0
< 0.0001
significant
3.32
1
1
F
p-value
value (Prob>F)
118.2 < 0.0001
Effect
significant
Percentage
contribution
98.06
110
< 0.0001
significant
10.14
significant
30.65
70
BC
BD
C2
Error
Total
2.395E003
1.357E003
5.316E003
1.200E003
0.062
2.395E003
1 1.357E003
1 5.316E003
21 5.714E005
30
42.0
< 0.0001
significant
3.86
23.7
< 0.0001
significant
2.19
93.0
< 0.0001
significant
8.57
1.94
3.13 and Figure 3.14 show the response surfaces and contour plots for the effect of
cutting speed, fibre orientation angle, and depth of cut and feed rate on surface
roughness and delamination factor.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.10 Correlation graph for (a) surface roughness, (b) delamination
Table 3.11 Response table for surface roughness
Level
1
2
3
4
5
Delta
Rank
Cutting Speed
(V), m/min
2.04
1.785
1.559
1.474
1.32
0.720
2
Depth of cut
(d), mm
1.883
1.757
1.567
1.503
1.376
0.507
4
Cutting Speed
(V), m/min
1.1054
1.0933
1.0731
1.0629
1.0327
0.0727
3
Fibre orientation
angle () deg
1.0135
1.0508
1.0724
1.1054
1.1340
0.1205
2
Depth of cut
(d), mm
1.1300
1.0792
1.0655
1.0770
1.1083
0.0645
4
values lie within 2.000m as seen from the contour graph in Figure 3.13b. Further, it
is also seen that while the cutting speed is between 50 to 53 m/min and the feed rate
in the range of 0.11 and 0.12 mm/rev, the surface roughness appears to rise above
2.200m.
Figure 3.13 (a) Response surface graph shows the effect of feed rate and cutting
speed on surface roughness
Figure 3.13 (b) Contour plots shows the effect of feed rate and cutting speed on
surface roughness
Figure 3.13c shows the estimated response surface for the surface roughness
in relation to the individual parameters of cutting speed and fibre orientation. As seen
74
from the Figure 3.13c, the surface roughness tends to decrease with an increase of
cutting speed and increases with an increase of fibre orientation angle. From the
contour graph (Figure 3.13d), when the fibre orientation ranges from 60o - 120o and
the cutting speed varies from 50-68 m/min, the surface roughness values lie within
2.000m. Surface roughness increases with an increase in feed rate, but the effect of
fibre orientation is magnified at higher feed rates.
Figure 3.13 (c) Response surface graph shows the effect of fibre orientation angle
and cutting speed on surface roughness
Figure 3.13 (d) Contour plot shows the effect of fibre orientation angle and
cutting speed on surface roughness
75
Figure 3.13e shows the effect of depth of cut and feed rate on surface
roughness. As seen from the Figure 3.13e, the surface roughness tends to increase
steadily with an increase in feed rate and decreases slightly with an increase of depth
of cut. As read from the contour graph (Figure 3.13f), the surface roughness value lies
within 1.600m when the depth of cut varies from 0.04 to 0.25 mm and the feed rate
ranges from 0.049 to 0.082 mm/rev.
Figure 3.13 (e) Response surface graph shows the effect of feed and depth of cut
on surface roughness
Figure 3.13 (f) Contour plot shows the effect of feed and depth of cut on surface
roughness
76
77
Figure 3.14 (a) Response surface graph shows the effect of feed rate and cutting
speed on delamination factor
Figure 3.14 (b) Contour plot shows the effect of feed rate and cutting speed on
delamination factor
Figure 3.14c shows the effect of cutting speed and fibre orientation on
delamination factor. As seen from the Figure 3.14c, the delamination tends to
increase considerably with an increase of fibre orientation angle and decreases
slightly with an increase of cutting speed. As seen from the contour graph (Figure
3.14d), the delamination factor value lies within 1.0400, when the cutting speed
varies from 68 to 100 m/min and fibre orientation angle ranges from 15o to 48o.
78
Figure 3.14 (c) Response surface graph shows the effect of fibre orientation angle
and cutting speed on delamination factor
Figure 3.14 (d) Contour plot shows the effect of fibre orientation angle and
cutting speed on delamination factor
The effect of feed and fibre orientation angle on delamination is shown in fig
3.14e. As seen from the Figure 3.14e, the delamination tends to increase considerably
with an increase of both fibre orientation angle and feed rate. When the feed ranges
between 0.04 to 0.058 mm/rev and the fibre orientation angle is from 15o to 40o, the
delamination value lies within 1.0200 as observed from the contour graph (fig 3.14f).
79
Figure 3.14 (e) Response surface graph shows the effect of fibre orientation angle
and feed rate on delamination factor
Figure 3.14 (f) Contour plot shows the effect of fibre orientation angle and feed
rate on delamination factor
At fibre orientation 15o the fibres are subjected to slight bending and tensile
loading which cause the fibres to break in tension and little subsurface delamination.
At fibre orientation 40o the fibres are subjected to severe bending and compression
loading, which cause the fibres to break in compression shear. Significant subsurface
delamination and cracking in the fibres take place in this mode of chip formation.
80
81
CHAPTER 4
4.1 INTRODUCTION
An artificial neural network is an information-processing system that has
certain performance characteristics in common with biological neural networks.
A neural network is characterised by
(1) Its pattern of connection between the neurons (called its
architecture)
(2) Its method of determining the weights on the connections (called
its learning or training algorithm)
(3) Its activation function.
A neural net consists of a large number of simple processing elements called
neurons, units, cells or nodes. Each neuron is connected to other neurons by means of
directed communication links, each with an associated weight. These weights
represent information being used by the net to solve a problem. Neural nets can be
applied to patterns, or finding solutions to constrained optimisation problems.
Each neuron has an internal state called its activation or activity level, which
is a function of the inputs it has received. Typically, a neuron sends its activation as a
signal to several other neurons. It is important to note that a neuron can send only one
signal at a time, although that signal is broadcast to several other neurons.
The neural network can be trained to perform a particular function by
adjusting the values of the connections (weights) between elements. Commonly,
neural networks are adjusted or trained, so that a particular input leads to a specific
target output. Such a situation is shown in the Figure 4.1. There, the network is
adjusted based on a comparison of the output and the target, until the network output
83
matches the target. Typically many such input/target pairs are used in this supervised
learning, to train a network.
z1
z2
84
The arrangement of neurons into layers and the connection patterns within and
between layers is called the net architecture. Many nets have an input layer in which
the activation of each unit is equal to an external input signal.
Neural nets are often classified as single layer or multilayer. In determining
the number of layers, the input units are not counted as a layer, because they perform
no computation. Equivalently, the number of layers in the net can be defined to be the
numbers of layers of weighed interconnect links between the slabs of neurons. This
view is motivated by the fact that the weights in a net are extremely important for
information.
4.2.1 Single layer net
A single layer net has one layer of connection weights and it is shown in
Figure 4.2. Often, the units can be distinguished as input units which receive signals
from the outside world, and output units from which the response of the net can be
read. In the typical single layer net as shown in figure, the input units are fully
connected to output units but are not connected to other input units and the output
units are not connected to other output units.
4.2.2 Multi layer net
A multilayer net is a net with one or more layers (or levels) of nodes (then so
called hidden units) between the input units and the output units and is shown in
Figure 4.3. Typically, there is a layer of weights between two adjacent levels of units
(input, hidden, or output). Multilayer nets can solve more complicated problems than
single layer nets, but training may be more difficult. However, in some cases training
may be more successful, because it is possible to solve a problem that a single layer
net cannot be trained to perform correctly at all.
85
87
Identity function
(ii)
(iii)
Binary sigmoid
(iv)
Bipolar sigmoid
architecture including the input layer, hidden layer(s) and output layer. Layers include
several processing units known as neurons. They are connected with each other by
variable weights to be determined. In the network, the input layer receives
information from external source and passes this information to the network for
processing. The hidden layer receives from the input layer, and does all information
processing. The output layer receives processed information from the network, and
sends the results to an external receptor. The algorithm for the back propagation
program is described with the help of flow diagram as shown in Figure 4.4.
89
Start
Feed the data into Neural Network Tool box (MATLAB 10)
Design Network type, Training function, Perform function, Number of layers, Neurons &
Transfer function
Set Training parameters
Yes
Error within
tolerance?
No
No
Is mean R0.99?
Yes
Select optimum architecture
90
2( )
( )
- 1 ...................................................................... (4.1)
Where dmax and dmin are the maximum and the minimum values of raw data.
91
................................................................ (4.2)
Where netj is the total or net input, Xi n is the output of the node j in the nth
layer, and Wijn represents the weights from node i in the (n-1) th layer to node j in the
nth layer. A neuron in the network produces its input by processing the net input
through an activation (transfer) function which is, usually nonlinear. There are several
92
types of activation functions used for BP. However, the tan-sigmoid transfer function
is mostly used which is assigned in hidden layer (s) for processing the inputs as:
2
1+
1 1, 1 ...................................... (4.3)
The purelin, a transfer function, calculates a hidden layers output from its net
input which is assigned for output layer as:
=
1 1, 1 ....................................... (4.4)
The weights are dynamically updated using the BP algorithm. The network
has been trained with Levenberg Marquardt algorithm. This training algorithm has
been selected due to its high accuracy in similar function approximation. Default
training parameters available in MATLAB 10 was set for training the dataset. In
order to judge the performance of the network, the average error (MSE) has been
calculated as:
=
=1
=1
............................................................ (4.5)
93
Table 4.1 Correlation coefficient between the network predictions and the
experimental values using the test and the entire dataset of different network
architecture and trained output parameters
Network
architecture
roughness
Mean
Mean
correlation
prediction
Factor
Ra
Fd
error (%)
MSE
State of
convergence
4-2-2
4-4-2
4-6-2
4-8-2
4-10-2
4-12-2
4-14-2
4-18-2
4-22-2
4-26-2
4-30-2
4-40-2
4-4-4-2
Test
0.9647
0.9863
Entire
0.9669
0.9872
Test
0.9864
0.9712
Entire
0.9919
0.9718
Test
0.9870
0.9719
Entire
0.9929
0.9798
Test
0.9901
0.9743
Entire
0.9934
0.9873
Test
0.9912
0.9763
Entire
0.9914
0.9896
Test
0.9919
0.9799
Entire
0.9923
0.9907
Test
0.9929
0.9902
Entire
0.9934
0.9912
Test
0.9927
0.9908
Entire
0.9935
0.9932
Test
0.9932
0.9944
Entire
0.9981
0.9944
Test
0.9957
0.9908
Entire
0.9958
0.9909
Test
0.9967
0.9889
Entire
0.9972
0.9868
Test
0.9974
0.9885
Entire
0.9989
0.9888
Test
0.9918
0.9809
Entire
0.9938
0.9838
4.910E-02
3.860E-02
1.440E-02
8.970E-03
3.550E-03
3.280E-03
3.270E-03
8.752E-04
9.435E-04
5.220E-04
3.929E-04
1.172E-04
4.280E-03
94
Not
0.9754
4.258
converged
0.9766
4.171
Not
0.9786
4.008
converged
0.9810
3.581
Not
0.9791
3.766
converged
0.9863
3.359
Not
0.9805
3.128
converged
0.9901
2.522
Not
0.9816
3.071
converged
0.9902
2.478
Not
0.9864
2.744
converged
0.9907
2.321
Not
0.9913
1.782
converged
0.9918
1.681
Not
0.9917
1.694
converged
0.9919
1.511
Not
0.9924
1.502
converged
0.9953
1.012
Not
0.9931
1.444
converged
0.9932
1.439
Not
0.9926
1.452
converged
0.9928
1.329
Not
0.9928
1.328
converged
0.9936
1.295
Not
0.9867
2.652
converged
0.9889
3.127
4-6-6-2
4-10-10-2
4-12-12-2
4-14-14-2
4-16-16-2
4-20-20-2
4-22-22-2
4-24-24-2
4-26-26-2
4-28-28-2
4-30-30-2
4-32-32-2
4-36-36-2
4-40-40-2
Test
0.9929
0.9887
Entire
0.9937
0.9889
Test
0.9918
0.9827
Entire
0.9988
0.9928
Test
0.9952
0.9782
Entire
0.9974
0.9929
Test
0.9902
0.9752
Entire
0.9942
0.9922
Test
0.9952
0.9808
Entire
0.9975
0.9940
Test
0.9932
0.8862
Entire
0.9915
0.9899
Test
0.9932
0.9562
Entire
0.9962
0.9915
Test
0.9919
0.9854
Entire
0.9955
0.9921
Test
0.9921
0.9021
Entire
0.9979
0.9882
Test
0.9942
0.9713
Entire
0.9969
0.9921
Test
0.9982
0.9843
Entire
0.9991
0.9934
Test
0.9959
0.9785
Entire
0.9991
0.9926
Test
0.9967
0.9662
Entire
0.9989
0.9916
Test
0.9975
0.9791
Entire
0.9991
0.9934
2.617E-03
6.771E-04
3.825E-04
9.734E-05
7.697E-05
3.364E-05
2.100E-05
4.320E-06
5.762E-07
3.750E-07
1.510E-30
3.440E-30
2.712E-30
1.930E-30
Not
0.9902
2.477
converged
0.9909
2.258
Not
0.9874
3.178
converged
0.9952
1.016
Not
0.9869
3.378
converged
0.9948
1.127
Not
0.9827
3.277
converged
0.9924
1.523
Not
0.9874
2.601
converged
0.9951
1.018
Not
0.9550
5.002
converged
0.9908
2.316
Not
0.9750
4.268
converged
0.9936
1.395
Not
0.9863
3.358
converged
0.9938
1.207
Not
0.9532
5.128
converged
0.9928
1.471
Not
0.9827
3.311
converged
0.9939
1.102
Converged
0.9884
1.978
0.9968
1.008
0.9881
2.007
0.9958
1.067
0.9795
4.007
0.9954
1.124
0.9889
2.002
0.9962
1.019
Converged
Converged
Converged
+1 ( )
2
95
+ (4.6)
Where dmax and dmin are the maximum and minimum values of raw data.
96
% =
( )
100.............. (4.7)
hidden neurons and number of hidden layers. The error distribution was not uniform
when there was an increase of neuron in the single hidden layer (beyond 40). Hence,
it was decided to select two hidden layers and varied the number of neurons in each
hidden layer to get an optimum one. It was observed from the Table 4.1 that the
network with 30 neurons in each hidden layer has produced the best performance for
each of the output parameters (430302). It is also observed that the architectures
432322, 436362, and 440406, do not show more difference in the mean
correlation coefficient than the previous architecture. In the process it had not been
selected as an optimum architecture, because the mean prediction error as well as the
error distribution, maximum value of error, minimum value of error were observed as
high, which can be evident from Table 4.1.
4.10 COMPARISON OF RSM AND ANN MODELS
The main advantage of RSM is its ability to exhibit the factor contributions
from the coefficients in the regression model. This ability is powerful in identifying
the insignificant main factors and the interaction factors or insignificant quadratic
terms in the model and thereby can reduce the complexity of the problem. On the
other hand, this technique requires good definition of ranges for each factor to ensure
that the response(s) under consideration changes in a regular manner within this
range.
98
Figure 4.8 Comparison of RSM prediction Error with ANN prediction Error
It is noted that ANN models perform better than other techniques, especially
RSM, when highly non-linear behaviour is the case, as shown in Figure 4.8. Further,
this technique can build an efficient model using a small number of experiments.
However, the accuracy of the technique would be better when a larger number of
experiments were used to develop a model. On the other hand, the ANN model itself
provides little information about the design factors and their contribution to the
response if further analysis has not been done.
Generation of ANN model requires a large number of iterative calculations,
whereas, it is only a single step calculation for a response surface model. Depending
upon the nonlinearity of the problem and the number of parameters, an ANN model
may require a high computational cost to create. Although computationally much
more costly than a response model, ANN model leads to comparatively accurate
predictions of responses as shown in Table 4.2. The mean errors for ANN and RS
models are about 0.258847% and 0.769831% respectively. The error against
observation order of both the models is compared in Figure 4.8.
99
RSM
ANN
6.75E-03
1.510E-30
R2
0.97240
0.99260
Mean error/%
0.769831
0.258847
Computational time
Short
Long
Experimental domain
Regular
Irregular or regular
Model developing
With interactions
No interactions
Understanding
Easy
Moderate
Application
Frequently
Frequently
4.11 SUMMARY
A model using Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) was developed to study the
Machinability of GFRP composite during endmilling. The feed forward neural
network was trained with training samples, using the standard back propagation
algorithm. In the development of predictive models, cutting parameters of cutting
speed, fibre orientation, depth of cut and feed rate were considered as input model
variables and surface roughness and delamination factor were considered as output
100
responses. By using input/output data of the experiments, the model was trained and
tested. Data normalisation was applied to improve the accuracy and efficiency of the
behavioural characteristics of neural networks. The network consists of one input
layer with four neurons representing the four input parameters and one output layer
with two output neurons indicating the two output parameters. The weights were
randomly generated for the first iteration. The network was trained using Levenberg
Marquardt algorithm. The network was trained initially with two neurons in the
hidden layer i.e., 4-2-2 topology was considered for training. In the subsequent
phases, the number of hidden neurons in the hidden layer were increased gradually
from 2 to 40 and then tested with two hidden layers with the same number of hidden
neurons in the second hidden layer. Feed forward back propagation neural network
(BPNN) model with one hidden layer having 30 neurons was found to be optimum
network model (4-30-30-2) which has the mean correlation coefficient of 0.9926. The
developed ANN model was compared with the RSM models for the prediction of
surface roughness and delamination factor of milled GFRP composites. A sound
performance was achieved with the neural network model, and it shows good
correlation between the predicted values of the optimum neural network model and
the experimental data for prediction of surface roughness and delamination using the
entire datasets within acceptable error limits. The predictive ANN model was found
to be capable of better predictions of responses within the range that they had been
trained. The results of the ANN model indicate it is much more robust and accurate in
estimating the values of surface roughness and delamination when compared with the
response surface model.
101
CHAPTER 5
adequacy of the developed models has been confirmed through the coefficient of
determination (R2) and confirmation tests under randomly selected conditions.
5.2 MACHINE TOOL SETUP AND DATA ACQUISITION
The end milling experiments were carried out on a CNC milling machine and
the machining force components were measured with a Kistler 9265B milling
dynamometer, and the data acquisition was carried out by appropriate software called
Dynawarekistler data acquisition system, as shown in Figure 5.2. The composite plate
was held firmly on top of the dynamometer using clamps as shown in Figure 5.1, to
make sure that vibrations and displacement were eliminated. The experiments were
designed based on Taguchi L9 (34) orthogonal array for the 15, 60 and 105 fibre
oriented GFRP composite plates.
103
104
Figure 5.3 Solid carbide end mill with different helix angles
5.4
TAGUCHI
EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
AND
SELECTION
OF
PARAMETERS
Extensive and expensive experimentations (e.g. time/labour/ materials, etc.)
would typically be required to evaluate the machinability of a material. Hence,
experimental approach of machinability assessments can be well achieved through
statistically designed tests or series, commonly known as design of experiment
(DOE). DOE methodology involves full factorial as well as partial or fractional
approaches. Full factorial experiments may provide all possible effects and
interactions, but the scale of experimentations can be prohibitive for scientific
investigations. Realistically, fractional factorial approaches such as the Taguchi
methodology which involves significantly fewer tests but with highly acceptable or
reliable results would be more attractive. In this study, Taguchi DOE method was
used to design the experimental matrix. Taguchi method systematically plans the
experiments according to a specially designed orthogonal array (OA) which can
significantly reduce the number of experiments. In Taguchi's OA, each combination
105
of factors has a balance, in which within a column of the array, each factor has equal
number of levels or appears at equal number of times. The unique characteristics of
GFRP composites affect their machinability differently to those of the traditional
homogenous materials. Physical properties of fibre reinforcements and the matrix
material, fibre orientation, types, matrix material and volume fraction greatly
influence the machinability of GFRP composites apart from processing parameters
which include cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut, tool materials and geometries.
Such a large number of influencing factors inevitably add to the complexity of
experimental investigations. Hence, in this part of work, only machining or
processing parameters were considered for the parametric analysis of their significant
influence. The five important parameters, namely fibre orientation, , tool geometry,
, feed rate, f, spindle speed, N and depth of cut, d, that affect the resultant machining
force, Fm were chosen for this study. Three different levels, low (1), medium (2) and
high (3) of each parameter. Table 5.1, encompassing a typical range of machining
parameters employed in the industry, have been selected for the experimentation.
Justifications for selection of those parameters and the three levels setting were
twofold: (1) to incorporate all possible processing parameters which were not covered
in the literature, and (2) to investigate any nonlinear effects that they have on the
machinability output. The range of machining conditions was selected depending on
the importance of industrial applications, within the limit of the machine tool as well
as over the range of conditions employed in the reported literatures [Paulo Davim, J
and F.Mata (2005), Paulo Davim, J and F.Mata (2007), Wang, X.M and L.C. Zhang
(2003) and Palanikumar, K et al. (2006)].
Process parameters
Helix angle
Spindle speed
Feed rate
Depth of cut
Units
(deg)
rpm
mm/min
mm
o
Notation
N
f
d
1
25
2000
500
1
Levels
2
35
4000
750
1.5
3
45
6000
1000
2
Spindle speed has significant influence on the extent of tool wear as well as
surface roughness. Initially, the spindle speed was set at 2,000 rpm, but this resulted
106
in premature failure or chipping of the cutting tool edges. This could be, due to nature
of discontinuous cutting actions in milling as the tool encounter inhomogeneous
layers of GFRP composites. In addition, spindle speed of 2,000 rpm is deemed to be
low as far as machining productivity is concerned. On the other hand, higher spindle
speed (above 5,000 rpm) leads to rapid tool wear, which lasted the tool for only a
couple of endmilling passes to reach the predefined tool life criteria. Consequently,
3,0005,000 rpm was set as test range for the spindle speed herein. This range truly
represents the typical range of industrial applications. On the contrary, as indicated in
the previous studies [Paulo Davim, J and F. Mata (2005) and Paulo Davim, J and F.
Mata (2007)], the employed feed rate was reported to be within the range of 200800
mm/min when machining GFRP composites. Selection of feed rate range during
machining is critical because it determines the surface roughness of the machined
components. A value lower than those reported in the literature would diminish
machining productivity while a higher value accelerates heat generation, machining
forces and tool wear, hence, deteriorating the surface quality. As a result, the 500
1,000 mm/min range of feed rate was found to be appropriate for the current study. It
is important to highlight that, although the depth of cut plays a small role during
metal machining, its range was selected to be 12 mm, in accordance to a rough and
finish machining of the given material. In the traditional full factorial
experimentation, 27 trials would be needed to complete the entire experimental work
of three factors at three levels. However, based on the selected parameters and their
levels, current parametric study could be well performed using the L9 Taguchi OA in
which nine experimental runs would be required to complete the array. The Taguchi
experimental layout was arranged according to Table 5.2 5.4 with each trial
performed in a random order in a bid to minimise any chances of systematic error
during measurement of the machining force.
107
The force measurement was carried out using a Kistler dynamometer. The
data acquisition was carried out by an appropriate software called Dynawarekistler.
The value of machining force in the work piece is determined using the Eq. 5.1.
(5.1)
Where Fm - Machining Force, Fx - Feed force, Fy - Cutting force and Fz - Thrust force.
5.6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
It is generally known that the cutting mechanism in GFRP composites is due
to the combination of plastic deformation, shearing, and bending rupture. The
occurrence of the above mechanisms depends on the flexibility, orientation, and
toughness of the fibres. These constitute a surface texture on the work piece. The
chips formed from machining of GFRP composites are discontinuous types in powder
form. During the machining of GFRP composites, the tool continuously encounters
alternating matrix and fibre materials, whose response to machining can vary greatly.
Normally, in machining of GFRP, the tool encounters a low temperature soft epoxy
matrix and brittle glass fibres. Due to the above facts, achieving a low machining
force with good surface finish is a tedious job.
108
The machinability in this work was evaluated by the machining force induced.
The results obtained through experiments are presented in Table 5.2 5.4.
Table 5.2 Experimental machining forces for 15 fibre orientation GFRP
composite
Experiment
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Helix
angle
(deg)
25
25
25
35
35
35
45
45
45
Spindle
Feed
Speed
f
N
(rpm) (mm/rev)
3000
500
4000
750
5000
1000
3000
750
4000
1000
5000
500
3000
1000
4000
500
5000
750
Depth of
cut
d
(mm)
1
1.5
2
2
1
1.5
1.5
2
1
Machining Force
Fm (N)
15 fibre
orientation
22.4
33.7
36.6
27.5
29.3
25.2
22.1
17.5
21.2
Helix
angle
(deg)
25
25
25
35
35
35
45
45
45
Spindle
Speed
N
(rpm)
3000
4000
5000
3000
4000
5000
3000
4000
5000
Feed
f
(mm/rev)
500
750
1000
750
1000
500
1000
500
750
Depth of
cut
d
(mm)
1
1.5
2
2
1
1.5
1.5
2
1
Machining Force
Fm (N)
60 fibre
orientation
30.6
38.2
40.1
29.2
30.1
25.7
25.2
21.8
24.9
Table 5.4 Experimental machining forces for 105 fibre orientation GFRP
composite
Experiment
number
1
2
3
4
5
Helix
angle
(deg)
25
25
25
35
35
Spindle
Feed
Speed
f
N
(rpm) (mm/rev)
3000
500
4000
750
5000
1000
3000
750
4000
1000
109
Depth of
cut
d
(mm)
1
1.5
2
2
1
Machining Force
Fm (N)
105 fibre
orientation
32.4
35.1
44.1
31.5
33.3
6
7
8
9
35
45
45
45
5000
3000
4000
5000
500
1000
500
750
1.5
1.5
2
1
29.0
29.3
27.0
28.9
26
Spindle speed
24
22
20
25
35
45
3000
Feed rate
26
4000
5000
Depth of cut
24
22
20
500
750
1000
1.0
1.5
2.0
Figure 5.4 Effect of factors on machining force for 15 fibre orientation angle
110
Spindle speed
35.0
32.5
30.0
27.5
25.0
25
35
Feed rate
45
3000
4000
Depth of cut
5000
500
750
1000
1.0
1.5
2.0
35.0
32.5
30.0
27.5
25.0
Figure 5.5 Effect of factors on machining force for 60 fibre orientation angle
Spindle speed
32
30
28
25
35
Feed rate
45
3000
4000
Depth of cut
5000
500
750
1000
1.0
1.5
2.0
32
30
28
Figure 5.6 Effect of factors on machining force for 105 fibre orientation angle
111
112
15 GFRP Plate
60 GFRP Plate
105 GFRP Plate
40
Machining Force
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
Experimental Run
113
114
115
Table 5.5 shows the result of ANOVA with Fm during the machining of GFRP
composite plates.
Table 5.5 ANOVA for the machining force (Fm) for the three composite
materials
Source of
variance
Degree of
freedom
Sum of
squares
Variance
Test F
F=5%
Percentage
contribution
(P)
3.63
69.25
()
N (rpm)
f (mm/min)
2
2
0.123
6.811
0.061
3.406
15.25
851.5
3.63
3.63
2.72
19.72
d(mm)
0.092
0.046
11.5
3.63
1.25
Error
16
0.064
0.004
Total
24
92.893
7.06
100
113.989
N (rpm)
0.7341
f (mm/min)
d(mm)
56.995
1838.55
3.63
61.96
0.0867
2.7968
3.63
1.64
9.880
4.940
159.35
3.63
18.91
12.812
0.406
13.097
3.63
2.91
Error
16
0.498
0.0311
14.58
Total
24
100
()
137.913
105 fibre orientation angle
128.28
64.14
1961.47
3.63
59.44
N (rpm)
0.8502
0.0912
2.7889
3.63
1.98
f (mm/min)
10.57
5.28
161.468
3.63
23.22
d(mm)
1.162
0.581
17.768
3.63
1.63
Error
16
0.523
0.0327
Total
24
141.385
13.73
100
116
From the analysis it was observed that the helix angle of the milling cutter and
feed rate factor have statistical and physical significance on the machining force
obtained, especially the helix angle of the cutter. The effect of the factors spindle
speed and depth of cut are practically insignificant. It is also clear that the helix angle
factor has a higher influence on the results for the fibre orientation 15(69.25%) than
60 and 105 fibre orientations (61.96% and 59.44%).
5.7 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS (MRA)
Correlations between machining parameters (helix angle, spindle speed, feed
rate and depth of cut) and the machinability output for three different fibre oriented
GFRP plates have been modelled using MRA. The parametric dependency of
machinability output (Fm) is considered in terms of a power series equation given by:
15 fibre orientation:
(R2=93.9%)
(5.2)
60 fibre orientation:
(R2=94.2%)
(5.3)
(R2=93.6%)
(5.4)
Where, be the helix angle in degree, N is the spindle speed in rpm, f is the
feed rate in mm/min, and d is the depth of cut in mm.
The coefficients of determination, R2, are higher for Fm models. Thus,
Equations 5.2 -5.4 can be effectively used to obtain reliable estimates of Fm during
end milling GFRP composites within the range of experimental parameters.
Nevertheless, judging from the coefficient values of each parameter of the derived
semi-empirical models, it is further confirmed that helix angle has the most
significant effect on each of the machinability outputs studied here followed by the
feed rate.
5.8 VALIDATION TESTS
A comparison of experimental data with the calculated results from MRA
equations within the reported range of experimental conditions shows average
117
variations within 4% for Fm. A very close agreement between the predicted values
and the experimental results can be observed indicating the accuracy of the semi
empirical models developed. Hence, Eqs. (5.2) - (5.4) are demonstrated as a feasible
and effective way for the evaluation of machining force of the GFRP composites with
different fibre orientation.
Validation experiments were additionally performed under randomly selected
machining conditions (some of which were outside the range of L9 array) to evaluate
further the accuracies of the developed semi-empirical models. Experimental
conditions for confirmation tests and the results are summarised in Table 5.6,
showing the absolute percentage errors of within 59% for Fm. Hence, it is
demonstrated that the developed parametric models show good predicting capability
of the machinability output within the range of parameters studied here.
Table 5.6 Validation test results with error percentage
Test
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
15 fibre orientation
Exp.
Cal. Error
value
value (%)
22.4
33.7
36.6
27.5
29.3
25.2
22.1
17.5
21.2
22.9
33.1
35.9
26.7
28.5
24.6
21.5
18.2
20.6
-2.2
-1.2
1.9
2.9
2.7
2.4
2.7
-3.4
2.8
60 fibre orientation
Exp.
Cal. Error
value
value (%)
30.6
38.2
40.1
29.2
30.1
25.7
25.2
21.8
24.9
29.8
37.5
39.6
29.8
29.7
26.3
25.9
22.5
24.1
2.6
1.8
1.2
-2.1
1.3
-2.3
-2.8
-3.2
3.2
31.9
35.9
43.1
30.7
32.3
28.2
28.1
27.9
28.2
1.5
-1.4
2.3
2.5
2.3
1.4
4.1
-1.6
2.8
5.9 SUMMARY
From the experiment it is inferred that the machining force increases with the
increase of fibre orientation, feed rate and depth of cut. It is also observed that the
machining force decreases with the increase of helix angle and spindle speed. Lower
machining force was found for 15 fibre oriented GFRP composite plates. It is
observed that contribution of helix angle (P=69.25%) has more influence on the
machining force (Fm) followed by the feed rate (P=19.72%).
118
CHAPTER 6
The experiments for this work were planned using Taguchis Design of
Experiments (DOE). Taguchis approach to parameter design provides the design
engineer with a systematic and efficient method for determining near optimum design
parameters for performance and cost. This method can dramatically reduce the
number of experiments required to gather necessary data.
120
Units
Symbol
Level
1
Level
2
Level
3
(deg)
25
35
45
Spindle Speed
(rpm)
3000
4000
5000
Feed rate
(mm/min)
500
750
1000
Depth of cut
(mm)
1.0
1.5
2.0
(deg)
15
60
105
Table 6.2, where the numbers 1, 2, and 3 stand for the levels of the factors. This array
specifies 27 experimental runs and has 13 columns. To avoid aliasing and overlap of
the interactions with the main factors, the factors were assigned to the L27 columns, as
in Table 6.2. The columns chosen for the main factors were 1, 2, 5, 12, and 13.
Table 6.2 Layout of L27 orthogonal array
Column numbers
Trail No.
10
11
12
13
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
122
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
123
The Delamination (Fd) was measured using the formula mentioned in Eq. 6.2.
.............................................. (6.2)
Where, W is the nominal slot width, Wmax is the maximum damaged slot
width. Maximum damaged widths of the scanned slots were precisely measured in a
CAD environment and the damage factor for each slot was calculated.
6.5 TRANSFORMATION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS INTO S/N RATIO
In the Taguchi method, the S/N ratio is used. The objective of using the S/N
ratio as a performance measurement is to develop products and processes insensitive
to noise factors. The S/N ratio indicates the degree of predictable performance of a
product or process in the presence of noise factors. Process parameter settings with
the highest S/N ratio always yield optimal quality with minimum variance.
Taguchi categorised the performance characteristics of a system into three
different kinds based on the type of performance: the nominal the best, the smaller the
better, and the larger the better. In this study, smaller the better principle was
considered to minimise the machining force, delamination and surface roughness.
The corresponding loss function can be expressed as follows:
For smaller the better
1
2
=1
............................................................ (6.3)
S/N ratios corresponding to the machining force, surface roughness and delamination
were processed by the fuzzy logic unit. To convert the different performance into a
single performance unit, fuzzy logic has been used and is discussed in the following
section.
Table 6.3 Experimental results with S/N ratio
Trail
Fm
S/N ratio
Fd
S/N ratio
No.
(N)
25.4
-28.0543
1.51
-3.5795
1.0321
-0.3728
31.5
-29.9662
1.69
-4.5577
1.0413
-0.3913
34.2
-30.6805
1.80
-5.1055
1.0497
-0.4213
34.9
-30.8565
1.72
-4.7106
1.0468
-0.3973
33.7
-30.5526
1.59
-4.0279
1.0342
-0.3854
38.4
-31.6866
1.73
-4.7609
1.0479
-0.4064
39.8
-31.9977
1.62
-4.1903
1.0432
-0.3882
42.3
-32.5268
1.85
-5.3424
1.0491
-0.4163
36.4
-31.2220
1.58
-3.9731
1.0423
-0.3946
10
30.9
-29.7992
2.07
-6.3194
1.0623
-0.5249
11
27.5
-28.7867
1.67
-4.4543
1.0463
-0.3931
12
29.9
-29.5134
1.84
-5.2964
1.0518
-0.4387
13
28.3
-29.0357
1.81
-5.1536
1.0509
-0.4312
14
33.1
-30.3966
2.21
-6.8879
1.0678
-0.5249
15
29.6
-29.4258
1.81
-5.1536
1.0564
-0.4766
16
24.3
-27.7121
1.42
-3.3876
1.0422
-0.3938
17
28.1
-28.9741
1.80
-5.1055
1.0625
-0.5266
18
29.9
-29.5134
1.99
-5.9771
1.0699
-0.5869
19
25.8
-28.2324
1.91
-5.6207
1.0672
-0.5649
S/N ratio
Ra
(m)
125
20
28.9
-29.2180
2.21
-6.8879
1.0901
-0.7493
21
26.1
-28.3328
2.05
-6.2351
1.0825
-0.6886
22
25.3
-28.0624
1.69
-4.5577
1.0689
-0.5787
23
26.1
-28.3328
1.96
-5.8451
1.0827
-0.6902
24
29.1
-29.2779
2.12
-6.5287
1.0902
-0.7509
25
27.9
-28.9121
2.01
-6.0639
1.0898
-0.7469
26
25.3
-28.0624
1.69
-4.5577
1.0701
-0.5885
27
26.7
-28.5302
1.86
-5.3903
1.0861
-0.7174
shown in Figure 6.1-6.3. Five fuzzy subsets are assigned to the output, as shown in
Figure 6.4. Twenty-seven fuzzy rules were developed based on the fact that a higher
S/N ratio gives better performance. By taking the max-min compositional operation,
the fuzzy reasoning of these rules yields a fuzzy output. Suppose that x1, x2, and x3 are
the three input values of the fuzzy logic unit then the membership function of the
output of fuzzy reasoning can be expressed as in Equation 6.5.
0
=
1 1 1 2 1 3 1 .
1 2 3 ]
..................................................................... (6.5)
Where is the minimum operation and is the maximum operation. Finally,
a defuzzification method called centre of gravity is used to transform the fuzzy output
into a non-fuzzy value y0,
0 =
0
0
..................................................................................... (6.6)
127
128
MRPI
0.43
0.43
0.25
0.56
0.40
0.41
0.34
0.33
0.28
10
0.26
11
0.64
129
6.7
12
0.25
13
0.54
14
0.39
15
0.68
16
0.69
17
0.37
18
0.43
19
0.32
20
0.09
21
0.26
22
0.51
23
0.38
24
0.26
25
0.25
26
0.43
27
0.25
ANOVA
The experimental scheme used in this work is based on Taguchis orthogonal
array, by which it is possible to separate the effect of each machining parameter on
the MRPI at different levels. For example, the mean of the MRPI for work piece
(fibre orientation) at levels 1 and 2 can be calculated by averaging MRPI values for
the experiments 1 to 9 and 10 to 18, respectively. The mean of the MRPI for each
level of other machining parameters can be calculated in a similar manner. The mean
MRPI at each level for different machining parameters are presented in Table 6.5,
which is referred to as a response table. In addition, the total mean of the MRPI was
also calculated and is given in Table 6.5.
130
Units
Symbol
Level
1
Level
2
Level
3
(deg)
0.3801
0.4822
0.3056
Spindle Speed
(rpm)
0.3244
0.4589
0.3744
Feed rate
(mm/min)
0.4633
0.3844
0.3411
Depth of cut
(mm)
0.3189
0.3844
0.3956
(deg)
0.4801
0.3656
0.3278
Based on the response graph and response table, the optimal machining
parameters for the GFRP machining process can be achieved. Basically, larger the
MRPI, better is the multiple performance characteristics. It was found from
experimental results that the settings for experiment number 16 had the highest
MRPI, as seen in Table 6.4. Therefore among 27 experiments, experiment 16
machining parameter settings are optimal for attaining multiple performances
simultaneously. However, the relative importance among the machining parameters
for the multiple performance characteristics still needs to be analysed so that the
optimal combinations of the machining parameter levels can be determined more
accurately. The relative importance among the factors can be analysed through an
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).
131
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
25
35
Helix angle
45
50
75
Cutting speed
0.05
0.15
Depth of cut
0.25
15
60
Fibre orientation
100
0.04
0.08
Feed rate
0.12
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
105
Degree of
freedom
Sum of
square
Mean
square
Fvalue
0.1753
0.0877
10.95
Spindle Speed
0.0702
0.0351
4.71
Feed rate
0.0912
0.0456
6.84
Depth of cut
0.0397
0.0199
2.85
0.1579
0.0790
10.03
Error
16
0.1078
0.0067
Total
26
0.6421
error. In addition, the Fishers F test can also be used to determine which machining
parameters have significant effect on the performance characteristic. Usually, a
change of a machining parameter has a significant effect on a performance
characteristic when F is large. Based on the results of analysis of variance (Table
6.6), it was determined that work piece (fibre orientation) and helix angle of the
endmill cutter were the most significant machining parameters affecting multiple
performance characteristics. Referring to the average response table and average
response graph, the variable settings for optimal machining parameters are the helix
angle at level 2, cutting speed at level 2, feed rate at level 1, depth of cut at level 3,
and work piece (fibre orientation) at level 1.
= +
(6.7)
=1
Where Mm is the total mean of the MRPI, Mo is the mean MRPI at optimal
level, and n is the number of main design parameters that affect the multiple
performance characteristics.
Table 6.7 shows the comparisons of predicted and actual machining
performance for multiple performance characteristics using their optimal machining
parameters.
133
Optimal
machining Prediction
machining
parameters
parameters
Experimental
Setting Level
A1B1C1D1E2
A2B2C1D3E1
Machining Force, N
17.19
--
15.92
Surface roughness, m
0.6572
--
0.6107
Delamination Factor
1.0063
--
1.0045
MRPI
0.43
0.7547
0.7419
brittle glass fibres. Due to the above facts, achieving a low machining force with
good surface finish and low delamination becomes tedious job. If different cutting
parameters are increased proportionately, the surface roughness increases, but the
machining forces decreases and delamination increases. In this work, the Taguchi
method with fuzzy logic has been applied to achieve a better machining force with a
good surface finish and a delamination factor.
The Taguchi method with fuzzy logic used in this work was found to be
effective in the optimisation of machining parameters for the machining of glass fibre
reinforced polymer composites. The confirmation experiment results at optimal levels
(A2, B2, C1, D3, and E1) show that the machining force decreased from 17.19 N to
15.92 N. The Delamination factor reduced from 1.0063 to 1.0045, and the surface
finish improved from 0.6572 m to 0.6107 m. This approach can be easily
employed to optimise machining parameters with a wider range. This approach is
more flexible and superior to other techniques. Normally, in a single performance
characteristics study, spindle speed and feed rate are the factors that affect the
machining process. However, in a multiple performance characteristics study, work
piece (fibre orientation) and tool geometry (helix angle) are the parameters that show
more influence than other machining parameters. The results indicated that the
optimal performance could be achieved at a 60 fibre orientation angle and at a
middle speed of 75 m/min. The results also indicated that the multiple performance
optimisation can be achieved at a low feed rate and a low fibre orientation, while the
depth of cut should be fixed at high value. From the results, it can be asserted that the
optimisation methodology used in this study is useful in improving multiple
performance characteristics in the composite machining process.
6.10 SUMMARY
The Taguchi method with fuzzy logic was employed to optimise the multiple
performance characteristics of a machining process. The work material used was
GFRP composites with 3 different fibre orientations and the tool material used was
solid carbide end mill with different helix angles. The experimental results for
optimal settings showed that there was a considerable improvement in the
performance
characteristics
viz.,
machining force,
135
surface
roughness
and
delamination factor. Work piece (fibre orientation) and tool geometry (helix angle)
were the parameters that showed higher influence on endmilling of GFRP
composites. This technique is more convenient and economical to predict the optimal
machining parameters. The Taguchi method with fuzzy logic technique using MRPI
converts the multiple performance characteristics into single performance
characteristics and, therefore, simplifies the optimisation procedure.
136
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSIONS
GFRP composite plates with five different fibre orientations were prepared by
means of hand lay-up process. Tensile strength, Youngs modulus and shear strength
test were conducted as per the ASTM standards. Initial machinability studies (surface
roughness and delamination study) were conducted on the GFRP samples using solid
carbide endmill coated with PCD by means of RSM and from the experimental
results, the following conclusions are drawn:
The feed rate was the cutting parameter which has greater influence on
surface roughness (33.43%) and delamination (35.49%) for GFRP
composite materials followed by the fibre orientation.
137
Milling experiments were conducted on 15, 60 and 105 GFRP plates based on
Taguchi L9 orthogonal array to evaluate the influence of helix angle, spindle speed,
feed rate and depth of cut on machining force.
Machining force increases with the increase of fibre orientation, feed rate and
depth of cut. Machining force decreases with the increase of helix angle and
spindle speed. GFRP composites with fibre orientation 15 gives smaller
value of Fm than the 60 and 105 fibre oriented GFRP composites.
Helix angle of the end mill cutter is the cutting parameter that has the highest
physical as well statistical influence on Fm followed by the feed rate.
The Taguchi method with fuzzy logic was employed to optimise the multiple
performance characteristics of the GFRP endmilling process. Milling experiments
were conducted on GFRP plates to evaluate the influence of helix angle, spindle
speed, feed rate, depth of cut and fibre orientation on machining force, surface
roughness and delamination factor based on L27 orthogonal array. The experimental
results for optimal settings showed that there was a considerable improvement in the
performance
characteristics
viz.,
machining force,
surface
roughness
and
delamination factor.
Work piece (fibre orientation) and Tool geometry (helix angle) were the
parameters that showed higher influence on endmilling of GFRP composites.
The Taguchi method with fuzzy logic technique using MRPI is more
convenient and economical to predict the optimal machining parameters. This
technique converts the multiple performance characteristics into single
138
The above mentioned study can be extended to relate the strength and
defects of the GFRP composites.
139
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1. Jenarthanan, M.P and R.Jeyapaul (2012), Evaluation of Machinability on
Milling of GFRP Laminates Using Solid Carbide End mill Tools with
Different Helix Angles, International Conference AMPCO 2012 at IIT
Roorkee, November 2-4, 2012.
2. Jenarthanan, M.P and R.Jeyapaul (2012), Taguchi Analysis of surface
roughness and delamination associated with solid carbide end mills with
different helix angles in milling of GFRP composites, International
Conference on Emerging Trends in Manufacturing Technology, September 56, 2012 , Toc H Institute of Technology,Ernakulam,Kerala.
3. Jenarthanan, M.P, Krishna Kumar Dadsena and R. Jeyapaul (2013)
Evaluation of Machinability Behaviour in Endmilling of GFRP Composites
Based on the Taguchi Method and ANN, International Conference CPIE
2013 at NIT Jalandhar, March 29-31, 2013.
4. Krishna Kumar Dadsena, M. P. Jenarthanan and R. Jeyapaul (2013)
Analysis and Optimisation of Machinability behavior of GFRP Composites
Using Fuzzy Logic, International Conference CPIE 2013 at NIT Jalandhar,
March 29-31, 2013.
National Conferences
1. Naresh nelli, M.P.Jenarthanan and R.Jeyapaul (2012), Delamination
analysis in milling process of glass fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) composite
materials, National conference on Emerging Trends in Mechanical
Engineering, April 2-3, K.L.N College of Engineering, Madurai.
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CURRICULUM VITAE
Mr. M.P. Jenarthanan was born on 29th September 1980 at Paramakudi,
Ramanathapuram district, Tamilnadu, India. He graduated in Mechanical engineering
from Madurai Kamaraj University, in the year of 2003 and obtained his Masters
Degree in Engineering Design from Anna University Chennai, in the year 2005. He
joined as a lecture at K.L.N College of Engineering, Madurai during the year 2005.
He has published about 9 papers in International/National Journals and Conferences.
His area of interest includes composite machining, taguchi methodology, response
surface methodology, non-traditional optimisation techniques and numerical
simulation.
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DOCTORAL COMMITTEE
Dr. T. Selvaraj (Chairman)
Professor, Department of Production Engineering,
N.I.T Tiruchirappalli.
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