POWERPLANT

Contents

General (including basics about

piston engines)
Propeller
Jet engine
Turbopropeller
Related concepts
Units of measurement

GENERAL

Contents

The purpose of the engine

Different types of engine
Operating range
Aircraft engine systems

The purpose of the engine

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#z

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The purpose of the engine

Build up forward speed in the aircraft in order to create an aerodynamic
force on the airfoil !
#.
The created force must be great enough to overcome gravity (Earth
attraction) and drag
drag
With some speed operating limitations: Stall speed, VMO
(Maximum Velocity in Operation)
Operation) or MMO (Maximum Mach in
Operation)
Operation)

Different types of engine

Basics about the piston engine

The piston engine

Development of internal combustion engine (theoretically invented by

Beau de Rochas 1876 & developped by Dr Otto).
First internal combustion engine known as the piston engine
Combustion generated by series of individual cyclic explosions
Heat energy (generated from fuel/air mixture being burnt)
burnt) converted into
mechanical energy driving the propeller
Acceleration of air mass flow by the propeller,
propeller, generating opposite force
known as traction
traction

Description
Cylinder
Prop shaft

Spark plug

Starter

Description

Injector

Diagram of cylinder
Spark plug

Exhaust valve

Inlet valve
Combustion chamber
Cylinder
Piston

Crankshaft

Connecting rod

Description
Flat

InIn-line

Radial
V-type

Description

Characteristic parameters of piston engines

Cylinder capacity:
capacity: Cy =

x Bore
Bore x Stroke

(To be multiplied by the number of cylinders)

cylinders)
v

Cy
Bore

TDC: top dead center

Stroke
BTC: bottom dead center
Volumetric compression rate: (C
(Cy + v)/v

Power: Torque x RPM

Operation

The 4-stroke cycle

Open inlet valve

Close inlet valve

Close inlet valve

Close inlet valve

Close exhaust valve

Close exhaust valve

Close exhaust valve

Open exhaust valve

Induction

Compression

Combustion

Exhaust

Injector

Fuel supply
Air

Filter

Air

Filter

Inlet manifold
Intake pipe

Indirect injection

Air

Carburetor

Fuel

Filter

Injector

Inlet manifold
Fuel
Combustion
chamber

Induction manifold
Direct injection (not used for aircraft
aircrafts engine)
engine)

Fuel supply

The system mixes the air with the fuel in wellwell-defined proportions
known as mixture.
The properties of the mixture (pressure, temperature,
temperature, dose, type of fuel)
define a combustion velocity that should be around 1 m/s.
If this speed increases significantly (around one kilometer per second),
an unwanted phenomenon known as detonation
detonation occurs.
occurs.
This causes a clicking noise and can lead to serious damages.

Fuel supply

Carburetor (for (ultra-)light aircraft)

Throttle control

Fuel
Main jet

Mixture control lever

Venturi

Float

Orifice
Needle
Air flow

(Source: ATPL)

Fuel supply

The throttle control adjusts the quantity of the air/fuel mixture going to
the cylinders.
cylinders. It is normally black.
The mixture control adjusts the quality by modifying the air/fuel mixture.
In the choke position, it cuts the fuel inlet and stops the engine.
engine. It is
normally red.
red.
The fuel is vaporized by the main jet nozzle and mixes with the air under
the Venturi effect generated by the narrowed roat.
roat.

Fuel supply

Mixture

1/28

Best efficiency
1/18

Lean
flameflame-out

St
Stchiometric
dose 1/15.3

Best power
1/12.5

Rich
flameflame-out

Optimum mixture
Lean mixture

1/8

Rich mixture
Mixture
richness

Fuel supply
The mixture control varies from maximum richness position (1/12.5),
which is the mixture that gives the optimum ground power, to the choke
position, which stops the engine.
engine.
As the aircraft climbs,
climbs, the air density decreases,
decreases, so the mixture must be
modified in order to remain within the correct mixture range:
This is known as altimetric correction.
It is also possible to choose between two flight configurations:
Best power: 1/12.5
Best efficiency: 1/18

Different types of engine

Gas turbine engine

Compressor

Turbine

e
in
ng
e
t
je

JET ENGINE

tu
rb
op
ro
p

Combustion chamber
GAS TURBINE

TURBOPROP

Different types of engine

The gas turbine is a continuous internal combustion engine
cyclic as for the piston engine

No longer

Part of the energy from the combustion is used to drive turbine stages,
which drive themselves associated compressor stages thanks to shaft(s).
shaft(s).
The addition of an exhaust nozzle led to jet engines (acceleration of
air mass flow generating thrust)
thrust)
The addition of a propeller and a reduction gear box led to
turboprop engines.

Operating range
430

490

7560

Flight Level

P.E. :Piston Engine

650
420
0

T.P.E.

JET ENGINE

JET ENGINE

TURBOPROP

Speed Kts

1050

TURBOPROP

T.P.E.

P.E.

180
140

P.E.

TURBOPROP

P.E.

120

T.P.E.

210

JET ENGINE

350
260

Range NM

T.P.E. :Turbocharged
:Turbocharged Piston Engine

The operating range of engines (1/2)

Piston engine
Issue is decrease of air density when altitude increases (every 10 000
feet,
feet, air density decreases by 25% of ground density value)
Fuel/air ratio has to remain in specific range for satisfactory operation
Then,
Then, air density decreases Less fuel for mixture Less energy
available for propeller (no longer enough energy to climb higher)
higher)
Flight level limitation for piston engines
Turbocharger can be set on engine Exhaust rotates a turbine that
drives a compressor, increasing density of ambient air

The operating range of engines (2/2)

Piston and turbopropeller engines
Propeller limits flight level and speed
Low density of air prevents the propeller from satisfactorily operating
Propeller
Propellers tip speed limitation has to remain subsonic (max speed of
aircraft fitted with propeller(s)
propeller(s) 800 km/h)
Turbocharger can be set on engine Exhaust rotates a turbine that
drives a compressor, increasing density of ambient air
Engine range
Short range (<3h) : Turboprop
Medium range (>3h & <6h): Turboprop & Turbojet/
Turbojet/Turbofan
Long range (>6h): Turbojet/
Turbojet/Turbofan

Aircraft engines

Piston engine: Light aircraft

DR400

Textron Lycoming O-320

APEX AVIATION (Robin Aircraft)
Aircraft)

Aircraft engines

Turbocharged piston engine: Light aircraft

TB 21

Textron Lycoming TIOTIO-540

EADS (Socata)

Aircraft engines

Turbopropeller: Short-range commercial aircraft

DASH 88-400

Pratt & Whitney PWC 150A (Canada)

Bombardier Aerospace

Aircraft engines
Turbofan:
Turbofan: medium and longlong-range commercial aircraft
BOEING 777777-300ER

General Electric GE90GE90-115B

Boeing Commercial Airplanes

PROPELLER

Contents

Description
Operation
Variable pitch
Multi-engine requirements

Description
1

Number
of blades

Diameter

Rotation
direction
3

Description

The number of blades:

blades: two,
two, three,
three, four, etc.
The diameter,
diameter, which is limited by speed consideration at the blade tips
(subsonic at the tip, in the whole operating range).
The rotation direction (seeing
(seeing from the pilot
pilots place):
Clockwise or right hand
CounterCounter-clockwise or left hand
Resistors embedded in the rubber coating of the leading edge provide
antianti-icing capabilities.
capabilities.

Description
Rotation plane
Blade angle
Intersecting
plane

Intersecting plane

Rotation plane

Description
Blade angle defines the angle between the chord line and the rotation
plane.
This angle varies in order to ensure a constant pitch along the blade:
blade: this
is known as propeller twist.
twist.
Blade angle of a propeller decreases from blade root to tip
In Europe, pitch is considered as the angle located 3/4 along the blade;
blade;
in the United States, the twist angle located halfhalf-way along the blade is
used.
used.

Operation
Aerodynamic resultant position

Airflow vector position

4

1: Traction

3
1

2: Transparency

3: Brake

3: Windmilling

Variable pitch

Low pitch

High pitch

0.8

Opt.
Opt. TAS Opt.TAS

Opt.TAS

TAS

Variable pitch
For any given pitch, the maximum efficiency is obtained at a given
airspeed (TAS).
Depending upon flight phases, the pilot set TAS with throttle and RPM
with pitch lever and propeller control unit automatically set best blade
angle to maintain RPM constant, so the best efficiency
The pitch must be reduced at low speeds and increased at high speeds.
This is the advantage of the variablevariable-pitch propeller.
propeller.

Variable pitch
The propeller control unit optimizes efficiency in the different flight
phases by varying the pitch to maintain a constant RPM.
The controls in the cockpit display a given RPM.
When the rotation speed decreases,
decreases, the pitch decreases in order to return
to the defined RPM.
When the rotation speed increases,
increases, the pitch increases in order to return
to the defined RPM.

Variable pitch

Low pitch is the configuration required for taketake-off and landing (to allow
gogo-around)
around) Typically 10
10
High pitch is used for cruising Typically 45
45
Feathering 90
90
Reverse mode (reducing
(reducing landing distance) - Typically -17

MultiMulti-engine requirements
Feathering

Compensation by the rudder

MultiMulti-engine requirements
When windmilling,
windmilling, the engine rotates in the normal direction but
generates drag, and not thrust
The main precaution to be taken with multimulti-engine aircraft is to avoid
problems caused by the torque on the yaw axis in the case of an engine
failure.
failure.
Feathering partly solves this problem by angling the propeller relative to
the wind so as to reduce drag to a minimum.
Synchronisation system matching RPM between engines, avoiding
differences of traction between engines

JET ENGINE

Contents

General
Air inlet
Compressor
Combustion chamber
Turbine
Exhaust nozzle

General
Compressor

Turbines

Nozzle

Air intake

Single-shaft
single flow
turbojet

Combustion chamber

General
This internal combustion engine works by accelerating an airflow.
airflow.
The compressor works by bringing this air flow to the temperature and
pressure conditions required to allow combustion.
In the combustion chamber,
chamber, the air recovers the heat energy from the
fuel.
Part of this energy is recovered in the form of mechanical energy by the
turbine in order to keep the compressor rotating.
rotating. The residual energy is
converted into kinetic energy that produces a high ejection speed.

General

Caravelle (Sud Aviation)

Basic jet engine

5 200daN

General

Boeing 707-320

TwinTwin-spool jet engine

7 500daN

General

Airbus 330
External airflow
or by-pass airflow
Internal
airflow

External airflow
or by-pass airflow

High dilution twintwin-spool

turbofan
30 000daN

General

Airbus 380

Fan(N1)

IP(N2)

HP(N3)

High dilution tripletriple-spool

turbofan
37 000daN

General

Mirage F1

Basic turbojet with afterburner

5 000daN and 7 500daN with reheat

General

Boeing T45

Low dilution byby-pass twintwin-spool turbojet

engine
Maximum thrust: 2700 daN and 3750 daN
with reheat

Low dilution byby-pass turbojet engines

Low dilution byby-pass turbojet engines
Suited for military use: Small diameter of the fan, to allow installation
into small aircraft (engine integrated in the aircraft carcass)
carcass)
Small diameters imply high rotation speeds to get thrust Engine
with high mechanical and thermal stresses
May be equipped with rere-heat jet pipe to increase thrust during short
flight periods (take(take-off, fight)
fight)
Dilution ratio ~ 0.3 to 0.8

High dilution byby-pass turbojet engines

High dilution byby-pass turbojet engines
Suited for civil engines: Large diameter of the fan, for installation
under wings or tail of the aircraft
Large diameters allow acceleration of huge air mass flow (then
(then high
power levels)
levels)
CostCost-efficient engines
Dilution ratio ~ 5 to 6.5

General

Main turbofan parameters

Thrust

F = Ma (Vj V0)

Rotation speeds

RPM: LP = N1 IP = N2 HP = N3

Fuel consumption

Fuel Flow: hourly fuel consumption

ByBy-pass ratio

= Mexternalexternal-flow / Minternalinternal-flow

General
Thrust is expressed in Newtons (daN
(daN)) or in poundpound-force (lbf
(lbf)) in the
EnglishEnglish-speaking countries: 1 lbf = 4.45 N.
It is a function of the airflow rate and the ejection speed.
Static thrust is the thrust generated at run up, in which case the negative
component Ma.V0 (called ram drag) is null,
null, and the thrust has a
maximum value Max static thrust
The RPM values depend on the number of spools, N1 is adopted by some
constructors as the jet engine operational parameter.
parameter.
On turbofans with a high byby-pass ratio, the external flow (also
(also called
cold flow) generates between 70% and 85% of thrust.

General

Jet engine stations

1
0
Upstream
infinite

Air
intake

2
Compressor
intake

3
Combustion
chamber input

Turbine Turbine
input
output

Exhaust
nozzle
output

General

Major constructors

CFMI: CFM 56

The Airbus 319,320,321 series

SNECMA

TwinTwin-spool turbofan

GENERAL ELECTRIC

Thrust: 10 to 15,000daN

General

Major constructors

IAE: V2500
Pratt & Whitney

The Airbus 319,320,321 series

RollsRolls-Royce

TwinTwin-spool turbofan

MTU Aero Engines

Thrust: 10 to 15,000daN

Japanese Aero Engines Co

General

Major constructors

Boeing 767,747 Airbus 310

GE: CF6 80

TwinTwin-spool turbofan

General Electric

General

PW: PW 4000
Pratt & Whitney

Thrust: 20 to 25,000daN

Major constructors

Boeing 767,747 Airbus 300,310

TwinTwin-spool turbofan
Thrust: 20 to 25,000daN

General

Major constructors

Boeing 777 Airbus 330,380

RR: TRENT 700, 800, 900

TripleTriple-spool turbofan

RollsRolls-Royce

General

GE: GE 90
General Electric

Thrust: 25 to 35,000daN

Major constructors

Boeing 777
TwinTwin-spool turbofan
Thrust: 39 to 45,000daN

Air inlet
SUBSONIC FLIGHT

SUPERSONIC FLIGHT

Variable wedge

Variable wedge

Fixed casing
Dump valves

SINGLE DIVERGENT
SECTION

VARIABLE CONVERGENT/
DIVERGENT SECTION

Air inlet
The main purpose of the air intake is to supply the first compression
stages with a turbulent free airflow and within a specific speed range.
In order to optimize compressor efficiency, the inlet air flow speed shall
be around Mach 0.6.
For aircraft flying between M 0.8 and M 2, the incoming airflow must be
slowed down.
Reminder about subsonic operation
Convergent duct:
duct: Velocity (V) of gases increases while static pressure
decreases (Ps)
Divergent duct:
duct: Velocity (V) of gases decreases while static pressure
increases (Ps)

Air inlet
S1

S2

S1

Engine
failure

Cruise

S1

Descent

S2

S2

S1

S2

TakeTake-off

Air inlet
Aerodynamic operation is optimized in cruise flight (when
(when the airflow is
practically cylindrical).
cylindrical).
If the air flow is highly convergent, the static air temperature tends to
drop.
On taketake-off and in certain conditions where visibility < 1500m, with mist
or fog and SAT < +10 Celsius degree,
degree, there are risks of icing.
icing.
AntiAnti-icing works by circulating hot air from the HP compressor
towards the air intake .

Compressor

Compressor
The compressor works by increasing the air pressure and temperature in
order to allow a proper combustion.
The compressor consists of a moving part known as the rotor and a
stationary part known as the stator casing. These two parts work together
to form a compression stage.
Compressors can be either centrifugal or axial.

Compressor
Thermodynamic process requires air supply under pressure
A compressor includes:
includes:
Rotor stages that impart motion to a mass of air (air speed is
significantly increased and air pressure increases due to the divergent
shape of the vanes)
vanes)
Stator stages that transform part of air speed into static pressure
because of the divergent shape of the air path Air flow is also
straightened and directed to the next stage with appropriate angle
Compressor is characterised by:
Compressor ratio: Ratio of outlet pressure to inlet pressure (P3/P2)
Air flow M through the compressor
Efficiency: Around 80%

Compressor

Centrifugal compressor

Compressor
Particular features of the centrifugal compressor
Consists in a rotor associated to one or several diffusers
Air enters axially and then flows radially
Velocity increases due to centrifugal acceleration and pressure
increases due to divergent passage between vanes,
vanes, air leaves tip of
blades at very high speed
Velocity partly transformed into pressure due to divergent passage
between vanes in diffusers
Good efficiency output - Compression ratio limited to low value It
may be used in combination 2 centrifugal compressors can lead to
high compressor ratio ~ 15
Rotation speed between 15,000 and 65,000 RPM.

Compressor

Axial compressor
Air intake

Casing

Shaft
Drum

Stator vane

Rotor blade

Rotor disk

Compressor
Particular features of the axial compressor
Often used as a multimulti-stage assembly
Each stage made of rotating vanes and static vanes
Indivudual low compression rate (around
(around 1.2 to 1.6) - High compression ratios
obtained by using several stages (compression ratio ~ 30)
Ideal for engines developing lot of power
Prone to foreign object damage
Mainly used for turbofan engines (medium to large thrust engines)
The way in which the airflow reaches the rotor blades (direction and strength)
strength)
will directly affect the compressor efficiency.
That is why stators have such an important part by generating an almost
identical air flow to each compression stage: this is known as a periodic
compressor.

Compressor

Turbomeca TM 333 engine on the HAL Dhruv helicopter

Compressor
In certain conditions, the blades may stall.
stall. This problem may occur at
low RPM and worsen as the airflow speed drops.
If this spreads to a larger number of compression stages, the compressor
output pressure drops suddenly and causes engine surging.
surging. It may reverse
the airflow towards the compressor

DeltaP
(34)
has to
remain
negative!!

Compressor
Engine surge causes a noise that may be as loud as the sound of a
gunshot.
gunshot.
In the most serious cases, the air flow may even reverse and expel the
burning mixture through the compressor and air intake (and then can
cause heavy damages to the engine,
engine, up to destruction of compressor and
turbine stages).
To prevent this from happening, the usual solution is to fit variable
stator vanes and an acceleration control unit avoiding surge
conditions from occurring (Fuel flow as a function of P3, limited
compressor acceleration rate)

Compressor
Variable stators have different names depending on their location:
Those located in the front of the first rotor stage are called IGV:
Inlet Guide Vane.
Those located in the compressor stages are called VSV:
Variable Stator Vanes.
The acceleration control must be capable of:
Switching from ground idle to full thrust within 8 seconds.
Switching from inin-flight idle to full thrust within 5 seconds.

Compressor

Compressor
The compressor must be capable of withstanding relatively frequent
weather conditions (heavy
(heavy rain,
rain, hail,
hail, etc.) without losing any thrust
power (in particular during taketake-off).
It must also withstand bird strike and meet requirements relative to bird
size (at
(at least 75% of Toff power must be maintained for a given time,
debris retained,
retained, etc..).
The air intake cone (or spiner)
spiner) removes obstacles flowing towards the
external airflow in order to minimize damage.
Certification requirements (CS(CS-E for products certified under EASA
scope) adress these items

Combustion chamber
3
HP compressor

Combustion
chamber

HP turbine

HP shaft
Internal casing

Fuel injector
Igniter

Outer casing
Flame tube

Combustion chamber

The combustion chamber is the part of the gas turbine engine in which
the airflow takes the energy given off by the air/kerosene
air/kerosene combustion.
Combustion must take into account pollution standards and turbine
intake temperature limitations.
There are two types of combustion chamber:
chamber: axial or reverse flow.

Combustion chamber

The cooling system

Combustion area

1800
1800C

Dilution area

1400
1400C

Combustion chamber
The flame tube contains two main operating areas:
The combustion area itself,
itself, in which the air/fuel mixture is kept ignited
while keeping to the dose limits and stabilizing the flame using a suitable
air circulation system.
The dilution area, which provides cooling by mixing the relatively cold
air with the gases from the combustion area.
Cooling is further completed by creating a slight airflow inside the flame
tube along with a continuous air circulation inside the stator vanes and
rotor blades of the turbines.

Combustion chamber
Pt3

Self-maintained
combustion

Pt3 min.

Dosing

Lean flameflame-out

Rich flameflame-out

Combustion chamber

Combustion is the result of a chemical reaction between the oxygen in

the air and the kerosene,
kerosene, with the aim of obtaining the best possible heatheatinduced power level (42,700 KJ per kg of fuel). The chemical correct
fuel/air ratio is 1/15, i.e. 1g of fuel for 15 g of air.
This dose must remain within certain limits,
limits, otherwise flameflame-out may
occur.
occur.
A minimum pressure (Pt3) must also be maintained in order to prevent
flameflame-out. This is the pressure that the starter must reach during the start
up sequence.
sequence.

Combustion chamber
Guaranteed engine ceiling

IN

VM

STARTER

DM

IL
LI
N

MMO

Zp

Mach

Combustion chamber
Start up procedure:
procedure:
On ground or in the starter
starter area:
Use starter to 20% of N2ref to obtain Pt3min
Select igniter
Open HP fuel valve (activating
(activating igniter)
igniter)
Stabilize ground idling between 55 and 65% of N2ref
In the windmilling
windmilling area:
Select igniter
Open HP fuel valve (activating
(activating igniter)
igniter)

Combustion chamber

Low RPM

HCx

Pollution

Combustion
High RPM

NOx + Smoke

CO2 + H2O

Low RPM

CO

Combustion chamber

During combustion, the hydrocarbon and oxygen molecules combine to

give off water and CO2, which contributes to the greenhouse effect.
effect.
Since cruise flight is the most frequently used (high RPM), the main
pollutants are the NOX molecules.
molecules.
As a precaution,
precaution, the ICAO (the International Civil Aviation Authority)
has issued standards aiming at reducing pollutants by 20% and NOx
emissions by 40%.

Turbine
Turbine casing

Abradable
seal

Stator

Stator

Rotor

CrossCross-section
view

Blade

Air from combustion

chamber

Disk
(Based on ENAC/TA)

Turbine
The turbine recovers the energy input into the airflow in the combustion
chamber and converts it into mechanical energy in order to operate the
compressor.
In addition to the first stator located at the combustion chamber output
and known as the nozzle guide vane,
vane, a turbine stage contains a rotor
followed by a stator.
As for the compressor, a turbine stage is configured for periodic
operation,
operation, which means that the airflow
airflows vector is almost identical at
each stage.
Convergent section to increase gas speed (V), driving the turbine rotor
stages

Turbine

Creep
Creep means plastic deformation of a material caused by strong
mechanical,
mechanical, thermal stresses and normal wear.
It requires both strict monitoring of the turbine intake temperature and a
suitable maintenance program.
Upstream research is also in progress to find materials that offer better
resistance to this phenomenon,
phenomenon, such as alloys,
alloys, ceramics,
ceramics, advanced
metallurgical techniques, etc.

Turbine

Cooling

Rotor

Stator
(Based on ENAC/TA)

Turbine

Cooling air is taken in at the HP compressor. For the vanes,

vanes, it is routed
via the casing, for the moving rotor, it is routed via the rotation shaft.
shaft.
The cooling air circulates inside the vanes and blades,
blades, and also forms a
protective film on the profile by means of small openings.
openings.

Turbine

For practical reasons,

reasons, the turbine temperatures are monitored at the
output rather than at the intake of the turbine stages.
The turbine air intake temperature varies in the same way as the output
temperature or EGT (Exhaust
(Exhaust Gas Temperature)
Temperature), so the EGT is
monitored by the crew,
crew, especially in the most penalizing phases (Take
(Take-off, MaxMax-continuous).
continuous).
Today,
Today, the maximum operating inlet temperature of turbines is
around 1400/1500
1400/1500C.

Turbine

Disk and blades

(Based on CFMI)

Turbine

(Based on BOEING)

Turbine

Several phenomena can cause damage to the turbine stages, including:

including:
Overspeed
Overheating
Failure of the cooling system
Clogging

Exhaust nozzles
5
Rear mount

6
EGT sensor

Rear casing

LP shaft

Rear
bearing (LP)

Pt probe
EPR signal

(Based on ENAC/TA)

Exhaust nozzles
Exhaust nozzles increase gas ejection speed, so they have a converging
shape.
shape. Ejection speed ranges:
Basic turbojet = 500 m/s
Turbofan = 310 m/s
With afterburner = 750 m/s
An internal cone ensures that the air flow remains homogeneous by
removing any turbulence and thus limiting heat exchange between the
hot air and the LP shaft.
shaft.
Measuring and monitoring instruments:
EGT thermocouple
Total pressure probe: this indicates the EPR (Engine Pressure Ratio)
in terms of the total pressure at the turbine output over the total
pressure at the compressor intake.
intake.

Exhaust nozzles

Noise reduction

Mixer exhaust nozzle

(Based on UTC)

Chevron exhaust nozzle

(Based on BOEING)

Exhaust nozzles
The noise generated by the exhaust nozzles depends on several factors:
factors:
Diameter
Ejection speed
Temperature difference.
difference.
The shape of the sections is designed to increase the contact surface, but
also to take in the outer air via a suction
suction effect.
effect. This allows better
dilution and reduces the temperature difference between the exhaust gas
and the ambient air.
Internal mixing of gas streams reduce noise compared to separate
nozzles.
nozzles.

Exhaust nozzles

Reverse Thrust
Vr

Exhaust nozzles

Reverse Thrust works by diverting the exhaust gas flow to create a force
opposite the direction in which the aircraft is moving.
moving.
The reverse thrust helps to brake the aircraft during landing to reduce the
landing distance and spare the brakes.
brakes.
In this case, the ram drag (Ma.V
(Ma.V0) contributes to braking.
braking.
The risks of surging increase as the aircraft decelerates,
decelerates, so the reverse
thrust is used on touchtouch-down and are retracted when IAS is around
60/80 Kts.

Exhaust nozzles

Doors Reverser

Translating Reverser

Exhaust nozzles

15 m

Safety zone

93
93 m
m

105 m

Exhaust nozzles

The safety zone is defined by the manufacturer for the maximum Toff
thrust and idle.
idle. The example shows the Airbus A320 at Mtoff thrust.
This zone must cover the risks involved both in air intake and exhaust.
exhaust.

TURBOPROPELLER

Contents

Different types of turboprops

Parameters
Reduction gearbox
Anti-icing system

Different types of turboprops

Fixed type turbines

GAS TURBINE

Prop shaft

Gearbox

Shaft on the fixed turbine with gearbox + prop shaft

Wa

Different types of turboprops

Free type turbines

Shafts on the free gas turbine with gearbox + prop shaft

Different types of turboprops

In addition to this particular feature,

feature, twintwin-spool gas turbines have been
developed for more powerful turboprops.
turboprops.
A few examples:
examples:
Fixed turboprop:
turboprop: Turbomeca (Bastan
(Bastan)) Nord 262
Free turboprop:
turboprop: P&W (PT6) Beechcraft 200 King
ThreeThree-spool free turboprop:
turboprop: P&W (PW120) ATR42

Parameters

Power = Torque x RPM

The free turbine speed is around 30,000 RPM, so it needs a reduction
gearbox to limit propeller speeds of around 2000 RPM.
A turboprop can develop between twice and four times as much power as
a piston engine.
engine.
In order to obtain optimum efficiency in all flight envelopes,
envelopes, a variablevariablepitch propeller must be fitted.
fitted.

Gearbox

Satellite gear
Fixed gear
Satellite gear

Drive
gear

Gearbox

The reduction gearbox works through a set of pinions to reduce the

rotation speed of the gas turbine (or the turbine for free turbines) and
obtain a propeller speed within the required flight envelope.
envelope.
This system requires a high degree of lubrication and the manufacturer
guarantees a maximum operating torque that must never be exceeded to
avoid the risk of weakeness or failure.
failure.

AntiAnti-icing system (inertial

(inertial separator)
separator)

AntiAnti-icing system

AntiAnti-icing system (inertial

(inertial separator)
separator)

The antianti-icing system used nowadays is the inertial separator

separator type in
which the heavy particles are diverted towards the byby-pass when the antiantiicing flap is down.
In general,
general, the antianti-icing system is activated on the initiative of the crew
since it induces a power drop.

RELATED CONCEPTS

Contents

Performance
Operation and monitoring of turboprops and turbojets
Accessory gear box

Performance

Ground run parameters as a function of N (turbojets)

F
Thr
ust

Max. Toff (Nmto): 100% TimeTimelimited (5 minutes max)

Overspeed

p
Cs

EPR

T
EG

Max. continuous (Nmct): 95% no

time limit
Cruise (N
(Ncruise): 85%
Idling in flight (N
(Nrv): 80%
Idling on ground (Nrs): 60%

25

50

75

85 100

RPM in %

Performance

Note that from 75% RPM, thrust and EPR are linear and parallel.
parallel. So either
N1 or EPR can be used as operational parameters.
parameters.
P&W and RR opted to use the EPR value, whereas GE and CFMI opted
for N1. Note that the choice of N1 as rotation speed is due to the fact that
80% of thrust is produced by the outer flow (cold flow).
Note that specific fuel consumption (SFC) during cruise flight (Fuel Flow
divided by thrust) is the lowest SFC.

Performance

Variation with temperature (turbojets)

F

QFE fixed

n
tio
ita
lim

QFE fixed

n
tio
ita
lim

- 7%

T
EG

T
EG

Flat rated

Flat Rated
limitation
zone
+ 10
10C

T (
(C)

EGT
limitation
zone
+ 15
15C

T (
(C)
T (
(C)

Performance
The thrust of a turbojet or the power of a turboprop will depend on the air
flow through the engine and thus on its density.
density. Density varies in the same
way as pressure and in the opposite direction to temperature.
temperature.
When the temperature increases,
increases, the mixture becomes enriched,
enriched, so the fuel
feed must be reduced in order to remain within EGT limits.
limits. This induces a
drop in thrust of around 0.7% per C.
Conversely,
Conversely, when the temperature decreases,
decreases, the engine reaches EGT
limits with much higher thrust values. The engine manufacturers have
defined a thrust limit to reduce maintenance and operating costs and
prolong the service life of engines: this is known as Flat Rated limitation.

Performance

Variation with QFE (turbojets)

F

n
tio
i ta
lim

1000 hPa

Flat rated

T
EG

1020 hPa
1013 hPa

Breakoff temperature

T (
(C)

Performance
When the pressure drops, the density also decreases,
decreases, causing a reduction in
thrust.
The breakoff temperature (Tc) is the intersection between EGT limitation
and Flat Rated limitation.
This temperature (Tc) decreases with pressure, since the drop in the air
mass flow rate affects the cooling system and the engine tends to reach
EGT limits sooner.
sooner.

Performance

Variation of thrust during flight (turbojets)

F
100%

0
FL

tio ake
ita int
lim sor
s
T pre
m
Co

FL0

FL360
FL36
0

20%

tio ke
ita nta
lim sor i
T pres
m
Co

FL
18
0

FL18
0

50%

Turbofan
BPR

100%

Turbojet

0.8

Mach

0.8

Mach

Performance

At the same thrust lever setting assumed to be constant, thrust will drop as
the aircraft gathers speed.
However,
However, at the same altitude and crusing speed, the turbofan only restores
20% of the takeoff thrust, whereas the turbojet restores 50% of the take off
thrust.
For both types of engine,
engine, the ground run thrust known as static thrust is
maximum.

Performance

Variation as a function of Tand QFE (turboprops)

W

Torque
limitation

T
EG
n
tio
ita
li m
a
hP
13
a
10
hP
00
10
Pa
5h
99

T (
(C)

Performance

For turboprops,
turboprops, the characteristic is shaft power output:
W = TQ . RPM
This depends on the air and fuel flow rates and is limited both by the EGT
and by the max. torque that the gearbox can withstand.
withstand.
Like the turbojet,
turbojet, the useable power will decrease when the temperature
increases,
increases, or when Zp decreases as a result of the drop in air density.
density.

Performance

Variation of power during flight (turboprops)

W
FL 0
F L 12 0

60%

n e
tio tak
ita in
lim sor
s
T pre
m
Co

100%

F L 24 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Mach

Performance

At a constant altitude, the useable power increases with the aircraft specific
speed; the air flow will increase and there is no ram drag subtraction factor
as observed for turbofans.
turbofans.
Therefore,
Therefore, when the aircraft gathers speed, the crew must make sure that
this power excess does not exceed the torque limit (since the RPM is kept
constant by the pitch control).
Note that at FL240 and at Mach 0.6, the turboprop still restores 60% of
maximum power, so its use within this flight envelope offers better
performance than the turbofan.
turbofan.

Operation and monitoring of turbojets and turboprops

Turbofan
operation

Turboprop
operation
40
20
0

60

80

Np

100

%
0 8 5. 2

OR

AND
40 60
20

(Source: ENAC/TA)

80
100

TQ

%
9

0.

Operation and monitoring of turbojets and turboprops

The turbojet characteristic is thrust, so thrust is displayed using either the

RPM of the LP spool (N1), or the EPR.
So one of the flight parameters will be either N1 (as chosen by the
manufacturers GE and CFMI), or EPR (as chosen by the manufacturers
P&W and RR).
The turboprop characteristic is the shaft power, so the operational
parameters will be propeller RPM and torque.

Operation and monitoring of turbojets and turboprops

System monitoring

Main monitoring
panel

Operation

Monitoring of turbofans and turboprops

Main warning
panel

Buzzer
Indicator lights

Operation and monitoring of turbojets and turboprops

The gas turbine monitoring are used to check that the gas turbine
parameters and the related systems are correctly operating within their
limits.
limits.
ColorColor-codes are associated with the monitoring indicator lights. Each color
covers a different operating range:
Green: Normal: normal operation.
operation.
Amber: Abnormal,
Abnormal, close monitoring.
Red:
Red: Limit,
Limit, take immediate action.
For gas turbine, the parameters that need to be monitored are the EGT (ITT
for turboprops),
turboprops), the RPMs of all spools, the fuel flow and the total fuel used
in order to know aircraft weight in realreal-time.

Operation and monitoring of turbojets and turboprops

Monitoring the related systems means monitoring fuel quantity,

quantity, pressure
and temperature.
.
The
indicators
are
both
lights
and
buzzers
indicators.
temperature
indicators.
Turboprops also require propeller controls and monitors: feathering system,
pitch stops, synchronization,
synchronization, etc.

Operation and monitoring of turbojets and turboprops

ECAM display on turbofan

Cruise flight

Ground idling
5

10

19.3

N1

10

63.5

FLX 85.6

% 35C

FOB: 17 350 KG
5

10

EGT

452

10

FLAP

604

58.7

N2

278

F.F
KG/H

78.7
2150

Operation and monitoring of turbojets and turboprops

Example of a new generation ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft

Monitoring) display panel on CFM56CFM56-5A engines fitted on the A320
aircraft.
aircraft. On the left engine an example of ground idling,
idling, and on the right
engine in cruise flight.
On the right: flap position, remaining fuel quantity and FLEX.

Accessory gear box

Axial shaft

AGB: Accessory Gear Box

TGB: Transfer Gear Box

(Source: ENAC/TA)

Accessory gear box

The aircraft also requires a certain number of mechanically driven

accessories to fly.
fly. These accessories are placed in an AGB (Accessory
(Accessory
Gear Box) located in the fan casing or the HP compressor casing for easy
access.
access.
The mechanical drive power is driven by the HP compressor via a radial
shaft and a gearbox known as the TGB (Transfer Gear Box). Mechanical
fuses are located at each end of the shaft,
shaft, these break the pinion in the
event of overtorque,
overtorque, to protect the compressor from shaft jamming.
jamming.

Accessory gear box

Engine accessories must be distinguished from aircraft accessories:
accessories:
Engine accessories include:
include: Lubrication pumps unit
Starter
Fuel pump
Fuel control unit
Aircraft accessories include:
include: Hydraulic pump
AC generator
Pneumatic and hydraulic supplies are redundant in order to prevent an axial
shaft jam from totally paralyzing the aircraft.
aircraft.

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Units of measurement
Force:
1 lbf (pound force) = 4.45 N
1 metric ton of thrust = 9,810 N # 10,000 N = 1,000 daN
Length:
Length:
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 NM = 1 852 m
1 in = 2.54 cm
Volume:
1 cu in (cubic
(cubic inch)
inch) = 16.387 cm
cm
1 us gal (USA gallon) = 3.785 l 1 ukgal (GB gallon) = 4.546 l

Units of measurement
Speed:
1 Kt (knot)
knot) = 1.852 km/h
1 RPM = 2pi/60 rad/s = 0.1047 rad/s
Mach = V / Vs Vs(m/s)=
Vs(m/s)= 20.1 Ts (Static temperature)
temperature)
Temperature:
Temperature:
1 K (degree
(degree Kelvin) = 1 C + 273
1 F = 9 (1 C 32) / 5
Energy:
Energy:
1 cal = 4.184 J (Joules)

Units of measurement
Pressure:
1 bar = 100,000 Pa (Pascal) = 750 mm Hg
1 atm = 1.013 bar = 760 Torr
1 PSI (pound per square inch)
inch) = 6894.76 Pa = 0.069 bar
Power:
1 cv (metric
(metric horsepower) = 736 watts
1 hp (horsepower in the UK) = 746 watts
1 cv = 0.987 hp
cv DIN (Deutsches
(Deutsches Institut fr Normung)
Normung) corresponds
to the effective input power.

Few interesting videos on the internet

Pratt & Whitney PW1000G Pure Power Engine How it works
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7CU0B7VeLFU

Engine surge on ground:

ground: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9KhZwsYtNDE
Bird ingestion test for certification
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSafRuLB0c0

Surge on ground:
ground: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhbVPLnaZtg
How a CFM56CFM56-7B works:
works: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KjYw0GdRpm0
Effect of unbalance on engine Blade failure test
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WAhjSviYVr8

Apache helicopter overspeed Cockpit view

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gWjC0nm2rjw

THANK YOU FOR YOUR

ATTENTION