HOW TO ANALYZE AND

INTERPRET QUANTITATIVE /
QUALITATIVE DATA AND HOW
TO WRITE CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

UNIVERSITY OF EL SALVADOR, WESTERN UNIVERSITY CAMPUS,

ENGLISH LANGUAGE DEPARTMENT
BY: MSD. ROXANA DE TRIGUEROS

HOW TO ANALYZE AND INTERPRET QUANTITATIVE / QUALITATIVE DATA

AND HOW TO WRITE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
By Roxana de Trigueros
Msd. Social Science Research

Through this work, the author pretends to guide the reader along the
analysis and interpretation of quantitative graphs and qualitative data, in remarks
that there is no exact formula to do it. Never the less, there are steps that orderly
guide the researcher along the process as well as for the conclusions and
recommendations.

1.1 Quantitative and qualitative data

1.1 Quantitative data

As you might already know there is software like Microsoft Excel, Google
Drive and SPSS programs and others that help you get the graphs you need in
your research work.

The most common graphic forms you might consider using

are:

GRAPH

DATA

RHETORICAL
USES

Bar Chart
5

Compares the value of

one variables across a
series of items called
cases (e.g. average
salaries for service
workers (variable) in six
companies (cases)

Bar Chart, Grouped or Split

Compares the value of

one variable, divided

Creates
strong
visual
contrasts
among
individual
cases, emphasizing
comparisons.
For
specific values, add
numbers to bars.
Can show ranks or
trends.
Vertical
bars
(called
columns) are most
common, but bars
can be horizontal if
cases are numerous
or have complex
labels.
Contrasts subsets
within and across

into subsets, across a

series of cases (e.g.
average
salaries
(variable) for men and
women service workers
(subsets)
in
six
companies (cases).

individual cases; not

useful for comparing
total
values
for
cases. For specific
values,
add
numbers to bars.
Grouped bars show
ranking or tends
poorly, useful for
time series only if
trends
are
unimportant.

Compares the value of

one variable, divided
into two or more
subsets,
across
a
series of cases (e.g.
harassment complaints
(variable) segmented
by region (subsets) in
six industries (cases).

Best for comparing

totals across cases
and subsets within
cases, difficult to
compare
subsets
across cases (use
grouped bars). For
specific values, add
numbers to bars
and
segments.
Useful values only.

Histogram

Compares
two
variables, with one
segmented into ranges
that function like the
cases in a bar graph
(e.g. service workers
(continuous
variable)
whose salary is $05,000; $5-10,000. $1015,000
(segmented
variable), etc.

Best for comparing

segments
within
continuous
data
sets. Shows trends,
but
emphasizes
segments (e.g., a
sudden spike at $510,000 representing
part-time workers).
For specific values,
add numbers to
bars.

Image Chart

Shows value of one or

more
variables
for
cases displayed on a
map, diagram, or other
image
(e.g.
states
(cases) colored red or
blue to show voting
patterns (variable).

Shows
the
distribution of the
data in relation to
preexisting
categories;
deemphasizes
specific
values.
Best
when
the
image is familiar , as
in map or diagram
of a process.

Pie Chart

Shows the proportion of

a single variable for a
series of cases (e.g.,
the
budget
share
(variable)
of
U.S.

Best for comparing

one segment to the
whole. Useful only
with few segments
or segments that

5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Bar Chart, Stacked

15
10
5
0

cabinet
(cases).

departments

Line Graph

Compares continuous
variables for one or
more
cases
(e.g.
temperature (variable
and viscosity (variable)
in two fluids (cases).

Area Chart

Compares
two
continuous variables for
one or more cases
(e.g.,
reading
test
scores (variable) over
time (variable) in a
school district (case).

Area Chart, Stacked

Compares
two
continuous variables for
one or more cases
(e.g.,
reading
test
scores (variable) in a
school district (case).

50

0
Scatterplot

4
2
0
0

Compares
two
variables at multiple
data points for a single
case (e.g., housing
sales (variable) and
distance
from
downtown (variable) in
one city (case) or at
one data point for
multiple cases (e.g.,
brand loyalty (variable)
and repair frequency

are very different in

size,
otherwise
comparisons among
segments
are
difficult. For specific
values,
add
numbers
to
segments.
Common in popular
venues, frowned on
by professionals.
Best for showing
trends;
deemphasizes
specific
values.
Useful
for
time
series.
To show
specific values, add
numbers to data
points. To show the
significance of a
trend, segment the
grid (e.g. below or
above
average
performance).
Shows
trends;
deemphasizes
specific
values.
Can be used for
time series.
To
show
specific
values,
add
numbers to data
points. Areas below
the lines add no
information, but will
lead some readers
to misjudge values.
Confusing
with
multiple lines/areas.
Shows the trend for
the total of all cases,
plus how much each
case contributes to
that total. Likely to
mislead readers on
the value or the
trend
for
any
individual case.
Best for showing the
distribution of data,
especially
when
there is no clear
trend or when the
focus is on outlying
data points. If only
a few data points
are plotted, it allows
a focus on individual
values.

Bubble chart

4
2
0
0

(variable)
for
ten
manufactures (cases).
Compares
three
variables at multiple
data points for a single
case (e.g., housing
sales
(variable)
distance
from
downtown
(variable)
and prices (variable) in
one city (case) or at
one data point for
multiple cases (e.g.
mages
advertising
(variable)
repair
frequency (variable) for
ten
manufacturers
(cases).

Emphasizes
the
relationship
between the third
variable (bubbles)
and the first two;
most useful when
the
question
is
whether the third
variable is a product
of
the
others.
Readers
easily
misjudge
relative
values shown by
bubbles;
adding
numbers mitigates
that problem.

Source: Modified from Turabian (2007)

Never the less, this soft ware only helps you to graph your data. What you
need now is to analyse and interprete it. How to you do this?
1) To begin to analyse and interprete data you need to order the information
you have.

Order the graphs according to the objectives you have. See

which of them belong to the genral objective, which to the first specific
objective and so on. Now you can discriminate the information according to
variables and latter according to the indicators you observed.
2) Since you already have the information in order you may begin with the
analysis and interpretation of it; however, instead of using all the statement
that the objective has you may lable each objective. For example if the
objective is To have basic English students group 6 pronounce properly the
fricative sounds /s/ and /z/ through the application of pronunciation activities
you would consider in using the following lable when refering to it Fricative
sounds /s/ and /z/.
3) Now you may continue Introducing the analysis and interpretation of data.
Keep in mind that you must lable each objective and that the information of
the data goes along with the variables and indicators you used.
4) Go over the general objective(s) and compare all the information gotten
from the graphs with the theory related with the general objective(s).

This

helps you to achieve the lexicum and knowledge you need to present your
4

analysis and interpretation. It also provides you with ideas that you might
consider

necesarry in the interpretation.

Do the same with the other

objectives and indicators.

5) The Chapter: Analysis and Interpretation of Data contains only the most
significante graphs from each objective (One, two or three graphs as an
example).
6) Remember that each graph is properly order, labled and referenced. Since
the order goes along with the objectives Lable and order each graph
according to the alphabet.

Use capital letters in the first letter and

correlative numbers, example: Graph k1.

7) Some researchers believe that if it is a graph that came up from your
research in the source you must reference the instrument you got it from, for
example: source: Artistic competence sourve, may 2, 2016; however, I
prefer to write authors own creation if you have done it yourselfe and if it
came from your resent research.
8) Here is an example of how a graph goes properly order, labeled and
referenced:
4.2 Artistic Competence

Graph F1: Creativity

28%
1 semester

72%

2 semester

source: modified from Villeda de Trigueros & Hidalgo Sandoval (2017)

9) When refering to the appendix you might consider doing as follows: If you
ues it as extra information: (Appendix P1 page 2); (for further information
5

see appendix E2-E4; P1 pages 1.3 for further information) or if you will need
to referent to it as soon as possible : as showned in graph E1
10) The CHAPTER No. : ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
includes, as said before, examples of the graphs that illustrate better your
research. It is ordered along with the objectives.

In the analysis and

interpretation of the data from each objective you must talk about and
reference to the data included in the appendix. It is not a matter of just to
talk about the graphs used as an example. It is a matter of analysis and
interpreting all the data that refers to that objective. To give a complete idea
of the interpretation of the information gotten from those variables, indicators
or units of observation.

1.2 Qualitative data

Qualitative data is ordered the same way as quantitative data. The

difference is that it takes more time to order and that you do not use any type of
graphs. Some software as Nvivo help to order the data to be analyzed and
interpret. In qualitative data we may use the following instruments to obtain data:
Observation guide (participative and non-participative observation), in depth
interviews, history and life stories, discussion groups, focus groups, diaries, videos,
recordings and more.
The steps to analyze qualitative data gotten from these instruments are the
following:
1. No matter what type of qualitative instrument you use, you have to
transcribe the information as genuine as possible without changing any
particle.
2. After transcribing all the information from any of the qualitative
instrument you may continue to discriminate and order the information
according to the objectives, units of observation or indicators you might
have.

3. As soon as you have ordered it, you may start with the analysis and
interpretation of your data. Remember to label each objective and below
each label you will write the analysis and interpretation of the unit of
observation or indicator from observed.
4. Compare your findings from each objective, units of observation and
indicator with the theory you have in the state of art. This helps you with
the lexicon and possible ideas you might find useful in the interpretation.
5. As in the quantitative analysis, in the qualitative one you must reference
to your data already ordered, for example, if you write an example of
what someone said and you think it is important you may consider doing
it in this way; They do not let us copy and paste from any document on
line (appendix P1 page 16). If you do not need to give a clear example
but are referring to it you may consider writing the reference in
parenthesis, example, (appendix P4 pages 16-20).
6. Also keep in mind that in chapter of analysis and interpretation of data
each objective, unit of observation and indicator must be well illustrated
and referenced according to the data you have.

2.2 Some Characteristics of qualitative instruments

a) Observation
Before you begin to observe you must ask yourself the following
questions: What is meant to be observed? How will you order whats being
observed?

How will you controlled whats being observed?

What

relationship is there between whats being observed and the observer?

(Scribano & Zacaras, 2007). Now you can begin thinking in what type of
observation it will be according to the research question, hypothesis, and
research objectives you have.

It can be a non- structured observation

(participatory) or a structured one (non-participatory).

In a structured observation you must carefully select what is exactly
that you will observe because the speed of the events and complexity of
7

them like gestures, clothing, vocabulary, actions avoids us from observing

the entire scene. Write an observation guide that goes alone with the
objectives, variables and indicators. Take into account the participants, the
environment, behavior, and the relationship between all this variables
(Scribano & Zacaras, 2007) .
In participatory observation, the researcher gets involved in the
environment being observed; however in the non-participatory observation
the researcher only observes from a distance the events.
b) An In-depth interview is the one that takes place when you interview the
studied population (individually or in groups) so that it freely expresses any
idea, feelings and motivations about the topic being studied (Oxman
C.1998:9).

Bear in mind that this interview establishes a relationship

among persons and that you must have an opening question. Keep the
persons talking all the time. Ask them to clarify any ambiguous topics.
Finally invite the interviewees to conclude the topic (Scribano & Zacaras,
2007).
c) Clinical interview: Therapeutic or clinical interviews are another
special kind of professional interview, in which the purpose is to
increase understanding and produce change in the person being
interviewed. (Sewell, 2016) The semi-structured interview is more
commonly used in health care-related qualitative research. Such
an interview is characteristically based on a flexible topic guide
that provides a loose structure of open-ended questions to explore
experiences and attitudes. It has the advantage of great flexibility,
enabling the researcher to enter new areas and produce richer
data. In addition, it helps the researcher to develop a rapport with
the informants. Semi-structured interviews elicit peoples own
views and descriptions and have the benefit of uncovering issues
or concerns that have not been anticipated by the researcher.
They are commonly used when the aim is to gain information on
the perspectives, understandings and meanings constructed by
8

people regarding the events and experiences of their lives.

However, this type of interviewing is claimed to reduce the
researchers control over the interview situation and take a longer
time to conduct and analysis, in addition to the difficulties of the
analysis process. (Zakiya Q., 2016)
d) Semi-structured interview:

This type of interview consists in having a

serious of variables that guide your interview to facilitate the analysis and
interpretation of data.

The difference among the survie and the semi-

structured interview is that the last one totally keeps the characteristics of a
focus interview (Scribano & Zacaras, 2007).

The following chart may help you to order and analyze the information
gotten from an interview:
Questions

Answers

Write the question Write

you have in your answers
interview.

question.

Indicators
all
to

the Write

Objective
the Write

this units
observation

the

of research
objective

related to this related to this

question.

question.

e) History, stories and life stories

This is a social science technique where an individual lets us know
directly or indirectly about his life, surrounding, environment, education,
work, social status, religion, believes, history and personal social factors
related to his life. To know a person you might want to go over all his/her
personal belongings like diaries, PC, Cellphone, software, social media,
facebook, whats up, twitter, instant gram, e-mails, any written material that
exists related to this individual. You may also consider the autobiographies
written by the subject in question or any letter related with the unit of
observation.
9

Tells from life or life story are narrations done by the person talking
about his own life or two individual talking about this very own person
narrating what they know or remember, as well as a discussion about a topic
where the unit of observation is involved.

Finally, you might want to

triangulate this versions to have a clear idea of the indicators you are trying
to observe.

Childhood, adolescence, and adultness stories, background

and references are extremely important when using this technique.

f) A Discussion group is the one where an interviewer asks a series of
structured questions to the participants which have been selected according
to the units of observation, indicators and objectives.

The participants

answer the questions individually without being interrupted by the others

social pressure.
g) On the other hand, a focus group is the one where once more interviewer
answer questions in a group and where group member can easily interrupt
them mean while they are answering the question. Discussion takes place
like a debate.

3. Conclusions and recommendations

3.1 Conclusions
This section is presented in numeric order. Here you must already know the
answer to you research question. Then, you may begin answering your research
question and answering your general objective illustrating the main observations,
you got from them. Continue doing the same for your specific objectives, naming
the most important and general findings you got from them in your data analysis
and interpretation. Finally, if you have a hypothesis, end your conclusions telling
the readers why your hypothesis is true or false. Do this giving strong reasons and
referring to crucial information gotten from the analysis and interpretation of your
data.
10

3.2 Recommendations

Some researchers manage the idea of why to recommend? However, have

in mind that your research can be improved or continued. Like the conclusions,
this section is also presented in numeric order. The recommendations come from
the conclusions and remember that you conclude according to your objective.
You may recommend the population, institutions, teachers or future researchers
involved with the project. It is not an obligation to recommend, but it helps to give
importance to your research. It makes the research essential to the reality where it
has taken place. Be realistic when recommending. Recommend something
possible and give examples when doing so. Here is an example of how a schema
of a recommendation should look:
5.2 Recommendations
Students should:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Teachers should:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
Future researchers should
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

11

Bibliography
Scribano, A., & Zacaras, E. (2007). Introduccin a la Investigacin Cualitativa. San Salvador:
General Gerardo Barrios.
Sewell, M. (15 de Julio de 2016). THE USE OF QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS IN EVALUATION. Obtenido
de THE USE OF QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS IN EVALUATION:
http://ag.arizona.edu/sfcs/cyfernet/cyfar/Intervu5.htm
Turabian, K. L. (2007). A Manual for Wirters of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Villeda de Trigueros, R. L., & Hidalgo Sandoval, J. F. (2017). Las Competencias Educativas de los
Estudinates de Nuevo Ingreso de las Distintas Universidades del Departamento de Santa
Ana. Santa Ana: UES.
Zakiya Q., A.-B. (15 de Julio de 2016). Qualitative Research and its Uses in Health Care. Obtenido
de Qualitative Research and its Uses in Health Care:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3087733/

12