Lrs Collected Handouts-Problem Frame&Argument

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LRS Steps to follow

I.
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PROBLEM FRAME
Determine your topic and your claim (thesis).
Claim: An argument is centered around a claim. A claim is not an opinion (I like

green), a fact (I have green eyes), or a vision (a green thought in a green
shade). A claim asserts something about a shared world. The shared world that
we will be making claims about in discussion, in papers, and in exams is the world
of the text. An example of a claim: The Green Knights greenness is symbolic of
his status as a force of nature that challenges civilized values.
2-
Write the introduction:

Because introduction is your readers first encounter with your paper or project, it should always have
three main purposes;
a) it establishes what is at stake for the reader,
b) presents the launching point which propels the reader to continue reading and
c) states the key characters and concept of the document.
Similarly, any paragraph or text should have an issue portion and a discussion portion as well.
Introduce your reader to your claim in an effective way that will alert him/her to the importance of
your project and influence him to open his mind to the argument you will proceed to present. To do
this, you need to frame your claim correctly, telling your reader what the problem is and how your
argument will help to overcome this problem. In other words, you need to shape your introduction as a
problem frame.
How do I write a problem frame and what does this problem frame consist of?
First, you need to define your problem clearly.
Charles Darwin once said, Looking back, I think it was more difficult to see what the problems were
than to solve them. Indeed, writers many times fail to clearly state a problem, talking only in terms of
the symptoms. Problems are defined not by symptoms nor by situations, but by a causal connection
between a bad situation and its unwelcome consequences. So you will not convince readers that your
work is worth their effort and time unless they can immediately deduce the predicament and its costs
as it pertains to them.
Core elements of a prototypical problem frame
There are several key rhetorical elements that are to be identified when formulating a problem-solving
document. These include a statement of a status quo (current state of affairs that gives rise to an
unsatisfactory situation), destabilizing condition (a predicament or reality that disturbs the status quo
or subverts it and causes a problem which the status quo cannot handle), consequences (the costs of
continuing without a resolution to the problem / or the benefits of resolving it), and a
resolution/response (located at the hot spot).
A problem frame consists of the following main parts:
i)
Status Quo
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The University of Virginia
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ii)
iii)
iv)
Destabilizing Condition (also called destabilizing moment, possibly disrupting

condition or disrupting moment.)
Cost/Consequences
Response and Resolution
Here, for example, is Changs problem frame (tangible problem):

Careers such as athletic trainers or physical therapists are becoming more popular.(Status
quo) However, there still exists little information regarding these career paths.(destabilizing
condition) Therefore, many students who are seeking graduate studies are uncertain,
confused and discouraged in applying to these programs.(consequence/cost) The final project
of this proposal will be a guide specifically geared towards pre-physical therapy
students but can also be made use of by other students exploring post-undergraduate
studies.(solution/ resolution) The guide will be split into sub-sections that help with various
aspects of the profession such as available resources or required course work (proposal)
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Discuss with your group and tell us the results: Discuss your problem frame with the other
classmates in your group, and share your comments on their work. Then take your turn to tells us
about the good points you found in one classmates introduction as well as the weaknesses, and
how your classmate can improve his/her work. Record your comments about your classmates work
and keep them in your journal.
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Oral and written report: Revise your problem frame (and begin developing the body of your
argument). In the next class meeting stand up and present it in an effective way (2 minutes). Then
explain to the class the parts of your problem frame, and tell us about any improvements youve
made and how your revisions helped improve your introduction/problem frame (3-4 minutes).
Submit a written copy of your report to the teacher (containing the old versions as well as the new
one, and why the changes you made were an improvement.
II.
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ARGUMENT
Develop your argument:

In broad terms, the introduction can be referred to as the global issue of the whole text and the
body paragraphs that follow the introduction are the global discussion of the text. Introductions,
like an issue, set the framework for understanding and expecting what is to follow.
Be clear about the reasons for your claim. These will guide or determine the divisions in the body
of your argument (the main sections of its outline): In an argument there are global reasons and
sub-reasons. The main claim of your paper is a global claim. It is global in the sense that it is
most directly the goal of your entire argument. This Global claim has a number of reasons. These
are the global reasons for your global claim. Similarly, the main reasons you give to
support your global claim are called global reasons. They are global in relation to your project
because they are directly related to the whole argument in all its parts. The global claim and its
global reasons are given in the introduction.
i)
Argument introduction (presenting the global issue): enter into your global issue/claim
from a widely open door rather than trying to fight your way through a closed door. How
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ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
do you do this? You do this by establishing common grounds between you and your reader:
In other words, an argument introduction contains:
(a) Common ground/status quo (the writer builds a bridge between himself/herself
and his or her reader.
(b) Global Reasons (the main (global) reasons that support your global claim.
The sub-claims (The main sections of your argument outline): discuss each global
reason in its own section or paragraph. In its own section or paragraph, the global
reason itself becomes the claim of that section or paragraph. It is, in other words a subclaim, just as each section (or paragraph) is a sub-section of the global (main) argument.
Sub-reasons: In the claim of each section/paragraph (which is one of the sub-claims of the
introduction), develop the sub-reasons for that claim.
Warrants and Evidence: Establish the warrants and/or evidence for each sub-reason.
Acknowledgement and Response: To be in control of your argument, you should try to
stay a step ahead of your reader. How do you do that? You stay ahead by thinking of what
possible reactions or objections your reader might have, and by acknowledging them and
then responding to them.
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Exchange comments with the classmates in your group, giving and receiving suggestions.
Write down your report on one of your classmates work, and keep this report in your portfolio.
7-
Revise your argument, taking into account the comments youve received. Give a 5 to 7
minute presentation of your argument. Submit a copy of your argument (both the old and
the new) with the rest of your portfolio, including the parts of your argument and how youve
improved it from the old version to the new.
III. STYLE
8-
Revise your argument by paying attention to the Coherence and Cohesion of your ideas
(language and flow of ideas):
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix)
Characters and Actions

Themes
The point (ask yourself So what? to all the points you make, and make sure the answer
is clear, either by its being self-evident, or by your clearly stating it.
Topic strings
Topic position
Stress position
Old to New
Short to Long
Point of View
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Revise your argument by paying attention to your story-telling style: Handling

Characters and Actions. Write the reasons why you made the changes.
11- Conclusion
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LRS Problem Frames

Problems
The Little Red Schoolhouse stresses a necessary component to a document is the presence of a
problem, because the problem is going to help the writer to organize his text.
Tangible and conceptual problems

There are two types of problems that can be presented in a text: a) tangible, or pragmatic and b)
conceptual problems.
a) Tangible problems have more practical implication and are usually more familiar to the reader as
the problem can be people, things or situations that have consequence the reader does not like.
Tangible problems almost always have a physical component and the damage done by them is
usually evident. The solution to tangible problems usually requires some sort of physical action to
try to change a person, an object or a situation.
Careers such as athletic trainers or physical therapists are becoming more
popular. However, there still exists little information regarding these career
paths (problem). Therefore, many students who are seeking graduate studies are
uncertain, confused and discouraged in applying to these programs and as a
result do not end up applying, when it could be the ideal career choice for them.
The paragraph introduces a tangible problem to the targeted reader, those who are interested in
pursuing post graduate studies, that there is little information on different programs. Furthermore,
the paragraph not only articulates the tangible problem of the reader where inadequate resources
are provided to the students, but also states the consequences: students are confused about the
application process, because they are confused, they do no apply for the programs. When they do
not apply for programs, they are not likely to get a job. Thus, it is worthwhile to solve the problem
at hand.
b) Conceptual problems are usually harder to understand. They often deal with academic, intellectual
or philosophical problems. They usually do not have a physical component, though conceptual
problems may be used to solve a tangible problem. The solution to conceptual problems does not
require physical action but rather mental actions. For example, a student in my class, who is
applying to film-studies graduate school has written a paper on a film producer, Judd Apatow, who
had only produced a few films. In his paper, he argues that Judd Apatow qualifies as a film auteur
even though he has only produced a small number of works. The contradiction between the
producers small amount of work and the good quality of his work offers a good example of a
conceptual problem which requires a conceptual resolution.. It is a conceptual problem because it
is something that the reader has misconceptualized because of a lack of understanding, and the
writer is trying to correct readers initial ideas.
1- Variations on the Prototypical Structure of Problem Frames
The LRS has provided different prototypes of writing principles, but it is up to the writer to have
variation in structure depending on who the target audience is. When using variations, the writer is
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usually writing for a more advanced and experienced audience who does not need prototypical
structures. There are several variations a writer can incorporate: instead of response/global point, hot
spot contains a launching point promise of response, preludes and stable background in the
introduction, elements purposely omitted for expert readers (for example, the writer can omit either
status quo, destabilizing moment, cost or response depending on readers experience), elements are put
in non-prototypical order in another word, having a structure that is non-story telling structure.
The following paragraph shows the variation where one or more elements radically extended to
emphasize one or more element in a text:
Careers such as athletic trainers or physical therapists are becoming more popular. However, there still
exists little information regarding these career paths (problem). Therefore, many students who are
seeking graduate studies are uncertain, confused and discouraged in applying to these programs
(consequence). As a result, the students do not end up applying to any physical therapy programs when
it could be the ideal career choice for them (consequence). Since the students end up not applying, they
are not going to get accepted into any programs (consequence). If they do not get accepted into any
programs, they are not going to obtain the education needed to become a certified physical therapist
(consequence). Without a certification, the students are not likely going to get a job in any physical
therapy setting (consequence).
Since the reader is likely going to be a college student thinking about pursuing physical therapy as a
post graduate degree but he or she does not know the crucial steps to the application process. Then this
paragraph is designed in a way that it radically extends the consequences element of an introduction to
emphasize it is important that the reader continues to read the guide, because if the reader does not read
the guide, then he or she will be less clear about application process, which will likely to jeopardize his
or her opportunity to get accepted into a program. The writer implies that the guide provides essential
information which will help to successfully pursue a degree in physical therapy and ultimately, obtain a
job in life.
Core Elements of a Prototypical Problem Frame:

One of the best ways that we can present a problem to the reader is by framing the problem in a way
that sets up the reader to easily understand what the problem is and what the writers solution is. To do
this we first establish what the status quo of the situation is. This allows the reader to become familiar
with the topic that is being addressed by the writer. Then we should include a destabilizing moment.
This is a way of showing the reader that there is a problem. Without this or the status quo, the reader
would not clearly understand why the writer is writing to them. Next, the consequences of ignoring
what happened in the destabilizing moment are addressed so as to let the readers know why it is so
important that they pay attention to the final piece of the puzzle, the response. The response is usually
the solution to the problem or, in some cases, a promise that a solution will be given in the following
text. Below is an example of how I have used these techniques.
Example 1: Status Quo/Destabilizing Moment/Consequences/Response
(Status Quo)International Service Learning (IntSL) is a non-profit organization that
coordinates medical and educational mission trips that place volunteers in under-served regions.
While the organization has been around since 1993, the Hike for Humanity trip is only in its
third year of recruiting volunteers. (Destabilizing Moment) Recruitment for the trip has been
difficult in the past two years as a result of insufficient information regarding the trip. In
addition, the current information that the organization distributes about the trip is not
persuasive, nor is it accurate. (Cost/Consequences) If ISL continues to send out the
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information that they currently have for the trip to potential volunteers, the students will
continue to be poorly prepared for the trip and the number of applicants for the trip will
continue to remain low. (Claim) If ISL wants to increase the number of applicants for its Hike
for Humanity trip to Tanzania, the information packet needs to be significantly improved.
(Response/Resolution) For this project, I will create a comprehensive and persuasive
document that will accurately describe the Hike for Humanity trip to Tanzania. This will help
attract more volunteers as well as prepare them better for their trip. (Document #2)
Here, the status quo is giving background on the company and letting the reader know something about
the topic. The destabilizing moment is showing that there is a problem with what the status quo is, that
the numbers of applicants has been low and the information about the trip is inaccurate. Stating the
consequences lets the readers (IntSL) know that there are negative effects if they do not take heed to
the solutions brought forth in the response. In this case, the consequences are the same as the costs
addressed in the previous section. The response is stating that the proposed project will fix the
problem for the readers.
Tangible and Conceptual Problems: When deciding to write something, there are two types of
problems that a writer can address. One type is a tangible problem. These are problems that tend to
have clear costs to the reader. If he or she does not read your essay, they will have very apparent costs
for doing so. These problems are easier to write about as it is easier to convey to the reader how
important it is that they continue to read the whole of the writing. The other type of problems is
conceptual. These problems are most difficult to find concrete costs to the reader for. This is because
these problems are usually intellectual problems, like what most essays written for classes are. The
cost to the reader is usually just a gap in their knowledge base or the fact that they are going to be
misinformed about a certain subject. Below are examples of tangible and conceptual problems.
Example 2: Tangible Problem
This project will attempt to improve upon the existing information that is available for
students who are interested in going on the International Service Learnings Hike for Humanity
trip to Tanzania If ISL continues to send out the information that they currently have for
the trip to potential volunteers, the students will continue to be poorly prepared for the
trip and the number of applicants for the trip will continue to remain low. (Tangible Costs
to the Reader) If ISL wants to increase the number of applicants for its Hike for Humanity trip
to Tanzania, the information packet needs to be significantly improved. (Document #2)
Here the costs are clear. There will be undesirable inefficiencies and low numbers of applicants
if the problem is not addressed. These costs clearly affect the readers and should encourage them to
continue reading to find what the solution to the problem is. This is not as easy to do with a conceptual
problem as is seen in an example from the Little Red Schoolhouse Session One packet.
Example 3: Conceptual Problem
When Corcyra and Corinth disagreed over control of Epidamnus in 433 BC, they each
went to Athens to ask for help against the other one Unless we recognize, right from the
earliest episodes in the war, that Athens rejected justice when justice contradicted their
own self-interest, we will misjudge their real motives when they later defended some of
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their cruel actions and call them just. (Conceptual Cost to the Reader) (LRS Session One,
page 14)
Here we see that a conceptual problem brings up costs that effect the readers ideas about a
certain subject, in this case, their thoughts about what Athens valued. While this conceptual problem
was addressed well, it will still be difficult to find many readers who will find the problem interesting
or pertinent. Such is the problem with so many scientific papers. While they may address serious
problems in their subspecialty of science, there may not be many readers who will find the problem
relevant outside of the members of the research group that wrote the paper.
Please note that neither type of problem is better than the other; they just pertain to different
kinds of writing.
Variations on the Prototypical Problem Frame: The rules for setting up a problem frame are
certainly not set in stone. Depending on the situation, certain parts of the problem frame can be shifted
about, removed, or altered. For example, when writing a personal statement, it is not very effective to
start off with a status quo section. This is because, in a personal statement, the writer is trying to
knock the socks off of the readers with some eye-catching sentence or anecdote that makes them
want to continue reading. Thus, in this case, it makes more sense to put the destabilizing moment
before any kind of status quo section.
Other variations include having the hot spot contain a launching point promise of response
instead of a main point or perhaps having parts of the prototypical problem frame extended.
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LRS Sample Projects
1- Burns: I composed a research paper that discusses the fabrication of ethyl cellulose
microspheres. Since bone and tissue regeneration is such a difficult problem to solve in the
human body, this type of research is not only relevant but also necessary.
2- The final project of this proposal will be a guide specifically geared towards students who are
considering specializing in physical therapy. Careers such as athletic trainers or physical
therapists are becoming more popular. However, there still exists little information about these
career paths. Therefore, many students who are seeking graduate studies are uncertain,
confused and discouraged in applying to these programs. The guide will be split into subsections that help with different aspects of the profession such as available resources or
required course work.
3- Diplas: I am currently the President of the Hellenic Society at UVA [and] I have chosen
to create a webpage to educate and motivate other Hellenic Societies across the US about how
to become more active and to make evident the impact they can have on their Universities and
their communities.
Promoting Greek heritage and educating the members and public about current issues taking
place in Greece is vital to running such a club and key to creating an influential Hellenic
Society. The focus of my project is to reach out to the communities and victims in Greece
affected by the recent fires this past summer. It is a very specific issue but I believe it will hold
as a model for future events, [my project will hold as a model for dealing with future events] as
well as serve as a stepping stone to becoming a more organized and dynamic club here at UVA
and hopefully inspiration for Hellenic Societies elsewhere.
4- Green: Negating [Counteracting (or: How to Counteract)] the Effects of
Frequent Travel through Time Zones in Major League Baseball Players.

5- Hershey: The project I have chosen is to set up a mentorship program for the Global
Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding Capacity Building (GIPB). The GIPB is an
organization which is stimulating excitement for plant geneticists. If there are more plant
geneticists working in various third world countries, world hunger can be reduced. One
obstacle plant breeders face is the difficulty in establishing new scientists to the field. The best
solution to this problem is to set up a mentorship program so it is easier for new scientists to
establish themselves.
6- Hill: This past summer I spent three weeks in Tanzania with a medical mission group
organized by International Service Learning. While the trip was an overall success and a
fruitful experience, the trip was not what the information packet given to me indicated it would
be like. The other volunteers and I felt grossly unprepared for the trip. To remedy the problem,
I have put together a new information packet which not only will adequately prepare future
volunteers for their trip but could also help increase the number of students who sign up for the
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trip. Thus, not only did my information packet need to be well written and clear in its
intentions, but it also had to be persuasive.
7- Macon: As a Neuroscience major I have read countless biology textbooks. These textbooks
are written by professors that use complex jargon in their everyday lives. The problem is that
students rarely are fluent in this language. I hope to write a tutorial using a simplified style to
help these introductory students understand the basic concepts of neuroscience. This will be
accomplished by using several concepts learned in LRS.
8- Moreno: Our main task this semester was to produce a document that would solve a problem
for a company or organization. I decided to produce a manual for Salormey Volunteers Group
(SVG), a non-profit organization located in Eastern Ghana that is in severe need of volunteers.
I came upon this organization after I decided that I wanted to travel and volunteer for a year
before I start medical school. SVGs website does not provide much information for
volunteers; hopefully the manual I have created will attract more volunteers and provide them
with the necessary information about SVG.
9- Mueller: As a foreign affairs major, I have become aware of the struggles that South Africa has
endured both during and after apartheid. I have drafted a research paper where I have argued
that the South African government, despite democracy and economic development, has failed to
enact effective policies against HIV/AIDS.
My hope is that this major research paper will help to convince my readers that they must
greater scrutinize South Africas ineffective policies towards AIDS. By doing so, future state
inaction against AIDS and similar global health epidemics might be better prevented.
Furthermore, this research project shows that I am able to incorporate the grammatical concepts
taught in ENWR 380.
10- Reza: As a fourth-year biology major in the College of Arts and Sciences, I have taken many
courses throughout our varied academic departments. However, I did not discover special
major programs until late in my undergraduate career simply because I was not made aware of
them at an earlier time. One of my biggest regrets is not following another major program, one
that would have better suited my interests than the one for which I declared. From talking to
other students, I realized this is a common sentiment. To solve this problem, I decided to create
an informational guide to the special major programs at the University of Virginia.
11- Shah: In my LRS project, I chose to solve a problem that is present at Meadowcreek, a center
that provides services for individuals with mental retardation. As a volunteer at Meadowcreek, I
have realized that it does not provide adequate information to its volunteers about mental
retardation. Lacking this information causes the volunteers to burden the employees and be less
useful than they should be. Therefore, I decided to create a guide for the Meadowcreek
volunteers that highlights the information they need to know about mental retardation. This
guide will benefit the volunteers, the Meadowcreek employees, and ultimately the clients. The
volunteers, with the knowledge provided in the guide, will be confident about their ability to
help from the start.
12- Tahliani: My main proposed document relates to the problematic yearly transitions of the
executive board for Global Public Health Society. As an executive board member of GPHS for
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two years I have come to realize the need for a more stable foundation. At the beginning of
each year, every club experiences the difficulty of adjusting to new board members. The
purpose of this Project is to properly organize the functions and responsibilities of the executive
board member positions in GPHS. . . . By clearly stating the duties of each board member, the
yearly transition will become smoother and increase the efficiency for accomplishing the club
goals.
13- Marco: Athleticism at the Olympic Level: How much of it is genetics? an argument against
the conventional notion that you can do anything physically if you set your mind to it.
14- Cavanaugh: to convince various organizations and institutions to donate money toward or
support Las Pumas Animal Rescue Shelter in Guanacaste, Costa Rica. I visited Las Pumas
Animal Rescue Shelter in January and was impressed by my experience with these exotic
species. However, I also noticed the deteriorating enclosures and researched the establishment,
eager to help. I found that Las Pumas receives no government funding, runs on volunteers
alone, and has decreased its capacity to rehabilitate animals. This problem severely restricts Las
Pumas ability to carry out its mission in rescuing these wild species. Yet, Las Pumas has
several options and contacts to experiment with in order to expand their resources and save
their shelter, such as the Costa Rican government, tourism companies, and the National Zoo.
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My Samples
Problem Frame
PROBLEM FRAME ONE

Donald Vs. Hillary: Leading Antiwar Progressives Speak Favorably of Certain Aspects of
Trumps Foreign Policy
By John V. Walsh
Global Research, June 23, 2016
Dissident Voice 20 June 2016
http://www.globalresearch.ca/donald-vs-hillary-leading-antiwar-progressives-speak-favorably-ofcertain-aspects-of-trumps-foreign-policy/5532492
The INTRODUCTION as PROBLEM FRAME for the entire paper/essay/article/project:
Until recently the progressive mind has been resolutely closed and stubbornly frozen in place against
all things Trump. But cracks are appearing in the ice. With increasing frequency over the last few
months some of the most thoughtful left and progressive figures have begun to speak favorably of
aspects of Trumps foreign policy. Although their words are not to be construed as outright
endorsements, they are an acknowledgement of Trumps anti-interventionist views, and the impact
those views are having and the alternative that Trump poses to Hillary Clinton in the current electoral
contest. Let us hear from these heretics, among them William Greider, Glen Ford, John Pilger, Jean
Bricmont, Stephen F. Cohen andWilliam Blum.
The parts of the introductory PROBLEM FRAME in the paragraph above:
STATUS QUO: Until recently the progressive mind has been resolutely closed and stubbornly frozen
in place against all things Trump.
DESTABILIZING CONDITION (or DISRUPTING CONDITION)
: But cracks are appearing in the ice. With increasing frequency over the last few months some of the
most thoughtful left and progressive figures have begun to speak favorably of aspects of Trumps
foreign policy.
CLAIM: Although their words are not to be construed as outright endorsements, they are an
acknowledgement of Trumps anti-interventionist views, and the impact those views are having and the
alternative to Hillary Clinton that Trump offers in the current electoral contest.
RESOLUTION: Let us hear from these heretics, among them William Greider, Glen Ford, John
Pilger, Jean Bricmont, Stephen F. Cohen andWilliam Blum.
THE BODY:
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Paragraph 1
First lets consider the estimable William Greider, a regular contributor to The Nation . . . .
Paragraph 2
Next, Glen Ford, the eloquent radical Left executive editor of . . . .
Paragraph 3
Next lets turn to John Pilger, . . . .
Paragraph 4
And then there is Stephen F. Cohen, . . . .
Paragraph 5
Finally, let us turn to Bill Blum, who . . . .
CONCLUSION:
I conclude with Blums words because they are most pertinent to our present situation. The world is
living through a perilous time when the likes of the neocons and Hillary Clinton could lead us into a
nuclear Armageddon with their belligerence toward Russia and their militaristic confrontation with
China.
The reality is that we are faced with a choice between Clinton and Trump, a choice which informs
much of the above commentary. Survival is at stake and we must consider survival first if our
judgments are to be sane.
PROBLEM FRAME TWO

"I've always believed this nation succeeds best when we come together as one America. But everything
about Donald Trump's campaign is determined to divide and pull us apart, and I'm hoping you'll come
through as part of her team again and again," Biden said.
COMMON GROUND
"I've always believed this nation succeeds best when we come together as one America.
DESTABILIZING CONDITION (DISRUPTING CONDITION)
But everything about Donald Trump's campaign is determined to divide and pull us apart.
SOLUTION / CLAIM
There's no one I trust more than Hillary to lead the fight against Trump,
RESOLUTION
and I'm hoping you'll come through as part of her team again and again."
PROBLEM FRAME THREE

Leaving the European Union Will Give Britain the Freedom to Thrive
Chris Grayling, June 29, 2016
http://time.com/4388216/chris-grayling-brexit-referendum-conservatives/
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We joined the European Union as a trading bloc, but it has become something that none of us wanted it
to be, with a reach into almost every area of our lives. Some analysts suggest it now influences as much
as 60% of our laws, from agriculture to trade and the environment. The E.U. regulates the hours that
doctors work in our hospitals, the rules that surround our journeys to work, the offices and factories in
which we spend our working day, how we manage our countryside, our seas and our rivers, how we
conduct medical research, the rights of our consumers. The list goes on and on and the plans for
further integration are to be seen on all sides. It is that E.U. that we are leaving.
STATUS QUO:
We joined the European Union as a trading bloc,
DESTABILIZING CONDITION:
but it has become something that none of us wanted it to be, with a reach into almost every area of our
lives.
COST:
Some analysts suggest it now influences as much as 60% of our laws, from agriculture to trade and the
environment. The E.U. regulates the hours that doctors work in our hospitals, the rules that surround
our journeys to work, the offices and factories in which we spend our working day, how we manage
our countryside, our seas and our rivers, how we conduct medical research, the rights of our
consumers. The list goes on and on and the plans for further integration are to be seen on all sides.
RESOLUTION:
It is that E.U. (which reaches into every area of our lives) that we are leaving.
PROBLEM FRAME FOUR

STATUS QUO: Do you ever postpone dinner because youre in the middle of a project? Or skip
breakfast because you overslept? As long as you avoid binging later on, its no big deal, right?
DESTABILIZING CONDITION: Well, maybe not. Two new papers published in the Proceedings
of the Nutrition Society suggest that its not just what you eat, but when you eat that affects your health.
COST: Having irregular meals may set you up for obesity, high blood pressure, and type 2 diabetes
regardless of how many total calories youre consuming. CLAIM: To avoid obesity, or if you wish to
lose weight, it is advisable to have your meals on a regular schedule.
PROBLEM FRAME FIVE

From an address by Russias President Putin,
June 30, 2016 14:10 Moscow
http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/52298
also: https://twitter.com/russianembassy?lang=en
STATUS QUO: Todays world is clearly more interdependent, and the problems our countries face are
in large part common challenges. There is no need to prove what is self-evident now. I therefore say
again that cooperation, a common will, and willingness to seek compromises are the key to resolving
the greatest and most complex problems, no matter where in the world they arise.
DESTABILIZING CONDITION: However, we see how some of our partners continue stubborn
attempts to retain their monopoly on geopolitical domination. They put to use centuries of experience
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in suppressing, weakening, and setting opponents against each other, and turn to their advantage
enhanced political, economic, financial and now information levers as well.
By this, I mean, for example, the practice of intervening in other countries internal affairs, provoking
regional conflicts, exporting so-called colour revolutions and so on. In pursuing this policy, they
sometimes take on as accomplices terrorists, fundamentalists, ultra-right nationalists, and even outright
neo-fascists.
COST: We see direct evidence of the harm this policy causes right on our borders. Two years ago,
the list of regional hotspots got the addition of Ukraine, much to our regret, where the flames
of internal conflict were fanned at the cost of human lives, destruction of economic ties, and streams
of refugees, including into Russia.
CLAIM: It is my conviction that it is only through dialogue and joint work that we can avoid
dangerous breakdowns and uncontrolled developments. The international community must make
progress in establishing a fairer world order built on the principles of common and indivisible security
and collective responsibility.
PROBLEM FRAME SIX

The Challenge to Brexit written as a report (or news article)
PRELUDE:
Legal challenges have been presented to the British court to prevent the prime minister initiating
Britains withdrawal from the European Union.
STATUS QUO:
The Brexit referendum took place on Thursday 23 June 2016 in the UK and Gibraltar to gauge
support for the country's continued membership in the European Union (henceforth EU). The
referendum resulted in an overall vote to leave the EU by 51.9%. According to this vote, the British
government must now transform the results of the volte into a binding reality by signing article 50 of
the Lisbon Treaty, which defines the legal process by which any member of the European Union can
withdraw from this union.
DESTABILIZING CONDITION : However, those in favor of staying in the EU have recourse to
legal action that can challenge the legality of the governments signing of Lisbons article 50 in direct
response to the referendum. They argue that Our entry into the European Economic Community in
1972 was authorized and approved by an act of parliament. It can only be taken away by parliament.1
The result of the referendum is not legally binding in the sense that it is advisory only and there is no
obligation. Against this claim, the government is expected to assert that a prime minister can use
powers based on the royal prerogative to trigger article 50.2
CLAIM: It will be up to Britians Judiciary to decide when the hearings will take place, and ultimately
whether or not the signing of Lisbons article 50 in response to the referendum would be legal.
RESOLUTION:
The Guardian states that A high court judge, Mr Justice King, sent out an order last Tuesday, only five
days after the EU referendum, giving government lawyers a week to reply to the claim that only
1 The words of lawyer Dominic Chambers QC to The Guardian, on behalf of his client, British citizen
Dos Santos, from Owen Bowcott, Deadline Approaches for Government Response to Brexit legal
Challenge The Guardian, 5 July, 2016. Web. <
http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jul/05/deadline-approaches-government-response-brexitlegal-challenge-article-50>.
2 Ibid.
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parliament can authorise the signing of article 50 of the Lisbon treaty, which begins the withdrawal
process.3
VARIATION OF PROTOTYPICAL PROBLEM FRAME

STATUS QUO:
This has been a hard-fought, deeply-felt campaign. COMMON GROUND: But whether you supported
me, or Senator Sanders, or one of the Republicans, we all need to keep working toward a better, fairer,
stronger America.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT & RESPONSE
Now, I know it never feels good to put your heart into a cause or a candidate you believe in and to
come up short. I know that feeling well. But as we look ahead to the battle that awaits, lets remember
all that unites us.
CLAIM (Hillary claims that her policies achieve the following goals. These goals she presents as
COMMON GROUND between her and all American voters. In other words, she reminds her listeners
that everyone wants the same thing. In this way she includes herself with everyone, under the same
umbrella, and in this way she builds a common ground on the basis of which people can accept her and
consider her one of us):
We all want an economy with more opportunity and less inequality, where Wall Street can never
wreck Main Street again. We all want a government that listens to the people, not the power brokers,
which means getting unaccountable money out of politics. And we all want a society that is tolerant,
inclusive, and fair.
We all believe that America succeeds when more people share in our prosperity; when more people
have a voice in our political system; when more people can contribute to their communities. We
believe that cooperation is better than conflict, unity is better than division, empowerment is better than
resentment, and bridges are better than walls
Its a simple but powerful idea. We believe that we are stronger together.
COST
And the stakes in this election are high. And the choice is clear.
Donald Trump is temperamentally unfit to be president and commander-in-chief. And hes not
just trying to build a wall between America and Mexico hes trying to wall off Americans from each
other. When he says, Lets make America great again, that is code for, Lets take America
backwards. Back to a time when opportunity and dignity were reserved for some, not all, promising
his supporters an economy he cannot recreate.
RESOLUTION
We, however, we want to write the next chapter in American greatness, with a 21st century prosperity
that lifts everyone whos been left out and left behind, including those who may not vote for us but
who deserve their chance to make a new beginning.
3 Ibid.
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The use of LOGIC
Misadventures in Dissent Over Syria
The argument: The diplomats dissent memo must be rejected
Topic: Why the diplomats dissent memo must be rejected
Thesis: The diplomats dissent memo does not contain any remotely believable description of
how the action it proposes (a forceful US intervention against Assad) can produce
desired effects
2016 June 24 Misadventures in Dissent Over Syria
http://warontherocks.com/2016/06/speaking-nonsense-to-power-misadventures-in-dissent-over-syria/
The Use of Logic

Speaking Nonsense to Power: Misadventures in
Dissent Over Syria
Jeremy Shapiro
June 24, 2016
Anyone with a conscience is frustrated and saddened by the ongoing tragedy in Syria. Five years of
civil war have caused more than 400,000 deaths, created millions of refugees, and given rise to
extremism and regional instability. The 51 mid-level officers at the State Department who wrote a
dissent cable advocating the use of force feel this frustration more acutely than most. One can
understand and respect their despair. I was deeply impressed, when I worked at the State Department,
by how much State Department officials cared about the Syrian people and how tirelessly they worked
to improve the situation in Syria.
But, alas, caring is not a plan and despair is not a strategy.
As Vice President Biden has noted, the dissent cable replays a thousand debates within the Obama
administration since 2011 on whether and how to deploy U.S. force in Syria. There was never a
shortage of consideration of such options, never a lack of recommendations or of fairly detailed plans
for no-fly zones, targeted strikes, or other military options. I personally spent several wasted months of
my life annoying the Department of Defense and the National Security Council staff with half-baked
ideas for cleverly calibrated uses of force. In the end, these and similar ideas were rejected by President
Obama, not because he didnt hear them, but because they made little sense.
The fundamental problem was that none of these ideas ever contained a remotely believable
description of how a forceful U.S. intervention might advance U.S. interests or even stabilize Syria. Of
course, war always contains risks and there are never guarantees. But you still need a credible theory of
victory that at least describes how you intend to satisfy your objectives.
In the case of Syria, the core of the theory of victory has always been that increased pressure on Assad
will make him more amenable to a negotiated solution. As the dissent cable argues in a way that must
be depressingly familiar to President Obama:
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Shifting the tide of the conflict against the regime will increase the chances for peace by sending a
clear signal to the regime and its backers that there will not be a military solution to the conflict.
There are a couple of big problems with this approach.
First, the Assad regimes external supporters, principally the Russians and Iranians, have roughly the
same idea about negotiating from a position of strength. The United States and its regional allies have
intervened and escalated in Syria many times since 2011, even if they have not taken the more forceful
measures advocated in the cable. The Iranians and Russians always responded in kind with more
support to the Assad regime. This includes the 2015 Russian intervention, which stemmed from a fear
that the end of Assads regime was near. The end result of these combined efforts at negotiating from
strength has been an endless cycle of escalation and war.
Frankly, it is a bit bizarre to seek to end bombing by bombing more. And indeed, history suggests it
rarely succeeds when the enemy has external supporters.
Second, there is little belief that Assad will ever accept a negotiated solution that requires him to step
down as the Syrian opposition demands. This has long been the U.S. governments own assessment,
even at moments when Assads military fortunes were at a low ebb. As Jeffrey White, a former longtime DIA Middle East Analyst put it, [t]here will not be any negotiations. He will go down fighting.
Assad has said publicly that he intends to die in Syria. He has never given any indication that we
should not take him at his word.
Assads determination to win or die, combined with Russian and Iranian resolve to help him achieve at
least one of those goals rather than accept U.S.-sponsored regime change, means that U.S. military
intervention would eventually need to turn into a full-scale war for regime change (or abandon the
effort and admit failure.) That is a war that Obama, along with much of the United States, does not
want to fight.
One can understand why. Even victory in such a brutal war might not be all that effective in securing
U.S. goals. As the situations in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Libya demonstrate, even if the United States
succeeded in uprooting the Assad regime, it would likely only unleash further chaos and suffering on
Syria. It would also likely empower Islamist extremists who are basically all that remain of the Syrian
opposition. In sum, the United States would be risking war with a nuclear-armed Russia in order to
support al-Qaeda.
In short, the measures proposed in this cable add up to a policy that has not been fully thought through
as Secretary of State John Kerry apparently told the dissenters. It is not likely to change U.S. policy
in Syria.
....
Jeremy Shapiro is Director of Research at the European Council on Foreign Relations and a nonresident Senior Fellow at the Brookings Institution. He served in the State Department from 20092013.
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Problems 2
Conceptual problem statements point out some error or missed opportunity in the way we think about a
problem.
anoverlookedconnectionordisjunction
unexplaineddifferencesorsimilarities
whatseemstobethecaseisnot
inabilitytofindapattern
inabilitytogeneralize
unaccountedfordata
excessivecomplexity
agapinknowledge
unpredictability
inconsistency
aberrantfacts
contradiction
disagreement
discrepancy
uncertainty
perplexity
confusion
ambiguity
anomaly
paradox
surprise
conflict
error
The Rhetoric of Introductions

Whenyoumaptheelementsofrhetoricalproblemsontoadocument,youconstructanIntroductionwith
anumberofrhetoricalelements:
1.AstatementofaStatusQuo,orthecurrentstateofaffairsthatgaverisetotheDestabilizingMoment.
2.AstatementoftheDestabilizingMoment,aPredicamentforTangibleProblemsoraQuestionfor
Conceptualones.
3. AstatementoftheConsequencesoftheCondition,eithertheCostsofleavingitunresolvedorthe
Benefitsofresolvingit.
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4. AstatementofResponseintheHotSpotattheendoftheIntroductiontotheProblem,including
either a resolution of the problem or a promise of a resolution to come. In business and
professionalsituations,ifyouhavestatedtheConsequencesintermsofCosts,theResponseshould
oftenincludetheBenefitsofthesolutioninotherwords,theanswertothequestion,Whyisthe
solutionasolution?
Therearetwoinitialflourishesyoucanaddtothestatementofyourproblem:a Prelude (usuallyan
epigram or narrative that sets the stage for your problem) and a statement of the Stable Context
(uncontestedandunchangingbackgroundtotheproblem).Preludesarerareinprofessionaldocuments
andevenrarerinscientificandtechnicaldocuments.Buttheydooccuroccasionallyinacademictextsin
thehumanitiesandinbelletristicwritingsuchasthatyoufindinAtlanticorTheNewYorker.APrelude
canbeaquotation,ananecdote,oranythinglooselyrelatedtotheStableContextortheProblem.
The student makes two common mistakesone in identifying the parts of the problem statement, the
other in the nature of her Response.
The Rhetoric of Introductions [ in greater detail ] :

When you map the elements of rhetorical problems onto a document, you construct an
Introduction with at least four, and perhaps five, rhetorical elements:
1. AnoptionalPreludeorstatementofaStableContext,indicatingthestateofaffairsthat
gaverisetotheDestabilizingCondition.Althoughtheseelementsareoptional,theyoffer
easyandusefulwaystopreparereadersnotonlyforyourproblembutforthediscussionof
itsresolution.
NotethatPreludes arerareinprofessionaldocuments andevenrarerinscientificand
technicaldocuments.Buttheydooccuroccasionallyinacademictextsinthehumanities
andinbelletristicwritingsuchasthatyoufindinAtlanticorTheNewYorker.APrelude
canbeaquotation,ananecdote,oranythinglooselyrelatedtotheStableContextorthe
Problem.
2. AstatementoftheStatusQuo,theprevailingtheory(forconceptualproblems)orprotocol
(fortangibleproblems).ThisStatusQuowillberevisedinsomewaybytheResponse/
Claim.
The Context of the Problem: The Stable Condition that the Destabilizing Condition
Disrupts
OnewaytointroduceyourRhetoricalProblemistorecountthesituationwhichgaverise
toit.Inbusinessandprofessionaldocuments,youwilloftenfinditusefultoestablish a
situational Context sothatyourdocumentwillbeunderstandabletothosewhodonot
knoworhaveforgottenwhatoccasionedyoutowriteitinthefirstplace.
In academic documents, the Stable Context helps readers to understand what line of
researchorthinkingledyoutodiscoveryourproblem.Itisoftenanimportanttoolfor
writers(especiallystudents)toearncredibilitybydemonstratingknowledgeofthesubject
matterandofpreviousresearchandtoletreadersknowwhatschoolorapproachhas
influencedyourunderstandingoftheproblem.
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TheContextoftheProblemcantakemanyforms:arequestfromthereadertodealwitha
particular problem, a recent event that makes the problem pertinent, a history of the
problem,aliteraturereview,commonknowledgechallengedbytheproblem,apositive
Conditionchallengedbytheproblem,apreviousdocument,etc.
3. A statement of the Destabilizing Moment, suggesting a Predicament for Tangible
ProblemsoraQuestionforConceptualones.
TheProblemStatement
ADestabilizingMomentandItsConsequences
AneffectiveproblemstatementmustusuallyincludebothastatementoftheDestabilizing
MomentandastatementoftheConsequencesthatmakeitaproblemforreaders.Ifthe
problem is a tangible one, then the Destabilizing Moment will suggest some
Predicamentasituationthatcallsforsomekindofactioninresponse.Iftheproblemis
aconceptualone,thentheDestabilizingMomentwillpointtowardsomeQuestiona
matterthatreadersneedtoknoworunderstandbetter.
If your readers are familiar with the type of problem you address, you can state the
elementsinanyorderthatis,manytimesitwillnotmatterwhichcomesfirst:
Sometimes,however,youwillfindthatyourproblemstatementwillbemoreeffectiveif
youexplaintheConditionfirstandonlythenexplainitsConsequences.Youwillfindit
particularly useful to state the Condition first when you believe your readers will be
reluctanttoacceptthesignificanceoftheConsequences.IfyouopenwithConsequences
yourreadermaynotaccept,youstandlittlechanceofhavingtherestofyourdocument
readwithanycare.Ontheotherhand,ifyouopenwithastatementofaConditionthatyou
then go on to explain in more detail, by the time you get to your statement of the
Consequencesitwillappeartobebackedbyfactsandevidenceinotherwords,the
Consequenceswillseemalogicalconclusionofthecondition.
FormulatingaProblemSoReadersWillCare
StatetheProbleminTwoSteps
a) FindaDestabilizingMoment.
ForaPragmaticProblem,describethestateofaffairsthatyoubelieveneedstobe
changed.Beasspecificaspossible:
ForaConceptualProblem,describeindetailthekindofmisunderstandorgapinyour
readersknowledgethatyour point/answer willcorrect.Makethedescriptionofwhat
you/readersdonotknowcloselymatchthelanguageofyouranswer:
b) DescribetheConsequencesofleavingtheStatusQuodestabilized.
ForaPragmaticProblem,describethespecificcost(money,pain,lossofreputation,
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etc.)thatwillfollowfromthePredicament.BesurethattheCostofthePredicamentis
greaterthantheCostofyourproposedsolution.
ForaConceptualProblem,describethegreaterignoranceorlargerquestionthat
yourreadersfaceiftheydonotknowyouranswertothespecificQuestionyourpaperwill
address.Remember,theimmediateConsequencesofaConceptualProblemarealmost
alwaysthemselvesconceptual.
4. A statement of the Consequences of the Condition, either the Costs of leaving it
unresolvedortheBenefitsofresolvingit.
1. AResponseintheHotSpotattheendoftheIntroduction,includingeitheraresolutionofthe
problem or apromiseofaresolutiontocome.Inbusinessandprofessionalsituations,ifyou
havestatedtheConsequencesintermsofCosts,theResponseshouldoftenincludetheBenefits
ofthesolutioninotherwords,theanswertothequestion,Whyisthesolutionasolution?
ASolutionorPromiseofOneToCome(withOptionalReaderBenefits)
ItisnotenoughthatyourintroductionsimplystateaProblem:readerswillalsoexpectyou
torespondtothatProbleminsomeway.Youcandothatineitheroftwoways:
a) Inthekeyspotattheendoftheintroduction(calledtheHotSpot),makeyour
mainpoint,yourbesteffortataSolutiontotheProblem.IftheSolutioniscomplex,
youcanpresentattheendoftheintroductionaGistoftheSolutionthatyouwill
explainmorefullylater:
b) OR,intheHotSpot,promiseexplicitlyorimplicitlythataResponseiscomingat
theendofthedocument.
Ingeneral,youshould not saveyourmainpointforlastunlessyouhaveavery
goodreasonfordoingso
RespondtotheProbleminOneofTwoWays
a)
EitherstateyourResolution.
ForaPragmaticProblem,describethecourseofactionthatreadersshouldtaketo
resolvetheproblem.Donotjustrepeattheprobleminotherwords:
Pragmaticsolutionscomeinthreeforms.Youcan
alleviatethecosts,
findotherwaystosecurethebenefits,or
removetheconditionorblockitseffects.
ForaConceptualProblem,simplystateyourAnswer:
b)OrpromisethataResolutionwillcomelater.
Foreitherkindofproblem,youhaveseveraloptions.Youcan
metadiscoursetopromiseananswer(Thispaperwill)
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use
23
implyananswerbyannouncingtopics(Thekeytothisquestionis)
suggestthe
ReaderBenefits:WhyistheSolutionaSolution?
Part I: The Context of the Problem (optional slot)

The Stable Condition that the Destabilizing Condition Disrupts
OnewaytointroduceyourRhetoricalProblemistorecountthesituationwhichgaveriseto
it. In business and professional documents, you will often find it useful to establish a
situational Context sothatyourdocumentwillbeunderstandabletothosewhodonot
knoworhaveforgottenwhatoccasionedyoutowriteitinthefirstplace.
In academic documents, the Stable Context helps readers to understand what line of
researchorthinkingledyoutodiscoveryourproblem.Itisoftenanimportanttoolfor
writers(especiallystudents)toearncredibilitybydemonstratingknowledgeofthesubject
matterandofpreviousresearchandtoletreadersknowwhatschoolorapproachhas
influencedyourunderstandingoftheproblem.
TheContextoftheProblemcantakemanyforms:arequestfromthereadertodealwitha
particular problem, a recent event that makes the problem pertinent, a history of the
problem,aliteraturereview,commonknowledgechallengedbytheproblem,apositive
Conditionchallengedbytheproblem,apreviousdocument,etc.
Example: Context as reader request
Example: Context as recent event
Example: Context as positive Condition challenged by the problem
Example: Context as prior research
Parts II & III: The Problem Statement

A Destabilizing Moment and Its Consequences
AneffectiveproblemstatementmustusuallyincludebothastatementoftheDestabilizing
MomentandastatementoftheConsequencesthatmakeitaproblemforreaders.Ifthe
problem is a tangible one, then the Destabilizing Moment will suggest some
Predicamentasituationthatcallsforsomekindofactioninresponse.Iftheproblemisa
conceptual one, then the Destabilizing Moment will point toward some Questiona
matterthatreadersneedtoknoworunderstandbetter.
If your readers are familiar with the type of problem you address, you can state the elements in
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any order that is, many times it will not matter which comes first:
Sometimes, however, you will find that your problem statement will be more effective if you
explain the Condition first and only then explain its Consequences. You will find it particularly
useful to state the Condition first when you believe your readers will be reluctant to accept the
significance of the Consequences. If you open with Consequences your reader may not accept,
you stand little chance of having the rest of your document read with any care. On the other hand,
if you open with a statement of a Condition that you then go on to explain in more detail, by the
time you get to your statement of the Consequences it will appear to be backed by facts and
evidence in other words, the Consequences will seem a logical conclusion of the condition.
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LRS ARGUMENT
The argument forms the body of the paper or project. The argument needs to begin with a global view
that is directly related to the claim made in the preliminary introduction (the problem frame).
I. ARGUMENT AS WAR VS. ARGUMENT AS DIALOGIC

An argument is not a verbal attack. One of the most important keys for a writer to think about is
making an argument rather than just having an argument. The writer needs to persuade the reader and
make the reader realize that the readers ideals are flawed. An argument that is structured in a
combative style often does not succeed in changing the oppositions mind. To achieve a dialogic
argument, it is important for the writer to realize that the readers may already have preconceptions
regarding the issue at hand and that they are anchored to their own ideas. Thus, the writer will be more
successful if he or she could establish a COMMON GROUND with the reader so to make the writers
position more palatable to the reader, at the same time, the Common Ground will let the reader know
that the writer understands and has not neglected the readers position. The Common Ground is the
most effective when it is in the status quo portion of the introduction.
For example, an argument text on why physical therapy is a good profession to consider starts with:
Students today are bombarded with a variety of occupations. They are also more open to
trying new things and to immersing themselves in many different interests (Common Ground
& Status Quo). As a result, students have more difficulty in choosing exactly what they want
to pursue for their future career (Destabilizing Condition) [Argument text #3].
I built a bridge between myself and the reader right from the beginning of the introduction, which
shows that I understand that students are faced with many different career options, and the predicament
they are having in choosing a career. When the writer lets the reader know that he or she
understands the situation the target audience is more likely to continue to read.
However, it is helpful to note that when an argument purely attacks an opponents position, it may not
be aiming at persuading those in the opposition, but that argument would actually be trying to gain
support from third parties who do not have a fixed position [as when Hillary Clinton attacks Trump not so
much in order to change Trumps Republican supporters but rather in order to attract those in her own Democratic party
who had been on Bernie Sanders side].
II. DEGREES OF SUCCESS

An argument solves problems, so it will be helpful if the writer does not treat his or her argument as a
battle against the reader. Instead, the writer should see the argument has an opportunity to exchange
ideas in which both the writer and the reader seek the best solution to problem. The LRS provides
nine degrees of acceptance that can be present in the text of an argument helping the
writer/speaker to succeed in gaining the readers support. (1) For example, the writer can be asking for
the reader to accept and believe his or her claim. (2) At other times, the writer may simply be asking
the reader to accept the claim or accept the claim for the situation at hand. (3) Then there are times
where the writer acknowledges to the reader that he or she may not be ready to accept the claim, but
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the writer promises that his or her reasons will be good. (4) Also, sometimes agreeing to disagree
will achieve some degree of success at the end. The writer and the reader both know that at the end of
the argument, they are not likely to give up their own ideas, but the reader still agrees to listen to the
writers opinions and reasons.
Because Arguments Solve Problems, They Have Many Goals:
You Dont Need to Win to Succeed
The Venerable Bede recounts the story of St. Augustines reception at the court of King Aethelbert, AD
597:
When, at the kings command, they had sat down and preached the word of life to the king and his
court, the king said: Your words and promises are fair indeed; they are new and uncertain, and I
cannot accept them and abandon the age-old beliefs that I have held together with the whole of the
English nation. But since you have traveled far, and I can see that you are sincere in your desire to
impart to us what you believe to be true and excellent, we will not harm you. We will receive you
hospitably and take care to supply you with all that you need; nor will we forbid you to preach and win
any people you can to your religion.
Nine Degrees of Acceptance
1. Reader, I want you to accept, believe, and act on my claim wholeheartedly.
2. Reader, I want you to accept my claim.
3. Reader, I want you to accept my claim, at least for this specific purpose.
4. Reader, I want you to acknowledge that my claim is one you could accept, even if you are not
now prepared to do so.
5. Reader, I want you to accept that my argument is a good one, even if you cannot fully accept
my claim.
6. Reader, I want you to accept that, even if you do not accept my claim, others would have good
reason for doing so.
7. Reader, I want you to acknowledge that my claim is supported by a coherent and reasonable
argument.
8. Reader, I want you to acknowledge that my claim is supported by an argument that others
might find coherent and reasonable.
9. Reader, I want you to acknowledge that you at least understand my reasons for making my
claim.
When we think of arguments not as a battle that we win or lose, but as an ordinary exchange in which
reader and writer seek the best solution to a problem, then we can count as success outcomes less than
the total capitulation of the reader.
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III. PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT

[Note that the parts of an argument are also the ingredients that structure the relationship of the
writers/speakers ideas to those of his reader/listener]
Below is an argument paper that utilizes different parts of an argument:
Global claim is bolded, global reasons are underlined.
Global Issue, Introduction:

Students today are bombarded with variety of occupations. They are also more open to
try new things and to immerse themselves in many different interests (common ground /
status quo). As a result, students have more difficulties in choosing exactly what they
want to pursue for their future career (destabilizing condition). Despite the worlds rapidly
expanding economy and continuous innovations in technology, physical therapy
remains an important and ideal profession for students who show interests in healthcare.
Physical Therapy is a relatively new profession for many students, and unlike many
other jobs that have become obsolete, it will continue to grow in the world today.
Moreover, physical therapy is a good profession and worthwhile for students who
are uncertain about their career path to consider because of its widespread
growing demands from the general population (sub-claim, global reason #1), its flexible work
schedule (sub-claim, global reason #2) and the relatively brief length of the program (sub-claim, global
reason #3).]
Global discussion:
Sub-Claim, Global Reason #1
[Baby boomers, who were born between 1946 and 1969, make up one fourth of the
population in the United States and they are going to increase the demand for
physical therapy (sub-claim, global reason #1). These people are approaching the age in which
they are prone to suffer heart attacks and/or strokes due to weakening muscles, and
therefore an age in which physical therapy will become an important healing process
Even though surgeons are the people who save the lives of heart attack or
(sub-reason).
stroke victims, the patients are likely [to] have to go through rehabilitation after their
surgery to regain strength. The American Physical Therapist Association states that
more than half of the patients who have gone through operations are referred to
rehabilitation centers (apta.org) (evidence). Therapists need to help these patients to recover
their normal function with proper techniques. Furthermore, not only do the baby
boomers increase the demand for physical therapy, but the people who actively
participate in recreational activities may require physical therapy as well (sub-reason). Some
may think there is no direct correlation between the two (acknowledgement), however, the
increasing number of people involving active lifestyle could mean the increase in
injuries such as back strain, ankle sprain and muscle tears
(http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos080.htm) (response, evidence). In turn, there is more demand from
the public for physical therapists to help improve and promote injury prevention so
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students who graduate from a physical therapy programs are able to find a job without
difficulties.
Additionally, physical therapy is an ideal occupation for students to think about because
it has flexible work schedules (sub-claim, global reason #2). Most therapists are able to schedule
their appointments with patients at their convenience, especially the ones working in
private practice. This is certainly true for Mr. Gabor Sagi, the physical therapist that was
mentioned previously in the guide (evidence). For many scholars in this generation, to be
able to spend leisure time with family and friends is an important priority and physical
therapy offers this capability. Furthermore, not only do the therapists have a flexible
work schedules, but they only have to work for 40 hours a week while earning a
competitive salary (sub-reason). There are some who may argue that 40 hours a week is
standard for any occupation (acknowledgement), however, unlike to other professions in the
healthcare, therapists do not have to be on call in the middle of the night like physicians
or work over-time like the non-health related investment bankers
(http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos080.htm) (response, evidence).
For students who are thinking about pursuing graduate studies, physical therapy is
suitable path because most graduate programs require only three years to finish
(sub-claim, global reason #3). Students who choose physical therapy as future career only need to
go through three years of combined academic studies and clinical internships to earn a
doctoral degree. As opposed to a pre-medical student, he/she has to finish four years of
medical program and then go on to complete his/her residency at hospitals for at least
two or three years in order to be able to start private practice (http://www.ama-assn.org/)
(sub-reason, evidence). When a physical therapy student graduates from his/her program and
passes the license examination at the end of the three year program, he/she can be
accepted as a physical therapist at any setting with substantial experience from his/her
clinical works (sub-reason). Additionally, while physicians may have other advantages due to
its long period of schooling (acknowledgement), the pros of a physical therapist student
graduating earlier can be significant, for example, students are able to become
independent and support themselves earlier with an equally respecting degree (response). ]
Physical therapy is slowly becoming a greater part of health care professions. They treat
patients of all ages ranging from newborns to elderly. Students should consider
physical therapy as their future profession not only because of attractive
characteristics mentioned, but also because of the sense of accomplishment from
helping severely injured patients to be able to live normally again.
The Five Parts of an Argument (Plus One)
LRS
29
(1) Warrant
A commonly accepted principle (which is
accepted by both you and your target
audience). It helps connect the claim you
make to the reason for this claim
(2)
A Claim is
valid
because of
(3) Reason/s
based on
1- (4)
Evidence
------------------ ----------------------------- --------------------(5) The above four are insufficient. There is a fifth one. Your reader or listener might have other
claims, reasons or even warrants which he holds as objections against your claim. Therefore, you
must leap ahead of your reader or listener by expecting any objections that he or she may have:
Therefore you need to acknowledge these alternatives and respond to them:
LRS
30
As shown throughout the argument text, there are five distinct parts to an argument: claim, reasons,
evidence, warrants and acknowledgement and response.
1 Claim:
Claim:astatementthatis
Notobviousorotherwisealreadyknown.
Contestable.
Supportablewithevidence.
A claim is a statement that refers to one side of an issue. Therefore, the claim should be contestable
and serve to provoke the reader to think in ways that he or she otherwise would not. If the problem at
stake only has one side, then there is little value in arguing or persuading.
In the introduction (which contains the global issue I am dealing with), my global claim is that
physical therapy is an ideal profession for students who are seeking post-graduate studies. In this
introduction I go on to give global reasons for my global claim. Each of these reasons is a sub-claim.
After the introduction, and in the global discussion (the body of the argument), each of the
introductions global reasons or sub-claims is discussed in a separate paragraph. It becomes the main
point, or claim, of its own paragraph. My introduction argument has a recursive structure, since I state
the claim at the beginning, in the introduction, and then I return to it and state it again at the end of the
discussion (in the conclusion).
Reasons:
Reasons:statementsthat
Explainwhyyouthinkyourclaimshouldbeacceptedbyyouandbyyourreaders.
Representjudgmentsthatyouassumearenotsharedbyreaders.
The writer gives global reasons to the reader to support the writers global claim and to let the reader
understand why the reader should agree with the writer.
For example, the global reasons in Changs argument that support his global claim are
the high demand from the public for physical therapy, flexible work hours, and it takes
less amount of time to earn a physical therapy degree.
Then each of these global reasons which supports the claim will be discussed in a separate paragraph or
main section of the argument. Each global reason, therefore, will become a sub-claim, since it will
be the topic and the claim of that paragraph or section. Within its own paragraph or section this subclaim will be supported by sub-reasons.
For example, the first sub-claim, there will be high demand from the public for
physical therapy, is supported by its sub-reason: because baby-boomers are
approaching the age that is prone to suffer from heart failures.
LRS
31
Evidence:
Evidence:statementsthat
Describeorotherwiserepresentfactsabouttheworldthatareassumedtobesharedwithreaders(You
couldlookitup).
Willnotbequestionedbyreaders,atleastnotforthemoment.
Note:evidenceiscomprisedofrepresentationsofstatesofaffairsthataretreated,forthesakeofthe
argumentathand,asexternal,foundationalfacts.
Evidence is facts and they support a writers reasons. It is something that is tangible, where the reader
is able to see and touch. Once the reader sees the evidence, he or she should not have to ask anymore
questions. I include sources from the American Physical Therapy Association, the American Physical
Association, which are reliable evidence and the reader is able to look them up if they want to.
Warrants:
Warrants:generalprinciplesthat
Assertaprincipledconnectionbetweenakindofreason/evidenceandakindofclaim.
Havetwocomponents,areason/evidencesideandaclaimside.
Arenormallyassumedratherthanstated.
Representsharedbeliefsandvalueswithoutwhichanargumentcannotgetofftheground.
Warrants provide a link between claim and evidence. The link is usually a general principle that is
drawn from background knowledge between the writer and the reader. However, the principles can be
introduced for the first time by the reader in the argument text.
Warrant is the most effective when it is not explicitly stated. Only state it when you think the reader
will not understand or know the principle. That said, it is usually a difficult decision to either state the
warrant or not because the writer does not want to offend the reader at the same time, the writer does
not wants to convey the principle as clearly as possible. In the argument text, it can be understood that
the unstated warrant goes as follow:
Whenever a job has high demand from the public, has a flexible work schedule and takes less amount
of time to earn a degree is an ideal profession.
WARRANTS [p.237]
C:
P:
C:
P:
C:
P:
C:
P:
LRS
I need new sneakers. These are dirty. Look at these raggedy laces.
Raggedy laces and dirt arent enough reason to buy new sneakers.
Billy thinks I should get new shoes.
What does that have to do with it?
Everybody else got new shoes.
I doubt it, but it doesn't matter either.
Parents who dont love their kids dont buy them new shoes. Dont you love me?
No new sneakers.
32
C: I need new sneakers (claim). These are dirty. Look at these raggedy laces (evidence).
P: Raggedy laces and dirt arent enough reason to buy new sneakers. [i.e., What you say may be true,
but it is not relevant evidence: Dirt and raggedy shoelaces are insufficient evidence of the bad
condition of shoes.]
C: Billy thinks I should get new shoes (evidence).
P: What does that have to do with it? [i.e., it does not matter whether or not this is true, since Billys
opinion is not authoritative; moreover its irrelevant.]
C: Everybody else got new sneakers (evidence).
P: I doubt it, but it doesn't matter what they get. [i.e., I do not care even if your statement is true; I do
not buy you things only because other people get them.]
C:
Parents who dont love their kids dont buy them new shoes (general principle). Dont you love
me? Implied claim
P: No new gym shoes. [i.e., Your principle is true: parents who dont love their children usually
neglect them, and so dont buy them new shoes when they need them. But in order to conclude, as your
question implies, that I do not love you, the converse must also be true: all parents who do not buy
their children new shoes thereby do not love them. This last principle is false, so you cannot conclude
that I do not love you because I will not buy you new shoes.]
Assertions, Arguments, and Warranted Arguments
In an assertion, you make a statement that you implicitly claim is true.
Y is s o .
Claim
A.
Today, Lincoln is revered as one of Americas most admired historical figures, but at the time,
he was not a popular President.
B.
Although the Cinderella characters are known for their beauty and kindness, their persistent
innocence is a forerunner of serious trouble.
In an argument, you make a statement that you claim is true, and you state the evidence that you
believe should lead your reader to accept the truth of your claim.
LRS
33
Y is so.
X is t r ue
because
Claim
Evidence
A.
Today, Lincoln is revered as one of America's most admired historical figures, but at the time,
he was not a popular President. Many newspapers brutally attacked him for mismanaging the war.
claim
evidence
Lincoln was not a popular President.

Many newspapers brutally attacked him for mismanaging the war.
B.
Although the Cinderella characters are known for their beauty and kindness, their innocence is
an unfortunate forerunner of serious trouble. It is only by falling for other peoples deceptions that
these unaware young ladies will learn about these peoples bad intentions.
claim
evidence
The persistent innocence of the Cinderella characters is an unfortunate

forerunner of serious trouble.
It is only by repeatedly falling for ill-willed peoples deceptions that
these unaware young ladies will learn about those peoples bad
intentions.

An argument is warranted when the relationship between a claim and its evidence is supported by a
general principle (sometimes unstated) that is accepted as true and that includes all relevant elements of
the claim and the evidence. Think of a warrant as a conceptual bridge that establishes the connection
between a claim and its evidence:
Ge ne r a l
Pr inc iple Z
W a r r a nt
Y is s o .
b e c aus e
Claim
X is t r ue
Evidence
Even in the simplest arguments, when your claim is supported by good evidence, there is some general
principle a warrant that explains why that evidence should count in support of that claim.
Claim : It must have rained last night.
Why do you think that? (That is, what is your evidence?)
LRS
34
Evidence : The streets are wet this morning.
What makes you think that wet streets should count as evidence of rain. (That is, what is
your warrant?)
Warrant : Wet streets are always a good sign of rain.
You can state warrants in many ways, but the most useful is to state it as a two-part sentence, with one
part that talks about the kind of evidence you have and one part that talks about the kind of claim you
want to make:
Warrant : When/if we have evidence of kind X, we can make a claim of kind Y.
If streets are wet in the morning (evidence X), we can conclude that it probably
rained the night before (claim Y).
In an argument this simple, about a matter we know so well, the connection between the claim and its
evidence is so obvious you would never state it. If you did, your listeners might be offended that you
assumed they did not know this obvious principle. But when you make claims in your papers,
especially when the claims are strong enough to be interesting, your readers might not always see so
quickly why your evidence supports those claims and sometimes you may not be so clear on exactly
what connects them.
You need not explicitly state in your paper every warrant that connects your claims and evidence, but it
is a good idea to check each of the most important claims in your paper: What is my warrant? What
general principle do I believe and expect my readers to believe that connects my particular claim to my
particular evidence? Once you can state your warrant for yourself, then you can decide whether your
readers already know and share this general principle, in which case you do not need to say it in your
paper. If, however, your readers may not know and believe this general principle, then you need to tell
them what it is.
A.
Today, Lincoln is revered as one of America's most admired historical figures, but at the time,
he was not a popular President. Many newspapers brutally attacked him for mismanaging the war.
claim
evidence
warrant
Lincoln was not a popular President.

Many newspapers brutally attacked him for mismanaging the war.
When Presidents are brutally attacked by many newspapers, they are unpopular.
B.
Although the Cinderella characters are known for their beauty and kindness, their weakness is a
troubling echo of the worst chauvinist stereotypes. It is only through magic that these submissive
females find the strength to achieve their goals.
claim
evidence
warrant
LRS
The persistent innocence of the Cinderella characters is an unfortunate

forerunner of serious trouble.
It is only by repeatedly falling for other peoples deceptions that these unaware
young ladies will learn about these peoples bad intentions.
Because the purity of innocence is no substitute for the sort of goodness that is
armed with wisdom and awareness and that will not fall for others deceptions.
35
An effective argument includes a claim that is not obvious, the evidence that leads readers to
accept the claim, and a (sometimes implicit) warrant stating a general principle that relates the
evidence to the claim.
LRS
Page
36
36
Acknowledgement and Response:

Acknowledgments:statementsthat
Raiseorrefertoalternativeclaims,reasons,evidence,orwarrants.
Locateanargumentinafieldofpossiblearguments.
Showreadersthatyouhavenotignoredtheirconcerns.
Responses:statementsthat
Acceptorrejectanacknowledgedalternative.
Offerargumentsorminiargumentsagainstanalternative.
Explainthecomplicationsandlimitsofyourargument.
This part of an argument takes into account the alternative claims, reasons, evidence or warrants
and the writer can choose to accept or reject them. When the writer acknowledges, he or she is
letting the reader know that he or she has not ignored the readers concern. Then if the writer
disagrees with his or her acknowledgement, then the writer should offer his or her reasoning
(response). The writer should know when to acknowledge. The more the writer does it, the more
likely the reader will comply.
In the argument text above, the writer acknowledges a fair number of times. For example, in the
third sub-claim, the writer acknowledges the fact that many other jobs, such as those of nurses
and physicians similarly have a standard 40 hour work schedule. The writer responds that these
other jobs, however, often have abnormal working hours, such as changing shifts and even night
hours. The 40 hour work for a physical therapist does not include abnormal hours like the
physicians might face. With acknowledgement, the writer lets the reader know that even though
there are limitations to the writers argument, nevertheless with the reasons and evidence he
provided, the writer still stands by his claim and the reader should must accept it.
Because Arguments are Cooperative, You Must Acknowledge the Ideas of Others
Four Forms of Acknowledgement :
2. Objections to the implications of your claim
But that solution is expensive/hard to implement/has been tried before/ etc. . . .
But if your claim is true, then we also have to believe . . .

LRS
37
But if your claim is true, then we cant also believe . . .
But if your claim is true, then bad things will happen . . .
Page
37
3. Objections to specific parts of your argument

But I would draw a different conclusion . . .
But I need more than X reasons to accept that claim . . .
But that evidence is incomplete/unrepresentative/not fully reliable/ etc. . . .
But I would apply a different principle . . .
But I define X differently . . .
4. Additional factors
But have you considered these other reasons . . .
But have you considered this other evidence . . .
But have you considered this other line of reasoning . . .
But have you considered this other principle . . .
5. Alternative views
But so-and-so has claimed . . .
But so-and-so found evidence showing . . .
But what about this perspective . . .
(the +1).
Qualifications:
+1.Qualifications:words,phrases,andoccasionallysentencesthat
Specifydegreesofcertainty,limitsonthesufficiencyorqualityofevidence,etc..
Limittherangeofaclaim.
Stateconditionsrequiredforaclaimtoapply(excludingceterisceteribusclausesconcerning
obviousconditionsthatgowithoutsaying).
Showreadersyoursenseofthereliabilityandrangeofapplicabilityofyourargument.
The Language of Acknowledgment & Response

A. Acknowledging
When you respond to an anticipated alternative or objection, you must decide how much
weight to give it. You can just mention and dismiss it, or raise it and address it at length. We
have ordered these expressions roughly in that order, from most dismissive to most respectful.
1. You can down play an objection or alternative by summarizing it briefly in a short phrase
introduced with despite, regardless of, or notwithstanding:
Despite Congress claims that it wants to cut taxes, acknowledgment the public believes that . . .
response
Regardless of problems in Hong Kong, acknowledgment Southeast Asia remains a strong . . .
response
Notwithstanding declining crime rates, acknowledgment there is still a need for vigorous
enforcement of response
You can use although and while in the same way:
LRS
38
Page
38
Although Congress claims it wants to cut taxes, acknowledgment the public believes that
response
While there are problems in Hong Kong, acknowledgment Southeast Asia remains a strong
response
Even though crime has declined, acknowledgment there is still a need for vigorous enforcement
of response
2. You can indirectly signal an objection or alternative with a seem or appear, along with some
other qualifying conditioning verb or adverb, such as plausibly, justifiably, reasonably,
accurately, understandably; foolishly, surprisingly or even certainly.
In his letters, Lincoln expresses what seems to be depression. acknowledgment But those who
observed him response
Smiths data appear to support these claims. acknowledgment However, on closer
examination response
This proposal may have some merit, acknowledgment but in light of response
Liberals have made a plausible case that the arts ought to be supported by taxpayers.
acknowledgment But they ignore the moral objections of response
3. You can acknowledge alternatives by attributing them to unnamed sources or to no source at all.
This kind of acknowledgment gives a little weight to the possible objection. In these examples,
brackets and slashes indicate choices:
It is easy to [think/imagine/say/claim/argue] that taxes should be spent on
There is [another/alternative/ possible/standard] [explanation / line of argument / account /
possibility].
Some evidence [might/ may / could / would / does] [suggest/ indicate/ point to / lead some to
think] that we should
4. You can acknowledge an alternative by attributing it to a more or less specific source. This
construction gives slightly more validity to the position that you acknowledge:
There are some who [might/ may / could / would] [say / think / argue / claim / charge/ object]
that Cuba is not. . .
5. You can acknowledge an alternative in your own voice or with a passive verb or concessive
adverb. You concede the alternative has some validity, but by changing the words, you can
qualify how much validity you acknowledge.
I [understand/ know/ realize/ appreciate] that liberals believe in . . .
It is [true / possible / likely / certain] that no good evidence proves that coffee causes cancer . . .
It [must / should / can] be [admitted / acknowledged / noted/ conceded] that no good evidence
proves that coffee causes cancer . . .
[Granted/ admittedly/ true/ to be sure / certainly /of course], Adams admitted
We [can/ might / may / could / would] [say / argue / claim / think] that spending on the arts
supports pornographic . . .
We have to [consider / raise] the [question/ possibility / probability] that further study [could/
might / will] show crime has not . . .
We cannot [overlook/ ignore / dismiss / reject] the fact that Cuba was . . .
What X [says/ states/ writes/ claims / asserts / argues / suggests / shows] may [be true/ has
merit/ make sense/ be a good point]: Perhaps Lincoln did suffer . . .
Pivots:
We signal a response with [pivots] : but, however, or on the other hand.
B. Responding
LRS
39
Page
39
Remember that after you state your response, readers probably expect reasons and evidence
supporting it, because it will seem to be a claim needing an argument.
1. You can respond that the acknowledged position is irrelevant.
But as insightful as that position may be, it [ignores / is not relevant to / has no bearing on/ was
formulated for other situations than] the issue at hand.
2. You can respond that the acknowledged position is unreliable.
But the evidence is [unreliable/ shaky / thin/ not the best available].
But the argument is [untenable/ wrong / weak / confused / simplistic].
But that view [overlooks/ ignores/ misses] key factors . . .
But that position is based on [unreliable / faulty / weak / confused] [reasoning / thinking /
evidence].
IV. WHERE ARGUMENTS GO WRONG

The LRS provides five situations where arguments could go wrong:
1.
I dont accept your evidence The reader may not accept the writers evidence when the
evidence provided is not accurate, sufficient, precise, representative, current or authoritative.
This is not a hard problem to solve because evidence is out in the world, it is hard and
concrete. The writer can bring in good evidence from quotations, numbers, data, facts and
etcetera to further persuade the reader.
[Old:] Some people may not see physical therapists to have an important role in
this situation because they think surgeons are the people that are most likely to
help save the lives of heart attack/stroke victims. However, what people do not
realize is that therapists need to help these patients to recover their normal
function at a suitable pace afterwards (Argument text #1).
The unrevised version of the argument text shows no solid evidence. It merely states that
therapists are important because patients will need to go through rehabilitation after having a
surgery. However, this may not convince the reader who is uncertain about the real importance of
the role of a physical therapist because there are plenty of other professions that help patients to
recovery from surgeries. The paragraph could be improved by presenting evidence from a
credible source:
[New:] Even though surgeons are the people who save the lives of heart
attack/stroke victims, the patients are likely have to go through rehabilitation after
their surgery to regain strength. The American Physical Therapist Association
states that more than half of the patients who have gone through operations are
referred to rehabilitation centers (apta.org) (evidence). Therapists need to help these
patients to recover their normal function with proper techniques (Argument text
#3).
LRS
40
Page
40
The revised version not only presented evidence from a reliable and hard resource, the
American Physical Therapist Association, but also included sentences that connect the
evidence to claim as to why physical therapy is a good career physical therapy is going to be
in high demand from half of the population who goes through heart/brain surgery, therefore it
will be an important career now and the future. With this fact, it helps persuade the reader, who is
still deciding on a future profession, to consider physical therapy as an option.
2.
I dont see how your evidence connects to your claim It is important to establish a solid
relationship between the claim, reason and evidence when providing an uninterpreted data such
as quantitative information or quotations. It is helpful to add a couple of sentences summarizing
the data to allow the reader clearly sees the connection.
3.
I dont accept your warrant The writer can construct another section of text that would
try to establish the truth of the existing warrant by means of another argument or the writer could
find another warrant.
4.
Your warrant may be true, but it doesnt apply to your claim or evidence The writer
can either construct another warrant that connects the claim and the evidence or the writer can
include another section in the text that would try to establish by means of another argument that
the reason or the claim does count as an instance of reason or claim side of the warrant.
5.
Your warrant is generally true but there are exceptions The writer might want to review
his or her evidence to make it more accurate or revise his or her warrant to make it true and apply
to either the reason or claim. Also, the claim may be too general, so the writer should reduce the
exceptions and objections by making the claim more specific.
LRS

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1

LRS Steps to follow

Determine your topic and your claim (thesis).

Claim: An argument is centered around a claim. A claim is not an opinion (I like

Write the introduction:

Core elements of a prototypical problem frame

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Destabilizing Condition (also called destabilizing moment, possibly disrupting

Here, for example, is Changs problem frame (tangible problem):

Develop your argument:

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Characters and Actions

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Revise your argument by paying attention to your story-telling style: Handling

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LRS Problem Frames

Tangible and conceptual problems

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Core Elements of a Prototypical Problem Frame:

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LRS Sample Projects

Frequent Travel through Time Zones in Major League Baseball Players.

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PROBLEM FRAME ONE

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PROBLEM FRAME TWO

PROBLEM FRAME THREE

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PROBLEM FRAME FOUR

PROBLEM FRAME FIVE

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PROBLEM FRAME SIX

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VARIATION OF PROTOTYPICAL PROBLEM FRAME

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The Use of Logic

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The Rhetoric of Introductions

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The Rhetoric of Introductions [ in greater detail ] :

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Part I: The Context of the Problem (optional slot)

Parts II & III: The Problem Statement

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I. ARGUMENT AS WAR VS. ARGUMENT AS DIALOGIC

II. DEGREES OF SUCCESS

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III. PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT

Global Issue, Introduction:

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The Five Parts of an Argument (Plus One)

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Therefore you need to acknowledge these alternatives and respond to them: