NUMERICAL METHODS

Numerical analysis is the study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as opposed to general symbolic
manipulations) for the problems of mathematical analysis(as distinguished from discrete mathematics).
One of the earliest mathematical writings is a Babylonian tablet from the Yale Babylonian Collection (YBC 7289),
which gives a sexagesimal numerical approximation of
, the length of the diagonal in a unit square. Being able to
compute the sides of a triangle (and hence, being able to compute square roots) is extremely important, for instance,
in carpentry and construction.[2]
Numerical analysis continues this long tradition of practical mathematical calculations. Much like the Babylonian
approximation of
, modern numerical analysis does not seek exact answers, because exact answers are often
impossible to obtain in practice. Instead, much of numerical analysis is concerned with obtaining approximate
solutions while maintaining reasonable bounds on errors.
Numerical analysis naturally finds applications in all fields of engineering and the physical sciences, but in the
21st century, the life sciences and even the arts have adopted elements of scientific computations. Ordinary
differential equations appear in the movement of heavenly bodies (planets, stars and galaxies); optimization occurs in
portfolio management; numerical linear algebra is important for data analysis;stochastic differential
equations and Markov chains are essential in simulating living cells for medicine and biology.
Before the advent of modern computers numerical methods often depended on hand interpolation in large printed
tables. Since the mid 20th century, computers calculate the required functions instead. These same interpolation
formulas nevertheless continue to be used as part of the software algorithms for solving differential equations.

General introduction
The overall goal of the field of numerical analysis is the design and analysis of techniques to give approximate but
accurate solutions to hard problems, the variety of which is suggested by the following.

Advanced numerical methods are essential in making numerical weather prediction feasible.
Computing the trajectory of a spacecraft requires the accurate numerical solution of a system of ordinary
differential equations.

Car companies can improve the crash safety of their vehicles by using computer simulations of car crashes.
Such simulations essentially consist of solving partial differential equations numerically.

Hedge funds (private investment funds) use tools from all fields of numerical analysis to calculate the value
of stocks and derivatives more precisely than other market participants.

Airlines use sophisticated optimization algorithms to decide ticket prices, airplane and crew assignments and
fuel needs. Historically, such algorithms were developed within the overlapping field of operations research.

Insurance companies use numerical programs for actuarial analysis.

NUMERICAL METHODS
The rest of this section outlines several important themes of numerical analysis.
[edit]History
The field of numerical analysis predates the invention of modern computers by many centuries. Linear
interpolation was already in use more than 2000 years ago. Many great mathematicians of the past were preoccupied
by numerical analysis, as is obvious from the names of important algorithms like Newton's method, Lagrange
interpolation polynomial, Gaussian elimination, or Euler's method.
To facilitate computations by hand, large books were produced with formulas and tables of data such as interpolation
points and function coefficients. Using these tables, often calculated out to 16 decimal places or more for some
functions, one could look up values to plug into the formulas given and achieve very good numerical estimates of
some functions. The canonical work in the field is the NISTpublication edited by Abramowitz and Stegun, a 1000-plus
page book of a very large number of commonly used formulas and functions and their values at many points. The
function values are no longer very useful when a computer is available, but the large listing of formulas can still be
very handy.
The mechanical calculator was also developed as a tool for hand computation. These calculators evolved into
electronic computers in the 1940s, and it was then found that these computers were also useful for administrative
purposes. But the invention of the computer also influenced the field of numerical analysis, since now longer and
more complicated calculations could be done.
[edit]Direct

and iterative methods

Direct vs iterative methods

Consider the problem of solving
3x3 + 4 = 28
for the unknown quantity x.
Direct method

3x3 + 4 = 28.

Subtract 4

3x3 = 24.

Divide by 3

x3 = 8.

Take cube roots

x = 2.

For the iterative method, apply

thebisection method to f(x) = 3x3
24. The initial values are a = 0, b =

NUMERICAL METHODS
3, f(a) = 24,f(b) = 57.
Iterative method

mid

f(mid)

1.5

13.875

1.5

2.25

10.17...

1.5

2.25

1.875

4.22...

1.875

2.25

2.0625

2.32...

We conclude from this table that the

solution is between 1.875 and
2.0625. The algorithm might return
any number in that range with an
error less than 0.2.
[edit]Discretization and

numerical integration

In a two hour race, we have

measured the speed of the car at
three instants and recorded them in
the following table.
Time

0:20

1:00

1:40

km/h

140

150

180

A discretization would be to say

that the speed of the car was

NUMERICAL METHODS
constant from 0:00 to 0:40, then
from 0:40 to 1:20 and finally from
1:20 to 2:00. For instance, the total
distance traveled in the first 40
minutes is approximately
(2/3h 140 km/h) = 93.3 km. This
would allow us to estimate the total
distance traveled as 93.3 km +
100 km + 120 km = 313.3 km, which
is an example ofnumerical
integration (see below) using
a Riemann sum, because
displacement is the integral of
velocity.
Ill posed problem: Take the
function f(x) = 1/(x 1). Note
that f(1.1) = 10 andf(1.001) = 1000:
a change in x of less than 0.1 turns
into a change in f(x) of nearly 1000.
Evaluating f(x) near x = 1 is an illconditioned problem.
Well-posed problem: By contrast,
the function

is

continuous and so evaluating it is

well-posed, at least for x being not
close to zero.
Direct methods compute the solution to a problem in a finite number of steps. These methods would give the precise
answer if they were performed in infinite precision arithmetic. Examples include Gaussian elimination,
the QR factorization method for solving systems of linear equations, and the simplex method of linear programming.
In practice, finite precision is used and the result is an approximation of the true solution (assuming stability).
In contrast to direct methods, iterative methods are not expected to terminate in a number of steps. Starting from an
initial guess, iterative methods form successive approximations that converge to the exact solution only in the limit.
A convergence test is specified in order to decide when a sufficiently accurate solution has (hopefully) been found.
Even using infinite precision arithmetic these methods would not reach the solution within a finite number of steps (in
general). Examples include Newton's method, the bisection method, and Jacobi iteration. In computational matrix
algebra, iterative methods are generally needed for large problems.

NUMERICAL METHODS
Iterative methods are more common than direct methods in numerical analysis. Some methods are direct in principle
but are usually used as though they were not, e.g. GMRESand the conjugate gradient method. For these methods
the number of steps needed to obtain the exact solution is so large that an approximation is accepted in the same
manner as for an iterative method.
[edit]Discretization
Furthermore, continuous problems must sometimes be replaced by a discrete problem whose solution is known to
approximate that of the continuous problem; this process is called discretization. For example, the solution of
a differential equation is a function. This function must be represented by a finite amount of data, for instance by its
value at a finite number of points at its domain, even though this domain is a continuum.
[edit]Generation

and propagation of errors

The study of errors forms an important part of numerical analysis. There are several ways in which error can be
introduced in the solution of the problem.
[edit]Round-off
Round-off errors arise because it is impossible to represent all real numbers exactly on a machine with finite memory
(which is what all practical digital computers are).
[edit]Truncation

and discretization error

Truncation errors are committed when an iterative method is terminated or a mathematical procedure is
approximated, and the approximate solution differs from the exact solution. Similarly, discretization induces
a discretization error because the solution of the discrete problem does not coincide with the solution of the
continuous problem. For instance, in the iteration in the sidebar to compute the solution of
,
after 10 or so iterations, we conclude that the root is roughly 1.99 (for example). We therefore have a truncation error
of 0.01.
Once an error is generated, it will generally propagate through the calculation. For instance, we have already noted
that the operation + on a calculator (or a computer) is inexact. It follows that a calculation of the type a+b+c+d+e is
even more inexact.
What does it mean when we say that the truncation error is created when we approximate a mathematical
procedure? We know that to integrate a function exactly requires one to find the sum of infinite trapezoids. But
numerically one can find the sum of only finite trapezoids, and hence the approximation of the mathematical
procedure. Similarly, to differentiate a function, the differential element approaches to zero but numerically we can
only choose a finite value of the differential element.
[edit]Numerical

stability and well-posed problems

Numerical stability is an important notion in numerical analysis. An algorithm is callednumerically stable if an error,
whatever its cause, does not grow to be much larger during the calculation. This happens if the problem is wellconditioned, meaning that the solution changes by only a small amount if the problem data are changed by a small
amount. To the contrary, if a problem is ill-conditioned, then any small error in the data will grow to be a large error.
Both the original problem and the algorithm used to solve that problem can be well-conditioned and/or ill-conditioned,
and any combination is possible.
So an algorithm that solves a well-conditioned problem may be either numerically stable or numerically unstable. An
art of numerical analysis is to find a stable algorithm for solving a well-posed mathematical problem. For instance,
computing the square root of 2 (which is roughly 1.41421) is a well-posed problem. Many algorithms solve this
problem by starting with an initial approximation x1 to
, for instance x1=1.4, and then computing improved
guesses x2, x3, etc.. One such method is the famous Babylonian method, which is given by xk+1 = xk/2 + 1/xk. Another

NUMERICAL METHODS
iteration, which we will call Method X, is given by xk + 1 = (xk22)2 + xk.[3] We have calculated a few iterations of each
scheme in table form below, with initial guesses x1 = 1.4 and x1 = 1.42.

Babylonian

Babylonian

Method X

Method X

x1 = 1.4

x1 = 1.42

x1 = 1.4

x1 = 1.42

x2 = 1.4142857...

x2 = 1.41422535...

x2 = 1.4016

x2 = 1.42026896

x3 = 1.414213564...

x3 = 1.41421356242...

x3 = 1.4028614...

x3 = 1.42056...

...

...

x1000000 = 1.41421...

x28 = 7280.2284...

Observe that the Babylonian method converges fast regardless of the initial guess, whereas Method X converges
extremely slowly with initial guess 1.4 and diverges for initial guess 1.42. Hence, the Babylonian method is
numerically stable, while Method X is numerically unstable.
Numerical stability is affected by the number of the significant digits the machine keeps on, if we use a
machine that keeps on the first four floating-point digits, a good example on loss of significance is given by
these two equivalent functions

If we compare the results of

and

NUMERICAL METHODS
by looking to the two above results, we realize that loss of significance which is also called Subtractive
Cancelation has a huge effect on the results, even though both functions are equivalent; to show that they
are equivalent simply we need to start by f(x) and end with g(x), and so

The true value for the result is 11.174755..., which is exactly g(500) = 11.1748 after rounding the result to 4
decimal digits.
Now imagine that lots of terms like these functions are used in the program; the error will increase as one
proceeds in the program, unless one uses the suitable formula of the two functions each time one evaluates
either f(x), or g(x); the choice is dependent on the parity of x.

The example is taken from Mathew; Numerical methods using matlab, 3rd
ed.

[edit]Areas

of study

The field of numerical analysis is divided into different disciplines according to

the problem that is to be solved.
[edit]Computing

values of functions

Interpolation: We have observed the

temperature to vary from 20 degrees
Celsius at 1:00 to 14 degrees at 3:00. A
linear interpolation of this data would
conclude that it was 17 degrees at 2:00
and 18.5 degrees at 1:30pm.
Extrapolation: If the gross domestic
product of a country has been growing
an average of 5% per year and was 100
billion dollars last year, we might
extrapolate that it will be 105 billion
dollars this year.

NUMERICAL METHODS

Regression: In linear regression,

given npoints, we compute a line that
passes as close as possible to
those n points.

Optimization: Say you sell lemonade at

alemonade stand, and notice that at $1,
you can sell 197 glasses of lemonade
per day, and that for each increase of
$0.01, you will sell one glass of
lemonade less per day. If you could
charge $1.485, you would maximize your
profit, but due to the constraint of having
to charge a whole cent amount, charging
$1.49 per glass will yield the maximum
income of $220.52 per day.

Differential equation: If you set up 100

fans to blow air from one end of the room
to the other and then you drop a feather
into the wind, what happens? The feather
will follow the air currents, which may be
very complex. One approximation is to

NUMERICAL METHODS
measure the speed at which the air is
blowing near the feather every second,
and advance the simulated feather as if it
were moving in a straight line at that
same speed for one second, before
measuring the wind speed again. This is
called the Euler method for solving an
ordinary differential equation.
One of the simplest problems is the evaluation of a function at a given point.
The most straightforward approach, of just plugging in the number in the
formula is sometimes not very efficient. For polynomials, a better approach is
using the Horner scheme, since it reduces the necessary number of
multiplications and additions. Generally, it is important to estimate and
control round-off errors arising from the use of floating point arithmetic.
[edit]Interpolation,

extrapolation, and regression

Interpolation solves the following problem: given the value of some unknown
function at a number of points, what value does that function have at some
other point between the given points?
Extrapolation is very similar to interpolation, except that now we want to find
the value of the unknown function at a point which is outside the given points.
Regression is also similar, but it takes into account that the data is imprecise.
Given some points, and a measurement of the value of some function at these
points (with an error), we want to determine the unknown function. The least
squares-method is one popular way to achieve this.
[edit]Solving

equations and systems of equations

Another fundamental problem is computing the solution of some given

equation. Two cases are commonly distinguished, depending on whether the
equation is linear or not. For instance, the equation
while

is linear

is not.

Much effort has been put in the development of methods for solving systems of
linear equations. Standard direct methods, i.e., methods that use some matrix
decompositionare Gaussian elimination, LU decomposition, Cholesky
decomposition for symmetric (orhermitian) and positive-definite matrix, and QR
decomposition for non-square matrices.Iterative methods such as the Jacobi
method, GaussSeidel method, successive over-relaxation and conjugate
gradient method are usually preferred for large systems.
Root-finding algorithms are used to solve nonlinear equations (they are so
named since a root of a function is an argument for which the function yields
zero). If the function isdifferentiable and the derivative is known, then Newton's
method is a popular choice.Linearization is another technique for solving
nonlinear equations.

NUMERICAL METHODS
[edit]Solving

eigenvalue or singular value problems

Several important problems can be phrased in terms of eigenvalue

decompositions orsingular value decompositions. For instance, the spectral
image compression algorithm[4]is based on the singular value decomposition.
The corresponding tool in statistics is called principal component analysis.
[edit]Optimization
Main article: Mathematical optimization
Optimization problems ask for the point at which a given function is maximized
(or minimized). Often, the point also has to satisfy some constraints.
The field of optimization is further split in several subfields, depending on the
form of the objective function and the constraint. For instance, linear
programming deals with the case that both the objective function and the
constraints are linear. A famous method in linear programming is the simplex
method.
The method of Lagrange multipliers can be used to reduce optimization
problems with constraints to unconstrained optimization problems.
[edit]Evaluating

integrals

Main article: Numerical integration

Numerical integration, in some instances also known as numerical quadrature,
asks for the value of a definite integral. Popular methods use one of
the NewtonCotes formulas (like the midpoint rule or Simpson's rule)
or Gaussian quadrature. These methods rely on a "divide and conquer"
strategy, whereby an integral on a relatively large set is broken down into
integrals on smaller sets. In higher dimensions, where these methods become
prohibitively expensive in terms of computational effort, one may use Monte
Carlo or quasi-Monte Carlo methods (see Monte Carlo integration), or, in
modestly large dimensions, the method of sparse grids.
[edit]Differential

equations

Main articles: Numerical ordinary differential equations and Numerical partial

differential equations
Numerical analysis is also concerned with computing (in an approximate way)
the solution of differential equations, both ordinary differential equations
and partial differential equations.
Partial differential equations are solved by first discretizing the equation,
bringing it into a finite-dimensional subspace. This can be done by a finite
element method, a finite difference method, or (particularly in engineering)
a finite volume method. The theoretical justification of these methods often

NUMERICAL METHODS
involves theorems from functional analysis. This reduces the problem to the

Example 2D CAD drawing

Example 3D CAD model

Computer-aided design (CAD), also known as computer-aided drafting (CAD) orcomputer-aided design and
drafting (CADD),[1] is the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of
a design.[2] Computer-aided drafting describes the process of creating a technical drawing with the use of computer
software.[3]CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve
communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing.[4] CAD output is often in
the form of electronic files for print or machining operations. CAD software uses either vector based graphics to
depict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall appearance of
designed objects.
CAD often involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical andengineering drawings, the
output of CAD must convey information, such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to
application-specific conventions.
CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids
in three-dimensional (3D) space.[5]
CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive, shipbuilding, and
aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design,prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to
produce computer animation forspecial effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals. The modern ubiquity
and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques
unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving

NUMERICAL METHODS
force for research in computational geometry,computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete
differential geometry.[6]
The design of geometric models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally called computer-aided geometric
design (CAGD).[7]
While the goal of automated CAD systems is to increase efficiency, they are not necessarily the best way to allow
newcomers to understand the geometrical principles of Solid Modeling. For this, scripting languages such
as PLaSM (Programming Language of Solid Modeling) are more suitable.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]

1 Overview

2 Uses

3 Types

4 Technology

5 History

6 See also

7 References

[edit]Overview
Beginning in the 1980's computer-aided design programs reduced the need of draftsmen significantly, especially in
small to mid-sized companies. Their affordability and ability to run on personal computers also allowed engineers to
do their own drafting work, eliminating the need for entire departments. In today's world, many students in universities
do not learn manual drafting techniques because they are not required to do so. The days of hand drawing for final
drawings are all but over. Universities no longer require the use of protractors and compasses to create drawings,
instead there are several classes that focus on the use of CAD software.
Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting systems to
3D solid and surface modelers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently allow rotations in three dimensions,
allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software
is capable of dynamic mathematical modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CADD.
CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings, from small
residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures (hospitals and factories).
[8]

CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of physical components, but it is
also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and
dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to design
objects. Furthermore many CAD applications now offer advanced rendering and animation capabilities so engineers
can better visualize their product designs.

NUMERICAL METHODS
CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies, with benefits
such as lower product development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. CAD enables designers to layout and
develop work on screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings.
[edit]Uses
Computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is used in many ways
depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in question.
CAD is one part of the whole Digital Product Development (DPD) activity within the Product Lifecycle
Management (PLM) processes, and as such is used together with other tools, which are either integrated modules or
stand-alone products, such as:

Computer-aided engineering (CAE) and Finite element analysis (FEA)

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) including instructions to Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
machines

Photo realistic rendering

Document management and revision control using Product Data Management (PDM).

CAD is also used for the accurate creation of photo simulations that are often required in the preparation of
Environmental Impact Reports, in which computer-aided designs of intended buildings are superimposed into
photographs of existing environments to represent what that locale will be like were the proposed facilities allowed to
be built. Potential blockage of view corridors and shadow studies are also frequently analyzed through the use of
CAD.
CAD has been proven to be useful to engineers as well. Using four properties which are history, features,
parameterization, and high level constraints. The construction history can be used to look back into the model's
personal features and work on the single area rather than the whole model. Parameters and constraints can be used
to determine the size, shape, and the different modeling elements. The features in the CAD system can be used for
the variety of tools for measurement such as tensile strength, yield strength, also its stress and strain and how the
element gets affected in certain temperatures.
[edit]Types
See also: List of computer-aided design editors
There are several different types of CAD,[9] each requiring the operator to think differently about how to use them and
design their virtual components in a different manner for each.
There are many producers of the lower-end 2D systems, including a number of free and open source programs.
These provide an approach to the drawing process without all the fuss over scale and placement on the drawing
sheet that accompanied hand drafting, since these can be adjusted as required during the creation of the final draft.
3D wireframe is basically an extension of 2D drafting (not often used today). Each line has to be manually inserted
into the drawing. The final product has no mass properties associated with it and cannot have features directly added
to it, such as holes. The operator approaches these in a similar fashion to the 2D systems, although many 3D
systems allow using the wireframe model to make the final engineering drawing views.
3D "dumb" solids are created in a way analogous to manipulations of real world objects (not often used today). Basic
three-dimensional geometric forms (prisms, cylinders, spheres, and so on) have solid volumes added or subtracted
from them, as if assembling or cutting real-world objects. Two-dimensional projected views can easily be generated

NUMERICAL METHODS
from the models. Basic 3D solids don't usually include tools to easily allow motion of components, set limits to their
motion, or identify interference between components.
3D parametric solid modeling requires the operator to use what is referred to as "design intent". The objects and
features created are adjustable. Any future modifications will be simple, difficult, or nearly impossible, depending on
how the original part was created. One must think of this as being a "perfect world" representation of the component.
If a feature was intended to be located from the center of the part, the operator needs to locate it from the center of
the model, not, perhaps, from a more convenient edge or an arbitrary point, as he could when using "dumb" solids.
Parametric solids require the operator to consider the consequences of his actions carefully.
Some software packages provide the ability to edit parametric and non-parametric geometry without the need to
understand or undo the design intent history of the geometry by use of direct modeling functionality. This ability may
also include the additional ability to infer the correct relationships between selected geometry (e.g., tangency,
concentricity) which makes the editing process less time and labor intensive while still freeing the engineer from the
burden of understanding the models. These kind of non-history based systems are called Explicit Modellers or Direct
CAD Modelers.
Top end systems offer the capabilities to incorporate more organic, aesthetics and ergonomic features into
designs. Freeform surface modeling is often combined with solids to allow the designer to create products that fit the
human form and visual requirements as well as they interface with the machine.
[edit]Technology

A CAD model of a computer mouse.

Originally software for Computer-Aided Design systems was developed with computer languages such as Fortran,
but with the advancement of object-oriented programmingmethods this has radically changed. Typical
modern parametric feature based modeler andfreeform surface systems are built around a number of key C modules
with their own APIs. A CAD system can be seen as built up from the interaction of a graphical user interface (GUI)
with NURBS geometry and/or boundary representation (B-rep) data via a geometric modeling kernel. A geometry
constraint engine may also be employed to manage the associative relationships between geometry, such as
wireframe geometry in a sketch or components in an assembly.
Unexpected capabilities of these associative relationships have led to a new form ofprototyping called digital
prototyping. In contrast to physical prototypes, which entail manufacturing time in the design. That said, CAD models
can be generated by a computer after the physical prototype has been scanned using an industrial CT
scanning machine. Depending on the nature of the business, digital or physical prototypes can be initially chosen
according to specific needs.
Today, CAD systems exist for all the major platforms (Windows, Linux, UNIX and Mac OS X); some packages even
support multiple platforms.

NUMERICAL METHODS
Right now, no special hardware is required for most CAD software. However, some CAD systems can do graphically
and computationally intensive tasks, so a modern graphics card, high speed (and possibly multiple) CPUs and large
amounts of RAM may be recommended.
The human-machine interface is generally via a computer mouse but can also be via a pen and digitizing graphics
tablet. Manipulation of the view of the model on the screen is also sometimes done with the use of
a Spacemouse/SpaceBall. Some systems also support stereoscopic glasses for viewing the 3D model.
[edit]History
[10][11][12][13]

Designers have long used computers for their calculations. Initial developments were carried out in the
1960s within the aircraft and automotive industries in the area of 3D surface construction and NC programming, most
of it independent of one another and often not publicly published until much later. Some of the mathematical
description work on curves was developed in the early 1940s by Robert Issac Newton from Pawtucket, Rhode
Island. Robert A. Heinlein in his 1957 novel The Door into Summer suggested the possibility of a robotic Drafting
Dan. However, probably the most important work on polynomial curves and sculptured surface was done by Pierre
Bzier (Renault), Paul de Casteljau (Citroen), Steven Anson Coons (MIT, Ford), James Ferguson (Boeing), Carl de
Boor (GM), Birkhoff (GM) and Garibedian (GM) in the 1960s and W. Gordon (GM) and R. Riesenfeld in the 1970s.
It is argued that a turning point was the development of the SKETCHPAD system at MIT in 1963 by Ivan
Sutherland (who later created a graphics technology company with Dr. David Evans). The distinctive feature of
SKETCHPAD was that it allowed the designer to interact with his computer graphically: the design can be fed into the
computer by drawing on a CRT monitor with a light pen. Effectively, it was a prototype of graphical user interface, an
indispensable feature of modern CAD.
The first commercial applications of CAD were in large companies in the automotive and aerospace industries, as
well as in electronics. Only large corporations could afford the computers capable of performing the calculations.
Notable company projects were at GM (Dr. Patrick J.Hanratty) with DAC-1 (Design Augmented by Computer) 1964;
Lockheed projects; Bell GRAPHIC 1 and at Renault (Bzier) UNISURF 1971 car body design and tooling.
One of the most influential events in the development of CAD was the founding of MCS (Manufacturing and
Consulting Services Inc.) in 1971 by Dr. P. J. Hanratty,[14] who wrote the system ADAM (Automated Drafting And
Machining) but more importantly supplied code to companies such as McDonnell
Douglas (Unigraphics), Computervision (CADDS), Calma, Gerber, Autotrol and Control Data.
As computers became more affordable, the application areas have gradually expanded. The development of CAD
software for personal desktop computers was the impetus for almost universal application in all areas of construction.
Other key points in the 1960s and 1970s would be the foundation of CAD systems United Computing, Intergraph,
IBM, Intergraph IGDS in 1974 (which led to Bentley Systems MicroStation in 1984)
CAD implementations have evolved dramatically since then. Initially, with 3D in the 1970s, it was typically limited to
producing drawings similar to hand-drafted drawings. Advances in programming and computer hardware, notably
solid modeling in the 1980s, have allowed more versatile applications of computers in design activities.
Key products for 1981 were the solid modelling packages -Romulus (ShapeData) and Uni-Solid (Unigraphics) based
on PADL-2 and the release of the surface modeler CATIA (Dassault Systemes). Autodesk was founded 1982 by John
Walker, which led to the 2D systemAutoCAD. The next milestone was the release of Pro/ENGINEER in 1988, which
heralded greater usage of feature-based modeling methods and parametric linking of the parameters of features.
Also of importance to the development of CAD was the development of the B-rep solid modeling kernels (engines for
manipulating geometrically and topologically consistent 3D objects) Parasolid(ShapeData) and ACIS (Spatial
Technology Inc.) at the end of the 1980s and beginning of the 1990s, both inspired by the work of Ian Braid. This led
to the release of mid-range packages such as SolidWorks in 1995, Solid Edge (then Intergraph) in 1996
and Autodesk Inventor in 1999.

NUMERICAL METHODS