11M304 ENGINEERNG

THERMODYNAMICS
2 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Prepared by

Mr. A. SUNDARAMAHALINGAM,
Asst. Professor, Mechanical Dept.,
BIT, Sathy.

UNIT I CONCEPTS AND FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. Define Thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics is a branch of science dealing with energy in the form of heat and work and
their conversion into each other and the effect of energy transfer on the properties of systems.
2. Differentiate approaches in the study of thermodynamics.
Thermodynamics can be studied through two different approaches:
(a) Macroscopic Approach and
(b) Microscopic Approach
Macroscopic Approach:- Consider a certain amount of gas in a cylindrical container. The volume
(V) can be measured by measuring the diameter and the height of the cylinder. The pressure (P) of
the gas can be measured by a pressure gauge. The temperature (T) of the gas can be measured
using a thermometer. The state of the gas can be specified by the measured P, V and T . The values
of these variables are space averaged characteristics of the properties of the gas under
consideration. In classical thermodynamics, we often use this macroscopic approach. The
macroscopic approach has the following features.

The structure of the matter is not considered.

A few variables are used to describe the state of the matter under consideration.

The values of these variables are measurable following the available techniques of

experimental-physics.
Microscopic Approach:- On the other hand, the gas can be considered as assemblage of a large
number of particles each of which moves randomly with independent velocity. The state of each
particle can be specified in terms of position coordinates ( xi , yi , zi ) and the momentum
components ( pxi , pyi , pzi ). If we consider a gas occupying a volume of 1 cm3 at ambient
temperature and pressure, the number of particles present in it is of the order of 10 20 . The same
number of position coordinates and momentum components are needed to specify the state of the
gas. The microscopic approach can be summarized as:

(a) Knowledge of the molecular structure of matter under consideration is essential.

(b) Large number of variables are needed for a complete specification of the state of the matter.
Behaviour of matter can be studied by these two approaches.
S.
No

Macroscopic approach

Microscopic approach

In macroscopic approach, certain quantity of

matter is considered, without a concern on the
events occurring at the molecular level.

In microscopic approach, the effect of molecular

motion is Considered.

These effects can be perceived by human senses

or measured by instruments.

Most microscopic properties cannot be measured

with common instruments nor can be perceived by
human senses

Eg: pressure, temperature.

At microscopic level the pressure of a gas is not

constant, the temperature of a gas is a function of
the velocity of molecules

3. What is a Thermodynamic system?

A thermodynamic system is defined as a definite quantity of matter or a region in space upon
which attention is focussed in the analysis of a problem.
4. Define Surrounding.
Everything external to the system is surroundings. The system is distinguished from its
surroundings by a specified boundary which may be at rest or in motion. The interactions between a
system and its surroundings, which take place across the boundary, play an important role in
thermodynamics. A system and its surroundings together comprise a universe.
5. Write the Types of systems.
Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed
volume in space is chosen for study.
A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can
cross its boundary.
Isolated System - in which there is no interaction between system and the surroundings. It is of fixed
mass and energy, and hence there is no mass and energy transfer across the system boundary.
An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected region in space. It
usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Flow
through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within the device as the control volume.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
6. What do you mean by Thermodynamic Property?
Every system has certain characteristics by which its physical condition may be described, e.g.
Volume, temperature, pressure, etc. Such characteristics are called properties of the system. Properties
are of two types.
Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the system. E.g., pressure, temperature, etc.
Extensive properties are related to mass, e.g., Volume, energy, etc.
Specific properties are extensive properties per unit mass. Some examples of specific properties are
specific volume (v=V/m) and specific total energy (e= E/m).
7. Define specific volume and specific weight.
Specific volume is the reciprocal of density and is defined as the volume per unit mass.
Specific weight w is the weight of a unit volume of a substance and is determined from the product of
the local acceleration of gravity and the substance density.
8. Define Continuum.
Continuum is a view of mass as continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes. Matter is
made up of atoms that are widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it is very convenient to disregard the

atomic nature of a substance. The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as point functions,
and to assume the properties to vary continually in space with no jump discontinuities. This idealization
is valid as long as the size of the system we deal with is large relative to the space between the
molecules. This is the case in practically all problems, except some specialized ones.
9. Phase:- It is a quantity of mass that is homogeneous throughout in chemical composition and physical
structure. e.g. solid, liquid, vapour, gas.

Phase consisting of more than one phase is known as

heterogeneous system.
10. State:- It is the condition of a system as defined by the values of all its properties. It gives a complete
description of the system. Any operation in which one or more properties of a system change is called a
change of state.
11. What is meant by Equilibrium state?
The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A system is said to be in an equilibrium
state if its properties will not change without some perceivable effect in the surroundings.
a. Thermal Equilibrium b. Mechanical Equilibrium c. Chemical Equilibrium d.Phase Equilibrium
12. Explain the term Path, Process and Thermodynamic Cycle.
Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another is called a process,
and the series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the path of the process.
A Thermodynamic cycle is defined as a series of state changes such that the final state is identical with
the initial state.
13. What is a Quasi-Static Process?
When a process proceeds in such a manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to an
equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium, process.
14. Define Zeroth law of Thermodynamics.
If two systems (say A and B) are in thermal equilibrium with a third system (say C) separately, then
they are in thermal equilibrium themselves (that is A and B will be in thermal equilibrium)
15. What do you mean by Temperature, Heat and work?
Temperature is a property of a system which determines the degree of hotness.
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
Work is the energy transfer associated with force acting through a distance.
Sign Conventions
Work done by the system is +ve

Work done on the system is ve

Heat given to the system is +ve

Heat rejected by the system is -ve

Modes of Work
Spring work

W/D by elastic solid bars

Expansion and compression work (displacement work)

Electrical work
Work of a reversible chemical cell

Work in stretching of a liquid surface

Work of polarization and magnetization

16. Energy and forms of energy:

Potential Energy (PE): The energy which a system possesses by virtue of its position in a force field.
Kinetic Energy (KE): The energy which a system possesses owing to its motion is called KE.
Internal Energy (U): It is the energy arising in the form of motions of molecules and atoms. It is
the sum of the kinetic energies of the individual atoms or molecules. The energy is manifested as
the translational, rotational and vibrational movements of the molecules. (Internal energy of a
system is the sum of all the microscopic forms of energy).
Flow Energy: The energy associated with the flow phenomena and represents the work necessary to
advance a fluid against the existing pressure.
17. Define specific heat and also define specific heat at constant volume and constant pressure.
Specific heat is defined as the energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of substance by
one degree.
Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp) is the energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass
of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained constant. Cp is a measure of the variation of
enthalpy of a substance with temperature. Cp can be defined as the change in the enthalpy of a
substance per unit change in temperature at constant pressure.

Specific heat at constant volume (Cv) is the energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass
of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant. Cv is related to the changes in
internal energy.

It would be more proper to define Cv as the change in the internal energy of a

substance per unit change in temperature at constant volume.

18. Reversible and Irreversible process.

A process is said to be reversible if the reversal of the process does not leave any trace on the
system and surrounding. If a process occurs in such a way that the system passes through a continuous
series of equilibrium states, then such a process is called reversible process.

If a system does not pass through equilibrium states then the properties at the intermediate
states of the system cannot be well defined and it is called irreversible process.
In practice, all the processes are irreversible. The causes of irreversibility are
a. Mechanical and fluid friction
b. Unresisted expansion
c. Heat transfer with finite temperature difference.
d. Mixing
19. What do you mean by Non flow and Flow process?
In a non-flow process, the substance remains in a closed system, i.e. it doesnt leave the
system, only energy crosses the boundary in the form of heat and work.
In a flow process, the fluid enters the system and leaves after doing work. The flow process
may be classified as steady flow and unsteady flow process.
20. Define First law of thermodynamics.
When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle then the net heat supplied to the system from
the surrounding is equal to the net work done by the system on its surroundings.

21. Limitations of 1st law of thermodynamics

There is no limit to the amount of the total energy of a system which can be caused to flow
out as work.

It doesnt tell about the direction of work or heat and it doesnt give any condition under
which this transfer takes place.

22. Perpetual Motion Machine of First Kind (PMMFK) or (PMM-I)

A device which violates the 1st law of
thermodynamics is known as PMMFK. It is
defined as a machine which produces work output
without consuming any input energy.
23. What do you understand by flow work? Is it different from displacement work (PdV work)?
Boundary work (PdV work) is the work associated with the expansion or compression of a gas
in a piston-cylinder device. Boundary work is the area under the process curve on a P-V diagram equal,
in magnitude, to the work done during a quasi-equilibrium expansion or compression process of a
closed system.. dW = F.dl = PAdl = PdV.
The flow work, significant only in a flow process or an open system, represents the energy
transferred across the system boundary as a result of the energy imparted to the fluid by a pump, blower
or compressor to make the fluid flow across the control volume. Flow work is analogous (Similar or
equivalent in some respects though otherwise dissimilar) to displacement work.

(dW)flow = PV

24. Explain Point Function and Path function.

Point Function:-When two properties locate a point on the graph then those properties are called
point functions. Eg. Temperature, Pressure, Volume etc. All the Thermodynamic Properties are
point functions. The change in Thermodynamic properties in a change of state is independent of the
path and it only depends on the end states.
For a cyclic process, the initial and final states are the same and hence, the change in any
property is ZERO. ie.

Path Function:- There are certain quantities which cannot be located on a graph by a point but are
given by the area or so, on that graph. In that case, the area on that graph is a function of the path of
the process. Such quantities are path functions. Eg., Heat, Work, etc.

25. Assumptions in Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE)

Mass flow rate remains constant (continuity eqn) and the properties of the system do not change
with time.

Heat transfer rate and work transfer rate remains constant. (Only interaction between the system
and surrounding are heat and work).

Uniform chemical composition.

State of working substance at any point remains constant with time.

26. Define Enthalpy.

The total heat content associated within a substance is called as Enthalpy (H). It is a property
and is defined as the sum of the internal energy U and the PV product.
Enthalpy (H) = U+ PV
27. Control volume (also see open system) is any arbitrary region in space through which mass and
energy can pass across the boundary. Most control volumes have fixed boundaries and thus do not
involve any moving boundaries. A control volume may also involve heat and work interactions just as a
closed system, in addition to mass interaction.

UNIT II- SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. Heat Engine
A heat engine is a device which converts the Heat energy, into work. It receives energy as heat
form a high temperature body, converts part of it into work and rejects the rest to a low temperature
body. e.g. Thermal Power Plant. Efficiency of Heat Engine

Since Q1 (heat) transferred to the system cannot be completely converted to work in a cycle.
Therefore is less than unity. A heat engine can never be 100 efficient. Therefore

i.e., there

has always to be a heat rejection.

2. Refrigerator
A refrigerator is a cyclically operating device which absorbs energy as heat from a low
temperature body and rejects energy as heat to a high temperature body when work is performed on
the device. The objective of this device is to refrigerate a body at low temperature. Usually it uses
atmosphere as the high temperature reservoir.
3. Heat Pump
Heat Pump is cyclically operating device which absorbs energy form a low temperature
reservoir and reject energy as heat to a high temperature reservoir when work is performed on the
device. Its objective is to reject energy as heat to a high temperature body (space heating in winter).
The atmosphere acts as the low temperature reservoir.

(COP)HP = (COP)R + 1

4. State Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Kelvin-Plank statement: It is impossible to construct a heat engine working on a cyclic process,
whose sole purpose is to convert heat energy into an equivalent amount of work. ie. No heat engine
working on acyclic process , can convert whole of the heat supplied into mechanical work.
Clausius statement: It is impossible for a self-acting machine, working in a cyclic process, to
transfer heat from a body at low lower temperature to a body at a higher temperature without the aid
of any external agency.
5. Perpetual Motion Machine of the Second Kind (PMMSK or PMM2)
A PMMSK is a hypothetical device (Figure) which
working cyclically, receives energy as heat from a single thermal
reservoir, and delivers as equivalent amount of work. The
Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law tells us that it is
impossible to constructs a perpetual motion machine of the
second kind.

6. Reversible and Irreversible process (In terms of 2nd law)

If a process can proceed in either direction without violating the second law of
thermodynamics, it is reversible process. A reversible process is carried out infinitely slowly with an
infinitesimal gradient, so that every state passed through by the system is an equilibrium state. So, a
reversible process is a quasi-static process which can proceed in either direction. e.g. Motion without
friction, Expansion/compression with infinitesimal pressure difference, Energy transfer as heat with
infinitesimal temperature difference.
Given a process, if the attempt to reverse its direction leads to a violation of the second law of
thermodynamics, then the given process is irreversible. e.g. Motion with friction, free expansion,
Expansion/ compression with finite pressure difference, Energy transfer as heat with finite

, Mixing

of matter at different states, Mixing of non-identical gases.

Any natural process carried out with a finite gradient is an irreversible process. A reversible
process which consists of a succession of equilibrium states is an idealized hypothetical process,
approached only as a limit. It is said to be an asymptote to reality, all spontaneous processes are
irreversible.
7. Carnot efficiency:
It is the highest efficiency a heat engine can have when operating between the two thermal
energy reservoirs at temperatures TL and TH;

th, rev = 1 - TL / TH.

8. Carnots Theorem (or) Carnots principle I:- It states that, of all engines operating between a
given constant temperature source and a given constant temperature sink, none has a higher efficiency
than a reversible engine.
9. Corollary of Carnots Theorem (or) Carnots principle II
The efficiency of all reversible heat engines operating between the same temperature limits is
the same. The efficiency of reversible heat engine does not depend on the working fluid, it depends
only on the temperature of the reservoirs between which it operates
10. Clausius Inequality:The equality holds good for a reversible cycle and the inequality
holds good for an irreversible cycles. The complete expression is
known as Clausius Inequality.

11. Define entropy.

The entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular disorder or molecular randomness.
It is a thermodynamic property representing the unavailability of a systems thermal energy
for conversion into useful work. dS = dQ/T.
The area under the T-S for any process represents the heat absorbed or dejected during that
process. And the area under the P-V for any process represents the Work done during that process.
From 1st law:- dQ = dU + dW = dU + PdV
And

dQ = T dS

Therefore, T dS = dU + PdV
12. Principle of increase of entropy (or) Entropy principle:The entropy of an isolated system can never decrease. It always increases and remains
constant only when the process is reversible.
13. Entropy change for closed system:-

14. Define Available energy and Unavailable energy.

The portion of the energy supplied as heat which can be converted into work by means of a
reversible engine is known as available energy. It is also known as EXERGY.
The portion of energy is not available for conversion into work is called unavailable energy. It
is also known as ANERGY.
Available energy
Q Heat supplied

WKT,

Unavailable energy (or) loss of available energy

where the equality is true for reversible processes and the inequality is

true for all Spontaneous (or) irreversible processes. Therefore, all spontaneous or irreversible
processes are associated with a loss of available energy.
15. Define Availability (A):The availability of a given system is defined as the maximum useful work that can be obtained
in a process in which the system comes to equilibrium with the surroundings (or) attains a dead
state. Clearly, the availability of a system depends on the condition of the system as well as those of
the surroundings.
16. Define Irreversibility (I):The actual work done by a system is always less than the idealized reversible work (maximum
work) and the difference between the reversible and actual work is called the irreversibility of the
process.

I = Wrev Wact

17. State the Availability function for non-flow process:-

Where

is the Availability Function, given by,

18. Define Third law of thermodynamics.

The entropy of a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature (0 K) is ZERO
The entropy of a system is related to the total number of possible microstates of that system called, the
THERMODYNAMIC PROBABILITY (W).

By the Boltzmann relation,

S = K ln (W)

where, K=1.3806 x 10-23 J/K

At absolute zero temperature, W=1 (only one order) and S=0

19. What do you mean by Absolute Temperature:The temperature below which, the temperature of any substance cannot fall is known as
absolute zero temperature. It is taken as -- 273 C (or) 0 K.
Normal Temperature and Pressure (N.T.P) 0C (273 K) and 1 atm Pressure (760 mm of Hg)
Standard temperature and Pressure (S.T.P) 15 C (288 K) and 1 atm Pressure (760 mm of Hg)
20. Define Absolute Entropy:The third law provides an absolute reference point for the determination of entropy. The
entropy determined relative to this point is called as absolute entropy.

UNIT III- PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES

1. Define pure substance.
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure substance.
Water, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide, for example, are all pure substances.
A mixture of two or more phases of a pure substance is still a pure substance as long as the
chemical composition of all phases is the same. A mixture of ice and liquid water, for example, is a
pure substance because both phases have the same chemical composition.

2. Compressed Liquid or sub-cooled liquid.

A Liquid that is not about to vaporize is called sub-cooled liquid.

3. Saturated liquid
A liquid that is about to vaporize is called a saturated liquid.
4. Define saturated and superheated vapour.
A vapour that is about to condense is called a saturated vapour. A vapour that is not about to
condense (i.e., not a saturated vapour) is called a superheated vapour.

5. What do you meant by Saturation temperature and saturation pressure.

At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase is called the
saturation temperature Tsat. Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance
changes phase is called the saturation pressure Psat.

6. Define latent heat, latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization.
The amount of energy absorbed or released during a phase-change process is called the latent
heat. More specifically, the amount of energy absorbed during melting is called the latent heat of
fusion and is equivalent to the amount of energy released during freezing. Similarly, the amount of
energy absorbed during vaporization is called the latent heat of vaporization and is equivalent to the
energy released during condensation. The magnitudes of the latent heats depend on the temperature or
pressure at which the phase change occurs.

At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion of

water is 333.7 kJ/kg and the latent heat of vaporization is 2256.5 kJ/kg.
7. T-v diagram of constant-pressure phase-change processes of a pure substance at various
pressures
For water

8. Define Critical point:

The point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapour states are identical is called critical
point. The critical-point properties of water are Pcr = 22.06 MPa, Tcr = 373.95C, and vcr = 0.003106
m3/kg. For helium, they are 0.23 MPa, 267.85C, and 0.01444 m3/kg.
9. P-V diagram of a pure substance.

10.

P-V diagram of a substance that contracts

P-V diagram of a substance that

on freezing (other than water)

expands on freezing (water)

11.

Triple Line: We are all familiar with two phases

being in equilibrium, but under some conditions all three phases of a pure substance coexist in
equilibrium. On P-v or T-v diagrams, these triple-phase states form a line called the triple line. The
states on the triple line of a substance have the same pressure and temperature but different specific
volumes. The triple line appears as a point on the P-T diagrams and, therefore, is often called the triple
point. For water, the triple point temperature and pressure are, 0.01 C and 0.6117 kPa.
12. P-T diagram of pure substances.

13. Enthalpy of vaporization. The quantity hfg is called the enthalpy of vaporization (or latent heat
of vaporization). It represents the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass of saturated liquid
at a given temperature or pressure. It decreases as the temperature or pressure increases and becomes
zero at the critical point.
14. Quality (or) dryness fraction:
The quality x is defined as the ratio of the mass of vapour to the total mass of the mixture:

15. Simple Rankine cycle.

For wet steam, x<1

For dry (saturated) steam, x=1

For superheated steam, x>1

UNIT IV- PROPERTIES OF GASES, THERMODYNAMIC RELATONS

1. Define Equation of state.
Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature and sp. volume of a substance is called an
equation of state. The simplest and best known equation of state for substances in the gas phase is the
ideal gas eqn of state. Pv =RT
2. Molar mass (or) molecular weight.
It is defined as the mass of one mole (also called gram-mole) of a substance in grams (or) the
mass of one k-mole (one kilogram mole) in kilograms.
3. State Avogadros law.
It states that, equal volume of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure contain the same
number of molecules. In other words it can be stated that, the molecular weight of all the gases
occupy the same volume at Normal Temperature and Pressure 0C & 1 bar and it is equivalent to 22.4
litres.
4. Total differential

Cyclic relation

5. Maxwells relations: Equations that relate the partial derivatives of properties P, v, T & S of a
simple compressible system to each other are called Maxwell relations.

6. Clapeyron Equation:

This is an important thermodynamic relation since it enables us to

determine the enthalpy of vaporization hfg at a given temperature by simply measuring the slope of the

saturation curve on a P-T diagram and the specific volume of saturated liquid and saturated vapour at
the given temperature.
The Clapeyron equation is applicable to any phase-change process that occurs at constant
temperature and pressure.

7. Joule Thomson coefficient:

The Joule-Thomson coefficient is a measure of the change in temperature with pressure during
a constant-enthalpy process. Notice that if

8. Inversion line, inversion temperature and maximum inversion temperature

The line that passes through the points of zero slopes or zero Joule-Thomson coefficients is
called the inversion line, and the temperature at a point where a constant-enthalpy line intersects the
inversion line is called the inversion temperature. The temperature at the intersection of the P=0 line
(ordinate) and the upper part of the inversion line is called the maximum inversion temperature.
9. Daltons law of additive (partial) pressures: The pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the
pressures each gas would exert if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and volume. Or simply,
the toatal pressure of a mixture is equal to the sum of the partial pressures.
10. Amagats law of additive volumes: The volume of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the volumes
each gas would occupy if it existed alone at the mixture temperature and pressure.

11. Volume expansion coefficient ()

It is defined as the change in volume with change in temperature per unit volume keeping the
pressure constant. It is denoted by

12. Isothermal compressibility (KT)

It is defined as the change in volume with change in pressure per unit volume keeping the
temperature constant.

13. Adiabatic compressibility (Ks)

It is defined as the change in volume with change in pressure per unit volume keeping the
entropy constant.

14. Boyles law: It states that the volume of a given mass of a perfect gas varies inversely as the
absolute pressure when the temperature is constant.

15. Charles law: It states that the volume of a given mass of a substance varies directly as its absolute
temperature.

16. Gay-Lussac law: It states that the absolute pressure of a given mass of a perfect gas varies directly
as its absolute temperature when the volume is constant.

17. Joules law: It states that the specific internal energy of perfect gas depends only on the
temperature of the gas and is independent of both pressure and volume. U = f (T)

UNIT V Airstandard cycle and Psychrometry

1. Ait standard assumptions:
Air-standard assumptions reduce the analysis of gas power cycles to a manageable level by
utilizing the following approximations:
i. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves
as an ideal gas.
ii. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
iii. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source.
iv. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection process that restores the working fluid to
its initial state.

2. Air standard cycle:

A cycle for which air standard assumptions are applicable is frequently reffered as an air
standard cycle.
3. Compression ratio of an engine is the ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the
minimum (clearance) volume. Notice that the compression ratio is a volume ratio and should not be
confused with the pressure

4. Mean Effective Pressure (MEP): It is a fictitious pressure (imaginary) that if it is acted on the
piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net work as that produced
during the actual cycle.

5. Cut off ratio (rc) = (cylinder volume after combustion) / cylinder volume before combustion.

6. a) Actual P-V diagram of S.I engine

b & c) Ideal P-V and T-S diagram of Otto cycle

7. P-V and T-S diagram of Diesel cycle

8. Dual cycle is the ideal cycle which models the combustion process in both gasoline and diesel
engines as a combination of two heat-transfer processes, one at constant volume and the other at
constant pressure.
9. P-V and T-S diagram of Dual cycle:

10. Comparison of Carnot, Stirling and Ericsson cycles.

11. Psychrometry:
The psychrometry is a branch of engineering science, which deals with the study of moist air.
i.e. Dry air mixed with water vapour or humidity. Though the atmosphere is a mixture of N2, O2, Ar,
CO2 etc., yet for the purpose of psychrometry, it is considered to be a mixture of dry air and water
vapour only.

12. Define dry air and moist air.

Dry air: Air that does not contains water vapour is called as dry air. The pure dry air does not exist in
nature because it always contain some water vapour. Both dry air and water vapour can be considered
as perfect gases because both exist is the atmosphere at low pressure.
Moist air: It is a mixture of dry air and water vapour. The amount of water vapour present in the air
depends on the absolute pressure and temperature of the mixture.

13. Saturated air: It is mixture of dry air and water vapour, when the air has diffused the maximum
amount of water vapour into it. The water vapours usually occur in the form of superheated steam as
an invisible gas. However, when the saturated air is cooled, the water vapour in the air starts
condensing, and the same may be visible in the form of moist.

14. Absolute (or) specific humidity (): is the mass of water vapor present in a unit mass of dry air.
(gm/kg of dry air). That is, it is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air in
atmospheric air It is also called humidity ratio.

mv
ma

15. Relative humidity ():

It is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour present at a specifed volume and temperature (m v)
to the maximum amount of moisture the air can hold at the same temperature (mg). = mv/ ms
16. Dry bulb temperature (DBT) or (Tdb): The ordinary temperature of atmospheric air is frequently
referred to as the dry-bulb temperature
17. Wet bulb temperature (WBT) or (Twb): It is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer,
when its bulb is surrounded by a wet cloth exposed to the air.
18. Dew point temperature (Tdp): It is defined as the temperature at which condensation begins when
the air is cooled at constant pressure. In other words, Tdp is the saturation temperature of water
corresponding to the vapor pressure. Tdp = Tsat @ Pv
19. Dew point depression: It is the difference between dry bulb temperature Tdb and dew point
temperature Tdp.

20. Degree of saturation (or) saturation ratio (or) percentage humidity ():
It is the ratio of actual specific humidity to the specific humidity of saturated air at the same DBT.
21. Carriers equation:According to Carriers equation, the partial pressure of water vapour is given by,
pv pw

p p w Tdb Twb
1544 1.44Twb

Pw = saturation pressure corresponding to WBT

22. PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
1. Sensible heating
2. Sensible cooling
3. Humidification and Dehumidification
4. Cooling and Dehumidification (summer A/c)
5. Heating and Humidification (Winter A/c)
6. Evaporative cooling (h=c, WBT=c)

23. Differentiate Sensible heating and sensible cooling:

S. no
1.

Sensible heating

Heating of air without any change in its sp. cooling of air without any change in its sp.
Humidity is known as sensible heating

2.

Sensible cooling

Humidity is known as sensible cooling

During sensible heating, = constant; During sensible cooling, = constant;

and DBT

and DBT

24. Differentiate humidification and dehumidification

S. no
1.

Humidification

Addition of moisture to the air without any Removal of moisture to the air without any
change in DBT is known as humidification.

2.

Dehumidification

change in DBT is known as dehumidification.

During humidification, DBT= constant; During dehumidification, DBT= constant;

and

and

25. Cooling and dehumidification

Employed in summer air-conditioning system

During this process, DBT; and generally

26. Heating and humidification

Employed in winter air-conditioning system

During this process, DBT; and generally

27. Evaporative coolers:

Evaporative coolers, also known as swamp coolers, use evaporative cooling based on the
principle that as water evaporates, the latent heat of vaporization is absorbed from the water body and
the surrounding air. As a result, both the water and the air are cooled during the process. Evaporative
coolers are commonly used in dry climates and provide effective cooling. Eg. Cooling towers