Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

DUET
CE-3301
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING -I
NOTE NO. 05
PRINCIPLES OF TOTAL AND EFFECTIVE STRESSES

PREPARED BY:
Dr. Md. Mokhlesur Rahman
Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Dhaka University of Engineering & Technology (DUET), Gazipur
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

EFFECTIVE STRESS
Effective Stress (E.S.), Neutral Stress (N.S.) and Total Stress (T.S.):

At any horizontal depth Z in a soil profile, the total downward pressure is

due to the weight of soil above the section (Fig.-1), is called total stress of
soil.

Fig. -1

Resistance to this pressure is provided, partly by the soil grains, and if the
section is below the water table, partly by the upward pressure of the water.

Total stress (Fig.-1) at depth Z per unit area, = Z1 + Z2sat.

This is resisted by the inter-granular pressure , which is referred to as the

effective stress and by the upward water pressure u, which is referred to as
the neutral stress or pore water pressure and equals Z2w.
i.e. Total downward load per unit area = Inter-granular pressure + Upward
water pressure.
=> Total stress = Effective stress + Neutral stress.

This relationship between total, effective and neutral stress is of great

importance in soil mechanics.
PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS

The statement of the amount of stress by the soil skeleton is called the
effective stress, the actual stress or granular stress of soil itself is called the
effective stress.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Fig.-2

Let us consider in Fig.-2, the equilibrium across a horizontal wavy surface

passing through the points of contact of the soil grains.

Let, s =

Average contract stress between the grains.

As =

Area of grain contact.

uw =

Average pore water pressure.

ua =

Average pore air pressure.

Aw =

Area of water surfaces.

Aa =

Area of air surfaces.

Total stress of soil.

= Total area of soil. Here, A = As + Aw + Aa or, Aa = A - As - Aw

We have,

Total load on soil.

Or, P = A

For equilibrium,
Or,

Or,

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Typically,

1 % and the term

Writing, =

We obtain,

Or,

=(

may be ignored.

= Effective stress.

)+

Or,

where, (zeta) =

For a fully saturated soil, =

= 1.

So,
Or,
Where, u = Pore water pressure = Neutral pressure.
For dry soil,
Or, =

But

<<< less 0. So, =

Computation of effective stress:

The computation of effective stress requires the separate determination of the
total stress () and of the pore pressure (u) the following typical cases may
arrive in practical field conditions.
a)

Water table is at ground surface.

b)

Water table is above the ground surface.

c)

Water table is below the ground surface.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

d)

The soil mass may be saturated due to capillary rise.

e)

The soil layer height has as tension pressure.

a)

Water table is at ground surface with out seepage (Fig.-3):

Fig.-3
We have,
Effective stress, =
Total stress =

= Z sat.

Neutral pressure or pore water pressure

Or, u = Z

Where, sat = Saturated unit weight of soil.

w = Unit weight of water.
Z

= Height or depth of soil from surface.

hp = Depth of water. Here, hp = Z.

So = Z sat Z w = Z (sat-w) = Z .
Where, =
=
b)

Submerged unit weight of the soil.

Effective unit weight of the soil.

Water table above the ground surface without seepage (Fig.-4):

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Fig.-4
Total stress, = Z1 w + Z sat.
Neutral stress, u = whp = w (Z1+Z)
Effective stress, = -u = Z1w + Zsat - w (Z+Z1)
= Z1w+Zsat - wZ - wZ1 = Z (sat - w) = Z.
So, effective stress is unchanged for two case (a) & (b).

c)

Water table below the ground surface without seepage (Fig.-5):

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Fig.-5
Total stress,

= Z1 + (Z - Z1) sat = Z1 + Zsat - Z1sat.

Neutral stress,

u = hpw = (Z - Z1) w = Zw - Z1w.

Effective stress, = u
= Z1 + Zsat - Z1sat - Zw + Z1w.
= Z1 + Z (sat - w) - Z1 (sat - w).
= Z1 + (Z - Z1)
Where, = Unit weight of the soil.
d)

The soil layer may be saturated by capillary rise (Fig.-6):

hc = Height of capillary rise

Negative pressure occurred at capillary
rise of water = - hcw.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Fig.-6
Total stress, = Zsat.
Pore water pressure, u = - wZ1 + Zw.
Effective stress, = u = Zsat - (- wZ1 + Zw)
= Zsat + wZ1 - Zw
= Z (sat - w) + wZ1
= Z +Z1w
e)

The soil layer height has artesian pressure (Fig-7):

Fig.-7
Effective Stresses in saturated soil with seepage:
-

a.

The effective stress at any point in a soil mass will change when water
seeps through it. It will increase or decrease depending on the direction of
seepage.
a.

Upward seepage

b.

Downward seepage

Upward seepage

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

Fig.-8
Fig.-8 Shows a layer of granular soil in a tank where upward seepage of water is
caused by opening the value located below the tank. The rate of water supply is
kept constant. The loss of head due to upward seepage between the levels of A
and B is h keeping in mind that the total stress at any point in the soil mass is
due solely to the wet of soil and water above it the effective stress calculations
at A and B are as follows:
At A: Total stress A = H1w
Pore water pressure = uA = H1w
Effective stress, 'A = A - uA = 0
At B: Total stress B = H1w + H2sat
Pore water pressure = uB = (H1 + H2 + h).w
Effective stress, 'B = H2 (sat - w) - hw
At C: Total stress C = H1w + zsat
Pore water pressure = uC = (H1 + z +

).w

Effective stress, 'C = C uC

= z (sat - w) = z

zw

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

10

= z izw

[ Where,

If 'C = 0 = z iczw or, ic =

b.

Downward seepage (Fig.-9)

Fig.-9
At constant level of water in the soil tank is maintained by adjusting the supply
from the top and the outflow at the bottom.
The hydraulic gradient due to the downward seepage,

. The total stress

pore pressure of water and effective stress at any point C are,

Total stress C = H1w + zsat
Pore water pressure = uC = (H + z Effective stress,

).w

'C = (H1w + zsat) (H + z -

).w

= z + izw
[Where,

Critical Hydraulic gradient

The critical hydraulic gradient is the hydraulic gradient at which the soil
becomes unstable i.e when the inter-granular pressure i.e effective stress
becomes zero.
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

11

Fig.-10
Consider a sample of soil, length d, with water flowing upwards owing to head
h as shown in the above Fig.-10. The hydraulic gradient =
Total stress at base of sample = dsat + aw =
Neutral stress = (h + a + d) w = u
Effective stress, ' = U
= dsat + aw - (h + a + d) w
= d (sat - w) - hw
' = dr' - hw
dr' is the submerged weight of soil and must greater than h w for there to be any
effective pressure hw known as the seepage force. If the head h is increased
until 'd = hw, then effective stress G'= 0 and the soil will become unstable. In
h

this condition the hydraulic gradient d and is known as the critical

w
hydraulic gradient, ic. Also
Gs 6

sat w 1 6 w w Gs 1
G 1
ic

or , ic s
w
w
w
1 6
1 6

Quick sand condition:

A soil under critical hydraulic gradient will be unstable and is said to be in a
quick condition. By this definition any granular soil may be quick sand but
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

12

soils with high permeability i.e. gravels and coarse sands require large quantities
of water to maintain a critical hydraulic gradient. Quick sand condition is
therefore usually confined to fine grained sands. At a quick condition
' = 0 = u or, = u
Thus when the pore pressure equals the total pressure on plane a quick
condition exists and the pore pressure can only equal the total pressure when h
> 0, which id a flow condition.
Liquefaction:
When a fine or medium saturated loose sand deposit
is subjected to a sudden shock the mass will
temporarily liquefy. This phenomenon is termed as
liquefaction. In the situation just described four
criteria were given: a particular sand, loose state,
saturation and a sudden shock
The shock temporarily increases the pore pressure. The total stress is not large
when the soil is loose also the structure is some what unstable. The grain size is
such that the pore pressure can float the grains. The result is a temporary
liquefaction a sand mass until pore drainage occurs. During this time lag the
very viscous sand water mixture has little shear strength to support any
structures on its and if not confined may flow laterally. This phenomenon has
been observed to occur in several fairly recent earthquakes. It also sometimes
occurs during pile driving i.e. when the pile has great penetration for several of
the hammer blows. Liquefaction can be readily observed in the laboratory by
building a quick sand tank.
Example 1:
A layer of saturated clay 4m thick is overlain by sand 5m deep, the water table
being 3m below the surface. The saturated unit weights of the clay and sand are
19 kN/m3 and 20 kN/m3 respectively. Above the water table the unit weight of
the sand is 17 kN/m3. Plot the values of total vertical stress and effective vertical
stress against depth. If sand to a height of 1m above the water table is saturated
with capillary water, how are the above stresses affected?
Soln:
Dry sand = 17 kN/m3
Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

13

Effective sand = sat - w = 20 - 9.8 = 10.2 kN/m3

Effective clay = sat - w = 19 - 9.8 = 9.2 kN/m3
At 5m depth, = 317 + 210.2 = 71.4 kN/m3
At 9m depth, = 317 + 210.2 + 49.2 = 108.2 kN/m3
Depth
v (kN/m2)
3
3 17
5
(317) + (220)
9

= 51.0
= 91.0

(317) + (220) + (419) = 167.0

u (kN/m2)
= 0
29.8
=
19.6
69.8
=
58.8

v = v -u
51.0
71.4
108.2

For water table is saturated with capillary water, total vertical stress and
effective vertical stress are changed as follows:
The only effect of the 1m capillary rise, therefore is to increase the total unit
weight of the sand between 2m and 3m the depth from 17 kN/m 3 to 20 KN/m3
an increase of 3 kN/m3 = (20 -17) kN/m3. Both total and effective vertical
stresses below 2m depth are therefore increase by the constant amount 3 1= 3
kN/m2 pore water pressure being unchanged.

Example 2:
A 1.20m layer of soil is subjected to a seepage head of 1.80m.What depth of
coarse sand would be required above the soil to provide a factor of safety 2.0
against piping if Gs = 2.70 and e = 0.035 for both soil and sand respectively?
Soiln:
Let, Coarse sand depth = x

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

14

Now, Seepage head 1.80m of water.

So, upward pressure = 1.80 1000
= 1800 Kg/m2
Saturated density of soil, sat =
= 2642.51 Kg/m3

Or, sat = (
Here, Gs = 2.7, e = 0.035

Effective pressure, = (sat - w) Z

= (2642.51 1000) Z
= 1642.51Z Kg/m2
To provide a factor of safety 2 against piping, so the effective pressure at the
bottom of soil must be twice of the upward seepage pressure.
So,

= 2.00

Or, 1642.51 Z = 1800 2

Or, Z =

= 2.1918 m 2.20 m

So, Depth of Coarse Sand, x = (Z 1.2) m

(2.20 1.20) m = 1.0 m (Ans.)

Example 3:
A granular soil deposit is shown in figure.
Plot
the variation of total stress, pore water pressure and effective stress against
depth. For the granular soil given are e = 0.50 and Gs = 2.65, w = 9.81 KN/m3.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

15

Soln:
Unit weight calculation:
Between levels a to b,

= 17.331 kN/m3

Between levels b to c,

=
= 18.966 kN/m3

Between levels c to d,

=
= 20.601 kN/m3

Stress calculation (all answers in kN/m2)

Level a, = 0, u = 0, = u = 0.
Level b, = 2 x 17.331 = 34.662, u = 0(just above b), = 34.662.
= 34.662, u (just below b) = -0.5 x 9.81 x 1 = -4.905, = 34.662 (4.905) = 39.567.
Level c, = 34.662 + 1 x 18.966 = 53.658, u = 0, = 53.658.
Level d, = 53.658 + 2 x 20.601 = 94.860, u = 2 x 9.81 = 19.62, = 94.8619.62 = 75.24.

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

16

Exercise
1.

A 5m thick layer of saturated clay is overlain by sand layer of 4m deep.

The water table is 3m below the ground surface. The saturated unit weight
of clay and sand are 22KN/m3 and 20 KN/m3 respectively. The unit wt. of
sand above the water table is 17 KN/m3. Find the total effective vertical
pressure at the top, middle of the clay layer. What would be the effective
pressure at the middle of the clay layer of water table rises up to the ground
surface? Plot all the values.

Ans.Top: = 71 KN/m2, = 61.2 KN/m2, Mid: = 126 KN/m2, = 91.7

KN/m2, W.T at G.L: = 135 KN/m2, = 71.3 KN/m2.
2.

A 5m depth of sand overlies a 6m layer of clay, the water table being at the
surface; the permeability of the clay is very low. The saturated unit wt. of
sand is 19 KN/m3 and that of the clay 20 KN/m3. A 4m depth of fill
material of unit weight 20 KN/m3 is placed on the surface over an
extensive area. Determine the effective vertical stress at the centre of the
clay (a) immediately after the fill has been placed, assuming this to take
place rapidly. (b) many years after the fill has been placed.

Ans.Page at 92, R.F Craigs soil mechanics. 3rd edition.

QUESTIONS:
1)

Prove that hydraulic gradient is the ratio of effective unit weight of soil to
unit weight of water at critical flow condition. (marks 5)

2)

Prove that effective stresses are unchanged for any depth of soil layer if
water table is at or above the ground surface.(marks 5)

3)

Prove that seepage velocity is greater than discharge velocity.(marks 5)

4)

Prove that effective stress is greater for down-ward seepage than that of for
upward seepage. (marks 5)

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur

Shekh Muhsen Uddin Ahmed

17

5)

Prove that the families of curves defined by the Laplace seepage equation
always intersect at right angles. (marks 5)

Prepared by: Dr. Mokhlesur Rahman, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,

DUET, Gazipur