UNIT

SPARK IGNITION ENGINES

Air-fuel Requirement in SI Engines

The spark-ignition automobile engines run on a mixture of gasoline and air. The
amount of mixture the engine can take in depends upon following major factors:
(i) Engine displacement.
(ii) Maximum revolution per minute (rpm) of engine.
(iii) Volumetric efficiency of engine.
There is a direct relationship between an engines air flow and its fuel requirement.
This relationship is called the air-fuel ratio.

Air-fuel Ratios
The air-fuel ratio is the proportions by weight of air and gasoline mixed by the
carburettor as required for combustion by the engine. This ratio is extremely
important for an engine because there are limits to how rich (with more fuel) or how
lean (with less fuel) it can be, and still remain fully combustible for efficient firing.
The mixtures with which the engine can operate range from 8:1 to 18.5:1 i.e. from 8
kg of air/kg of fuel to 18.5 kg of air/kg of fuel. Richer or leaner air-fuel ratio limit
causes the engine to misfire, or simply refuse to run at all.

Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio

The ideal mixture or ratio at which all the fuels blend with all of the oxygen in the air
and be completely burned is called the stoichiometric ratio, a chemically perfect
combination. In theory, an air fuel ratio of about 14.7:1 i.e. 14.7 kg of air/kg of
gasoline produce this ratio, but the exact ratio at which perfect mixture and complete
combustion take place depends on the molecular structure of gasoline, which can
vary somewhat.

Engine Air-fuel Ratios

An automobile SI engine, as indicated above, works with the air-fuel mixture
ranging from 8:1 to 18.5:1. But the ideal ratio would be one that provides both the
maximum power and the best economy, while producing the least emissions. But
such a ratio does not exist because the fuel requirements of an engine vary widely

depending upon temperature, load, and speed conditions. The best fuel economy is
obtained with a 15:1 to 16:1 ratio, while maximum power output is achieved with a
12.5:1 to 13.5:1 ratio. A rich mixture in the order of 11:1 is required for idle heavy
load, and high-speed conditions. A lean mixture is required for normal cruising and
light load conditions. Figure 9.36 represents the characteristic curves showing the
effect of mixture ratio on efficiency and fuel consumption.

Fig. 9.36. Effect of air-fuel ratio on efficiency and fuel consumption.

Practically for complete combustion, through mixing of the fuel in excess air (to a
limited extent above that of the ideal condition) is needed. Lean mixtures are used to
obtain best economy through minimum fuel consumption whereas rich mixtures
used to suppress combustion knock and to obtain maximum power from the engine.
However, improper distribution of mixture to each cylinder and
imperfect/incomplete vaporization of fuel in air necessitates the use of rich mixture
to obtain maximum power output. A rich mixture is also required to overcome the
effect of dilution of incoming mixture due to entrapped exhaust gases in the cylinder
and of air leakage because of the high vacuum in the manifold, under idling or noload condition. Maximum power is desired at full load while best economy is
expected at part throttle conditions. Thus required air fuel ratios result from
maximum economy to maximum power. The carburettor must be able to vary the
air-fuel ratio quickly to provide the best possible mixture for the engines
requirements
at
a
given
moment.
The best air-fuel ratio for one engine may not be the best ratio for another, even when
the two engines are of the same size and design. To accurately determine the best
mixture, the engine should be run on a dynamometer to measure speed, load and

power
requirements
for
all
types
of
driving
conditions.
With a slightly rich mixture, the combustion flame travels faster and conversely with
a slightly weak mixture, the flame travel becomes slower. If a very rich mixture is
used then some neat petrol enters cylinder, washes away lubricant from cylinder
walls and gets past piston to contaminate engine oil. A very sooty deposit occurs in
the combustion chamber. On the other hand, if an engine runs on an excessively
weak mixture, then overheating particularly of such parts as valves, pistons and
spark plugs occurs. This causes detonation and pre-ignition together or separately.

The approximate proportions of air to petrol (by weight) suitable for the different
operating conditions are indicated below:
Starting
9:
Idling
12 :
Acceleration12 :
Economy 16:
Full power 12 :

1
1
1
1
1

It makes no difference if an engine is carburetted or fuel injected, the engine still

needs the same air-fuel mixture ratios.

Carburetion
Introduction
Spark-ignition engines normally use volatile liquid fuels. Preparation of fuel-air
mixture is done outside the engine cylinder and formation of a homogeneous
mixture is normally not completed in the inlet manifold. Fuel droplets, which remain
in suspension, continue to evaporate and mix with air even during suction and
compression processes. The process of mixture preparation is extremely important
for spark-ignition engines. The purpose of carburetion is to provide a combustible
mixture of fuel and air in the required quantity and quality for efficient operation of
the engine under all conditions.

Definition of Carburetion

The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by mixing the proper

amount of fuel with air before admission to engine cylinder is called carburetion and
the device which does this job is called a carburetor.

Requirements of an automotive carburetor

The spark ignition engines fitted to automotive vehicles have to operate under
variable speed and load conditions. These engines present the most difficult and
stringent requirements to the carburetors. They are as follows:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Ease of starting the engine, particularly under low ambient conditions.

Ability to give full power quickly after starting the engine.
Equally good and smooth engine operation at various loads.
Good and quick acceleration of the engine.
Developing sufficient power at high engine speeds.
Simple and compact in construction.
Good fuel economy.
Absence of racing of the engine under idling conditions.
Ensuring full torque at low speeds.

Factors Affecting Carburetion

Of the various factors, the process of carburetion is influenced by
i. The engine speed
ii. The vaporization characteristics of the fuel
iii. The temperature of the incoming air and
iv. The design of the carburetor

Principle of Carburetion
Both air and gasoline are drawn through the carburetor and into the engine cylinders
by the suction created by the downward movement of the piston. This suction is due
to an increase in the volume of the cylinder and a consequent decrease in the gas
pressure in this chamber. It is the difference in pressure between the atmosphere and
cylinder that causes the air to flow into the chamber. In the carburetor, air passing
into the combustion chamber picks up discharged from a tube. This tube has a fine
orifice called carburetor jet that is exposed to the air path. The rate at which fuel is
discharged into the air depends on the pressure difference or pressure head between
the float chamber and the throat of the venturi and on the area of the outlet of the

tube. In order that the fuel drawn from the nozzle may be thoroughly atomized, the
suction effect must be strong and the nozzle outlet comparatively small. In order to
produce a strong suction, the pipe in the carburetor carrying air to the engine is
made to have a restriction. At this restriction called throat due to increase in velocity
of flow, a suction effect is created. The restriction is made in the form of a venturi to
minimize throttling losses. The end of the fuel jet is located at the venturi or throat of
the carburetor. The geometry of venturi tube is as shown in Fig.16.6. It has a
narrower path at the center so that the flow area through which the air must pass is
considerably reduced. As the same amount of air must pass through every point in
the tube, its velocity will be greatest at the narrowest point. The smaller the area, the
greater will be the velocity of the air, and thereby the suction is proportionately
increased
As mentioned earlier, the opening of the fuel discharge jet is usually loped where the
suction is maximum. Normally, this is just below the narrowest section of the venturi
tube. The spray of gasoline from the nozzle and the air entering through the venturi
tube are mixed together in this region and a combustible mixture is formed which
passes through the intake manifold into the cylinders. Most of the fuel gets atomized
and simultaneously a small part will be vaporized. Increased air velocity at the
throat of the venturi helps he rate of evaporation of fuel. The difficulty of obtaining a
mixture of sufficiently high fuel vapour-air ratio for efficient starting of the engine
and for uniform fuel-air ratio indifferent cylinders (in case of multi cylinder engine)
cannot be fully met by the increased air velocity alone at the venturi throat .

The Simple Carburetor

Carburetors are highly complex. Let us first understand the working principle bf a
simple or elementary carburetor that provides an air fuel mixture for cruising or
normal range at a single speed. Later, other mechanisms to provide for the various
special requirements like starting, idling, variable load and speed operation and
acceleration will be included. Figure 3. shows the details of a simple carburetor.

Figure: 3 The Simple Carburetor

The simple carburetor mainly consists of a float chamber, fuel discharge nozzle and a
metering orifice, a venturi, a throttle valve and a choke. The float and a needle valve
system maintain a constant level of gasoline in the float chamber. If the amount of
fuel in the float chamber falls below the designed level, the float goes down, thereby
opening the fuel supply valve and admitting fuel. When the designed level has been
reached, the float closes the fuel supply valve thus stopping additional fuel flow
from the supply system. Float chamber is vented either to the atmosphere or to the
upstream side of the venturi.During suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi.
As already described, venturi is a tube of decreasing cross-section with a
minimum area at the throat, Venturi tube is also known as the choke tube and is so
shaped that it offers minimum resistance to the air flow. As the air passes through
the venturi the velocity increases reaching a maximum at the venturi throat.
Correspondingly, the pressure decreases reaching a minimum. From the float
chamber, the fuel is fed to a discharge jet, the tip of which is located in the throat of
the venturi. Because of the differential pressure between the float chamber and the
throat of the venturi, known as carburetor depression, fuel is discharged into the air
stream. The fuel discharge is affected by the size of the discharge jet and it is chosen
to give the required air-fuel ratio. The pressure at the throat at the fully open throttle
condition lies between 4 to 5 cm of Hg, below atmospheric and seldom exceeds8 cm
Hg below atmospheric. To avoid overflow of fuel through the jet, the level of the
liquid in the float chamber is maintained at a level slightly below the tip of the

discharge jet. This is called the tip of the nozzle. The difference in the height between
the top of the nozzle and the float chamber level is marked h in Fig.3.
The gasoline engine is quantity governed, which means that when power
output is to be varied at a particular speed, the amount of charge delivered to the
cylinder is varied. This is achieved by means of a throttle valve usually of the
butterfly type that is situated after the venturi tube. As the throttle is closed less air
flows through the venturi tube and less is the quantity of air-fuel mixture delivered
to the cylinder and hence power output is reduced. As the throttle is opened, more
air flows through the choke tube resulting in increased quantity of mixture being
delivered to the engine. This increases the engine power output. A simple carburetor
of the type described above suffers from a fundamental drawback in that it provides
the required A/F ratio only at one throttle position. At the other throttle positions
the mixture is either leaner or richer depending on whether the throttle is opened
less or more. As the throttle opening is varied, the air flow varies and creates a
certain pressure differential between the float chamber and the venturi throat. The
same pressure differential regulates the flow of fuel through the nozzle. Therefore,
the velocity of flow of air II and fuel vary in a similar manner. At the same time, the
density I of air decrease as the pressure at the venturi throat decrease with
increasing air flow whereas that of the fuel remains unchanged. This results in a
simple carburetor producing a progressively rich mixture with increasing throttle
opening.

The Choke and the Throttle

When the vehicle is kept stationary for a long period during cool winter seasons,
may be overnight, starting becomes more difficult. As already explained, at low
cranking speeds and intake temperatures a very rich mixture is required to initiate
combustion. Some times air-fuel ratio as rich as 9:1 is required. The main reason is
that very large fraction of the fuel may remain as liquid suspended in air even in the
cylinder. For initiating combustion, fuel-vapour and air in the form of mixture at a
ratio that can sustain combustion is required. It may be noted that at very low
temperature vapour fraction of the fuel is also very small and this forms combustible
mixture to initiate combustion. Hence, a very rich mixture must be supplied. The
most popular method of providing such mixture is by the use of choke valve. This is
simple butterfly valve located between the entrance to the carburetor and the venturi
throat as shown in Fig.3.
When the choke is partly closed, large pressure drop occurs at the venturi
throat that would normally result from the quantity of air passing through the
venturi throat. The very large depression at the throat inducts large amount of fuel
from the main nozzle and provides a very rich mixture so that the ratio of the

evaporated fuel to air in the cylinder is within the combustible limits. Sometimes, the
choke valves are spring loaded to ensure that large carburetor depression and
excessive choking does not persist after the engine has started, and reached a desired
speed. This choke can be made to operate automatically by means of a thermostat so
that the choke is closed when engine is cold and goes out of operation when engine
warms up after starting. The speed and the output of an engine is controlled by the
use of the throttle valve, which is located on the downstream side of the venturi.
The more the throttle is closed the greater is the obstruction to the flow of the
mixture placed in the passage and the less is the quantity of mixture delivered to .the
cylinders. The decreased quantity of mixture gives a less powerful impulse to the
pistons and the output of the engine is reduced accordingly. As the throttle is
opened, the output of the engine increases. Opening the throttle usually increases the
speed of the engine. But this is not always the case as the load on the engine is also a
factor. For example, opening the throttle when the motor vehicle is starting to climb a
hill may or may not increase the vehicle speed, depending upon the steepness of the
hill and the extent of throttle opening. In short, the throttle is simply a means to
regulate the output of the engine by varying the quantity of charge going into the
cylinder.

Stages of Combustion in SI Engine

In a spark-ignition engine a sufficiently homogeneous mixture of vaporized fuel, air
and residual gases is ignited by a single intense and high temperature spark between
the spark plug electrodes (at the moment of discharge the temperature of electrodes
exceeds 10,000C), leaving behind a thin thread of flame. From this thin thread
combustion spreads to the envelop of mixture immediately surrounding it at a rate
which depends primarily upon the temperature of the flame front itself and to a
secondary degree, upon both the temperature and the density of the surrounding
envelope. In this manner there grows up, gradually at first, a small hollow nucleus of
flame, much in the manner of a soap bubble. If the contents of the cylinder were at
rest, this flame bubble would expand with steadily increasing speed until extended
throughout the whole mass. In the actual engine cylinder, however, the mixture is
not at rest. It is, in fact, in a highly turbulent condition the turbulence breaks the
filament of flame into a ragged front, thus presenting a far greater surface area from
which heat is radiated; hence its advance is speeded up enormously. The rate at
which the flame front travels is dependent primarily on the degree of turbulence, but
its general direction of/movement, that of radiating outward from the ignition point,
is not much affected. According to Ricardo the combustion can be imagined as if
developing in two stages, one the growth and development of a semi propagating
nucleus of flame called ignition lag or preparation phase, and the other, the spread of
the flame throughout the combustion chamber [see Fig. 9].

Figure: 9. Stages of combustion in SI engine

The former is a chemical process depending upon the nature of the fuel, upon
temperature and pressure, the proportion of the exhaust gas, and also upon the
temperature coefficient of the fuel, that is, the relationship between temperature and
rate of acceleration of oxidation or burning. The second stage is a mechanical one
pure and simple. The two stages are not entirely distinct, since the nature and
velocity of combustion change gradually. The starting point of the second stage is
where first measurable rise of pressure can be seen on the indicator diagram, i.e., the
point where the line of combustion departs from the compression line. In Fig.
14.2(b), A shows the point of passage of spark - (say 28 before TDC), B the point at
which the first rise of pressure can be detected (say, 8before TDC) and C the
attainment of peak pressure. Thus AB represents the first stage (about 20 crank
angle rotation) and BC the second stage. Although the point C makes the completion
of the flame travel, it does not follow that at this point the whole of the heat of the
fuel has been liberated, for even after the passage of the flame, some further chemical
adjustments due to re-association, etc., and what is generally referred to as after
burning, will to a greater or less degree continue throughout the expansion stroke.
The first stage AB, by analogy with diesel engines is called ignition lag, which label
is wrong in principle. In spark ignition there is practically no ignition lag and a
nucleus of combustion arises instantaneously near the spark plug electrodes. But
during the initial period flame front spreads very slowly and the fraction of burnt
mixture is small so that an increase of pressure cannot be detected on the indicator
diagram. The increase of pressure maybe just one per cent of maximum combustion
pressure corresponding to burning of about 1.5per cent of the working mixture, and
the volume occupied by the combustion products may be about 5 per cent of the
combustion chamber space.

The stage II is the main stage of combustion. The end of second stage is taken as the
moment at which maximum pressure is reached in the indicator diagram (see Fig. 9).
However, combustion does not terminate at this point and after burning continues
for a rather long time near the walls and behind the turbulent flame front. The
combustion rate in the stage III reduces, due to surface of the flame front becoming
smaller and reduction in turbulence. About 10 per cent or more of heat is evolved in
the after-burning stage and hence the temperature of the gases continues to increase
to point D in Fig.9. However, the pressure reduces because the decrease in pressure
due to expansion of gases and transfer of heat to walls is more than the increase in
pressure due to combustion.

Effect of Engine Variables on Flame Propagation

A study of the variables which affect the flame propagation velocity is
important because the flame velocity influences the rate of pressure rise in the
cylinder, and has bearing or certain types of abnormal combustion.
There are several factors which affect the flame speed, the most important being fuelair ratio and turbulence.
1. Fuel-air ratio: The composition of the working mixture influences the rate of
combustion and the amount of heat evolved. With hydrocarbon fuels the maximum
flame velocities occur when mixture strength is 110% of stoichiometric (i.e., about
10% richer than stoichiometric). When the mixture is made leaner or is enriched and
still more, the velocity of flame diminishes. Lean mixtures release less thermal
energy resulting in lower flame temperature and flame speed. Very rich mixtures
have incomplete combustion (some carbon only burns to CO and not to CO2) that
results in production of less thermal energy and hence flame speed is again low.
2. Compression Ratio: A higher compression ratio increases the pressure and
temperature of the working mixture and decreases the concentration of residual
gases. These favorable conditions reduce the ignition lag of combustion and hence
less ignition advance is needed. High pressures and temperatures of the compressed
mixture also speed up the second phase of combustion. Total ignition angle is
reduced. Maximum pressure and indicated mean effective pressure are increased..
Lastly, use of a higher compression ratio increases the surface to volume ratio of the
combustion chamber, thereby increasing the part of the mixture which after-burns in
the third phase. The increase in compression ratio results in increase in temperature
that increases the tendency of the engine to detonate.

3. Intake temperature and pressure: Increase in intake temperature and pressure

increases the flame speed.
4. Engine load: With increase in engine load the cycle pressures increase. Hence the
flame speed increases. In SI engines with decrease in load, throttling reduces power
of an engine. Due to throttling the initial and final compression pressures decrease
and the dilution of the working mixture due to residual gases increases. This makes
the smooth development of self propagating nucleus of flame difficult and unsteady
and prolongs the ignition lag. The difficulty can be overcome to a certain extent by
enriching the mixture at low loads (0.8 to 0.9of stoichiometric) but still it is difficult to
avoid after-burning during a substantial part of expansion stroke. In fact, poor
combustion at low loads and the necessity of mixture enrichment are among the
main disadvantages of spark ignition engines which cause wastage of fuel and
discharges of a large amount of products of incomplete combustion like carbon
monoxide and other poisonous substances.
5. Turbulence: Turbulence plays a very vital role in combustion phenomenon. The
flame speed is very low in non-turbulent mixtures. A turbulent motion of the
mixture intensifies the processes of heat transfer and mixing of the burned and
unburned portions in the flame front (diffusion). These two factors cause the velocity
of turbulent flame to increase practically in proportion to the turbulence velocity. The
turbulence of the mixture is due to admission of fuel-air mixture through
comparatively narrow sections of the intake pipe, valves, etc. in the suction stroke.
The turbulence can be increased at the end of the compression by suitable design of
combustion chamber that involves the geometry of cylinder head and piston crown.
The degree of turbulence increases directly with the piston speed. If there is no
turbulence the time occupied by each explosion would be so great as to make the
high speed internal combustion engines impracticable. Insufficient turbulence lowers
the efficiency due to incomplete combustion of the fuel. However, excessive
turbulence is also undesirable.
6. Engine Speed: The higher the engine speed, the greater the turbulence inside the
cylinder. For this reason the flame speed increases almost linearly with engine speed.
Thus if the engine speed is doubled the time required, in milliseconds, for the flame
to traverse the combustion space would be halved. Double the original speed arid
hence half the original time would give the same number of crank degrees for flame
propagation. The crank angle required for the flame propagation, which is the main
phase of combustion, will remain almost constant at all speeds. This is an important
characteristic of spark ignition engines. However, the increase in engine speed would
lead to ignition advance due to the first phase of combustion. This can be illustrated
with a numerical example. Consider a petrol engine running at 1500rpm. Let us say
for the first stage of combustion the ignition lag, the time required in terms of crank

angle, is 8 of crank rotation, and for the second stage, the propagation of flame
through the combustion space, 12oofcrank rotation is required. Thus the total
ignition period is 20of crank rotation. Now if the engine speed is doubled from 1500
to 3000 rpm, the time required for the second stage will again be 12 of crank rotation
(due to doubling of turbulence intensity time in milliseconds is halved and in terms
of crank angle remains constant), but for the first stage time in milliseconds is
constant and hence in terms of crank angle it will be doubled, i.e., it would be
16.This would make the total ignition period of 16 + 12 = 28 crank rotation at
3000rpm compared to 8 + 12= 20 at .1500 rpm. From this it follows that with
increase in engine speed ignition must be advanced. This is done in practice by
automatic ignition advance mechanism.
7. Engine size: Engines of similar design generally run at the same piston speed. This
is achieved by smaller engines having larger rpm and larger engines having smaller
rpm. Due to the same piston speed, the inlet velocity, the degree of turbulence, and
flame speed are nearly same in similar engines regardless of the size. However, in
small engines the flame travel is small and in large engines large. Therefore, if the
engine size is doubled the time required (in milliseconds) for propagation of flame
through combustion space will also be doubled. But with lower rpm of larger
engines the time for flame propagation in terms of crank angle would be nearly same
as in smaller engines. In other words the number of crank degrees required for flame
travel will be about the same irrespective of engine size, provided the engines are
similar.

Rate of Pressure Rise

The rate of pressure rise is a very important aspect of flame development from
engine design and operation point of view. It considerably influences the maximum
cylinder pressure, the power produced and the smooth running of the engine. The
rate or pressure rise depends on the mass rate of combustion of the mixture in the
cylinder. Fig. 10 shows pressure-crank
angle diagrams for three different
combustion rates. One is for a high, the second for the usual and the third for a low
rate of combustion

Figure: 10. Relationship b/w pressure and crank angle for different rates of
combustion
It is clear from the figure that with lower rates of combustion longer time is required
for combustion that necessitates the initiation of burning at an earlier point on the
compression stroke. With higher rates of burning the time required for combustion is
smaller and the rate of pressure rise is higher. Also, the peak pressure produced is
close to TDC, which is desirable because it produces greater force acting through a
large portion of the power stroke. But peak pressure and hence peak temperature too
close to TDC gives a long time for rapid heat loss from the cylinder. The higher rate
of pressure rise causes rough running of the engine because of vibrations and jerks
produced in crankshaft. If the rate of pressure rise is very high it results in abnormal
combustion called detonation. In practice the engine is so designed that
approximately one-half of the pressure rise takes place as the piston reaches TDC.
This results in peak pressure and temperature 10 to 15 after TDC. In this way very
small portion of the expansion stroke is-lost and the gain is smooth engine operation
and saving an appreciable period of time during which loss of heat is rapid. In the
old engines with low compression ratios of 5 to 6 a rate of pressure rise of 2 bar per
crank degree used to be thought as optimum. Today with higher compression ratios
of the order of 8 to 9, a rate of pressure rise of 3 to 4 bar per crank degree may be
employed if the engine mountings are sufficiently stiff and efficient.

Gasoline Combustion
Vaporization of the hydrocarbons in gasoline and start of decomposition take place
at temperatures below 593 K, which exist in the combustion chamber before the
initiation of ignition. The products of combustion are mostly gases containing a large
quantity of heat. The heat energy increases the gas pressure in the combustion

chamber to produce the force on the engine piston, required to operate the
engine.The liquid gasoline must be converted to a vapour to burn in an engine. In
carburetted engines vaporization of the gasoline must be done in one-third of a
second at idle speeds and in one-thirtieth of a second at normal operating speeds. In
fuel injected engines this must occur much faster. The carburettor during the process
of mixing liquid fuel and air supports the vaporization process by breaking the
liquid gasoline into sudsy foam that rapidly mixes with the air. The molecules of fuel
and the molecules of oxygen in the air must combine in correct numbers. At sea level
the air being dense a relatively small quantity is required for a given amount of
gasoline. The air becomes less dense at high altitudes and at high atmospheric
temperatures due to which the same volume of air contains a smaller number of
oxygen molecules causing the air-fuel mixture to become richer in fuel. This causes
problem on some emission controlled engines requiring leaner carburetor settings on
automobiles used in the mountains than those used at sea level. Since automobiles
are frequently operated in both mountains and at sea level, carburetors are provided
with altitude compensation devices to prevent over-rich mixtures at high elevations.

When the charge is trapped in the combustion chamber, the molecules of oxygen in
the air come into close contact with the hydrocarbon molecules of the gasoline. This
causes rapid burning. A litre of gasoline if completely burned produces nearly a litre
of water as well as sulphur dioxide in an amount dependent on the sulphur content
in the gasoline. As the water is in a vapour form at normal operating temperatures it
leaves the cylinder as a part of exhaust gas. When the engine is first started in cold
weather condensed water vapour is visible in the exhaust. Condensed moisture with
sulphur dioxide produces the acidic water, which is corrosive. During low
temperature operating conditions such as suburban driving when the engine is cold,
much of the moisture is condensed inside the engine. The combination of corrosion
and wear under these conditions is the major reason for excessive wear of the top
ring area of the cylinder wall.

Normal Combustion
In a SI engine a homogeneous air-fuel mixture within the combustible range sustains
the progress of a definite flame front across the combustion chamber, and
combustion takes place in any location where fuel particle exists. In a CI engine, on
the other hand, the air-fuel ratios in the various part of the chamber very widely, so
no definite flame front is evident, and hence combustion occurs in many locations
within
the
chamber.
A spark plug ignites the charge in the combustion chamber near the end of the

compression stroke. The spark, produced across the spark plug electrodes at the
correct time, must have sufficient energy to raise the gas temperature between the
electrodes at a point so that the charge burning becomes self-sustaining. From this
point, a flame front moves smoothly across the combustion. The flame front
movement during normal combustion is illustrated in Fig. 8.6. Burning of charge
takes place during approximately fifty degrees of crankshaft rotation due to which
maximum force is exerted on the crankshaft. Actual combustion is much more
complex and the combustion gases pass through many phases during the
combustion process. For better understanding, the combustion is divided into two
phases
i.e.
pre-flame
reactions,
and
combustion.
As the gases are compressed and the temperature rises, pre-flame chemical reactions
take place in the compressed charge thereby changing the character of the
charge.These
pre-flame
reactions
prepare
the
charge
for
burning.
As ignition takes place, depending upon combustion chamber turbulence the flame
front moves out in a modified spherical fashion. The heat energy released behind the
flame front increases combustion chamber pressure and temperature. Due to higher
combustion chamber pressure and temperature the pre-flame reactions are increased
in a portion of the charge, called the end gases, which remain ahead of the flame
front. Pre-flame reactions increase more rapidly at higher engine compression ratios.
If pre-flame reactions become too rapid, abnormal combustion takes place.

Abnormal Combustion
Abnormal combustion may be divided into two main types i.e. knock or detonation
and surface ignition. Each of these types causes loss of power and excessive
temperature. Continued operation under either type of abnormal combustion gives
rise to physical damage of the engine.

Detonation.
Engine knock or detonation is the out come of rapid pre-flame reactions within the
highly stressed end gases. Due to the too rapid reactions spontaneous ignition of the
end gases takes place as shown in Fig. 8.7. This causes very rapid combustion within
the end gases, accompanied by high-frequency pressure waves. These waves hit the

combustion chamber walls; as a result vibration noise sets which is called knock or
detonation.

Detonation is affected by
(i) compression ratio,
(ii) the temperature and pressure at the end of compression, (Hi) the temperature of
combustion chamber wall,
(iv) engine speed,
(v) fuel mixture strength,
(vi) combustion chamber shape,
(vii) the type of fuel,
(viii) ignition timing,
(ix) position of spark plug, and
(x) position of exhaust valve.

Fig. 8.6. Flame front movement during normal combustion.

Fig. 8.7. Flame front movement during detonation.

The tendency of an engine to knock with a given fuel can be suppressed by lowering
either combustion pressure or temperature, or both ; or by reducing the time the end
gases are subjected to high pressures and temperatures. Also, using a fuel, which is
less susceptible to rapid pre-flame reactions, reduces the tendency to knock. Octane
rating is a measure of the anti-knock properties of a fuel. A fuel, which has high antiknock characteristics, has a high octane rating.

Compression ratio has predominant effects on compression pressure. With the

increase of compression pressure the output power of an engine increases. This is
due to the higher combustion pressures, which are produced. High combustion
pressures, however, increase the knock tendency. Fuels with high antiknock
properties are used in higher-compression ratio engines to run engine knock-free
while developing increased power. Lower compression ratios are used in lowemission engines so that they can run knock-free on low-octane unleaded gasoline.

Combustion chamber design also affects knock tendency. If combustion chambers

end gases are in a squash or quench area, the engine has low knocking tendencies.
This happens, as the
end gases are thin and close to a cool metal surface. Cooling the gases reduces and

slows the end gas pre-flame reactions, thereby decreasing the engine knock
tendency. This quenching of end gases is the main reason for a rotating combustion
chamber engine to run knock-free on low octane gasoline.
Combustion chamber turbulence, as illustrated in Fig. 8.8, also helps to reduce
knocking tendency by mixing cool and hot gases, thus preventing a concentration of
static hot end gases where rapid pre-flame reactions can take place.

Fig. 8.8. End gases cooled in the quench area.

Fig. 8.9. Flame front movement during pre-ignition.

The detonation can be reduced by
(a) decreasing the combustion pressure and temperature,
(b) reducing the time the end gases are subjected to high pressures and
temperatures,
(c) the use of fuel with a high octane number,
(d) proper design of combustion chamber where end gases are in a squash or quench
area, and
(e) increasing combustion chamber turbulence.

Surface Ignition.
Surface ignition or secondary ignition, an abnormal combustion, starts at any source
of ignition other than the spark plug. This is illustrated in Fig. 8.9. As surface ignition
produces a secondary ignition source, its effect is to complete the combustion
process sooner than normal, thereby developing maximum pressure at a wrong time
in the engine cycle producing less power.

One potential source of secondary ignition is a hot spot, such as a spark plug
electrode, a protruding gasket, a sharp valve edge, etc. These items can become
extremely hot during engine operation forming a second source of ignition. These

sources rarely occur in modern engine designs provided the engines are properly
maintained. Another source of secondary ignition is combustion chamber deposits,
which result from the type of fuel and oil used in the engine as well as from the type
of operation of the engine. A deposit ignition source may be a hot loose deposit flake
capable
of
igniting
one
charge
before
it
is
exhausted
from the engine with the spent exhaust gases. This is called wild ping. Sometimes,
the flake remains attached to the combustion chamber wall. Under this situation, it
ignites successive charges until the deposit is consumed or the engine operating
conditions
are
changed.
When surface ignition occurs before firing of the spark plug, it is called pre-ignition.
It may be audible or inaudible. It may be a wild ping or it may be a continuous
runaway surface ignition. If it occurs after the ignition is turned off, it is called runon or dieseling. Another phenomenon resulting from pre-ignition is engine rumble.
Rumble is a low-frequency vibration of the lower part of the engine that occurs when
the maximum pressure is reached earlier than normal in the cycle. Rumble has been
almost
eliminated
from
modern
engines.
The knock-resistant fuels and antiknock additives generally tend to increase
combustion chamber deposits thereby increasing the tendency to cause surface
ignition. Fuel manufacturers therefore, use additional additives in the gasoline to
reduce the deposit ignition tendency resulting from the antiknock additives
deposits. Abnormal combustion seldom occurs in modern mass-produced
automotive engines provided the recommended grade of fuel and motor oil is used
and the engine is maintained and adjusted correctly. Some problems may exist in
engines that are used exclusively for low-speed, short-trip driving. Abnormal
combustion frequently occurs in engines modified for maximum performance and
also some in emission controlled engines.

Preignition
Ignition of air fuel mixture by some hot spot which exists within the
combustion chamber, before the occurrence of spark is called preignition.
In a spark ignition engine, the spark that jumps across the terminals of the
spark plug initiates combustion. Similarly if there is any other hot source in the
combustion chamber it will heat up the air fuel mixture surrounding it. Then
preflame reaction will certainly be accelerated by this hot spot. The hot spot may
activate. The charge in its immediate vicinity and produce a flame. The flame may
then propagate from this point before the occurrence of spark. Preignition
combustion can be seen in fig.

As indicated under surface ignition, carbon deposit from fuel or oil, an over
heated spark plug center electrode or the edge of the gasket that protrudes into the
combustion chamber can act as a hot spot and cause preignition. An overheated
exhaust valve head or edge can cause preigniton. Using unsuitable type spark plug
(one that runs too hot or has a long reach) or igniton timing too far retarded or
mixture too weak or rich which gives too slow a burning rate may also cause
preigniton. The minimum tendency to preignite exists at fuel air ratios usually richer
than the chemically correct. Tetra ethyl lead which is added to a fuel to increase its
antiknock characteristics also reduces the tendency to preignite.

The amount of charge that burns instantaneously due to preigniton depends

upon the surface area of the hot spot and the temperature of the hot spot. When a
considerable amount of charge burns, steep pressure rise and pressure pulsation
may occur. A knock, metallic sound will be heard.

Different abnormal combustion that may take place in a SI engine

The definitions that follow the spirit of the CRC report 278, SAE special
publication are as follows:Knock The noise associated with autoignition of a portion of the mixture ahead of a
flame front advancing at normal velocity (whether or not surface ignition is present).
Normal combustion - Combustion initiated by a timed spark, with the flame front
moving in a uniform manner at a normal velocity, without auto ignition.

Abnormal combustion Combustion with surface ignition (phosphorous additives

to the gasoline are used for control of surface ignition and spark plug fouling).
Spark knock Recurrent knock which can be controlled in intensity (or eliminated)
by adjusting the spark advance.
Surface ignition Initiation of a flame front by a hot surface other than the spark.
Pre-ignition Surface ignition occurring before the spark.
Post ignition Surface ignition occurring after the spark.
Wild ping Erratic pings or sharp cracks (probably as the result of early surface
ignition from deposit particles)
Rumble A low pitched thud (probably caused by multiple, early, surface ignition
raising the pressure greatly with consequent deflection of mechanical parts).
Effects of combustion knock The auto ignitions of the charge, steep pressure rise
which sets up pressure wave, vibration of the gas and increased heat transfer to the
cylinder walls, piston and other engine components during knocking combustion
may result in the following:
1. Reduction in power output and efficiency.
2. Burning of piston crown due to increased temperature or due to blow by of
very hot gases past the piston rings from the piston top to the crankcase.
3. The impact of the high pressure wave that is set up might even fracture the
piston crown.
4. Burning of cylinder head and valve head.
5. Gumming of piston rings in the piston grooves leading to ring sticking.
6. Loosening of valve seat inserts in the cylinder head.
7. Erosion of piston head may occur at the position of the end mixture. The
eroded surface has the appearance of being blasted and not melted.
Operating conditions causing detonation
The following are some of the operating conditions which may cause detonation in
an engine.
1. Slow burning lean air fuel mixture supplied by faulty carburetor or fuel
injector, fuel pump, blocked fuel filter or fuel line, vacuum leak at higher

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

engine speeds caused by bad positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) valve or

exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valve.
Gasoline with low octane or anti clock rating. This is more common with
unleaded gasoline.
Carbon deposits increasing compression ratio. This is the result of lubricating
oil entering the cylinders or poor detergent action of gasoline.
Engine operating at above normal temperature due to low coolant level or
circulation, water jacket blockage in the head.
Ignition timing very much advanced due to improper setting of initial ignition
timing, inaccurate distribution or advance curve etc.
Bad rings and / or valve seals allowing oil (low octane hydrocarbon) to be
burned in the cylinders.
Air cleaner clogged, which allows too much hot exhaust gas to remain in the
engine cylinder.
Excessive turbocharger boost pressure from a bad pressure limiting valve.

Ways and means of knock reduction

Investigations indicate that one or more of the following factors will decrease the
possibility of knock in the SI engine.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Decreasing the compression ratio or reducing the inlet pressure.

Decreasing inlet air temperature.
Decreasing coolant inlet temperature.
Decreasing temperature of the cylinder and combustion chamber walls or part
opening of the throttle (decreasing the load).
5. Retarding spark timing.
6. Decreasing the distance of flame travel in order to complete combustion
within a shorter period.
7. Increasing the turbulence of the mixture and thus increasing the flame speed.
8. Increasing the engine speed, thus increasing the speed (movement) of the
mixture and decreasing the time available for preflame reactions.
9. Increasing octane rating of the fuel.
10. Supplying rich or lean mixtures.
11. Stratifying the mixtures so that the end gas is less reactive.
12. Increasing the humidity of the entering air.

Increase in variable

Major effect on
unburned reduce charge

Action to be taken
to Knocking

Compression ratio

Increases temperature
and pressure

reduce

Mass of charge
induced

Increase pressure

Reduce

Inlet temperature

Increases temperature

Reduce

Chamber wall
temperature

Increases temperature

Reduce

Spark advance

Increases temperature &

pressure

Retard

A / F ratio

Increases temperature &

pressure

Make very rich

Turbulence

Decreases time factor

Increases

Engine speed

Decreases time factor

Increases

Distance of flame travel

Increases time factor

Reduce

Types of combustion chambers

Combustion chamber shape depends principally upon the valve arrangement,
piston head and combustion chamber contours. Different types of combustion
chambers such as T head, L head, F head, L head turbulent, valve in head, valve in
head with inclined valves have been tried and used by different engine
manufacturers. These can be seen in figure.

The T head design stipulates the use of the lowest compression ratios to
prevent knocking with a given fuel. F head design is an improvement over the T
head. In this the inlet valves are located in the cylinder head and the exhaust valves
are located in the cylinder or vice versa. This improves the volumetric efficiency and
also reduces the width of the combustion chambers. T head design stipulates two
camshafts one operating the inlet valves and the other operating the exhaust valves.
F head and other designs can have a single camshaft operating all the valves.
However, F head design presents difficulties in the design of the valve operating
mechanism.
Overhead valve designs result in higher volumetric efficiency. These may have
a single camshaft located by the side of the cylinder operating the valves through
tappets, push rods and rocker arms, or a single camshaft located in the cylinder head
and operating the valves through rocker arms or a single camshaft located in the
cylinder head and operating the valves directly.
In the turbulent combustion chamber, very small clearance is provided
between the piston crown and the cylinder head over a portion of the piston crown
surface. This causes squish turbulence in the mixture, better mixing of fuel and air
and improves combustion. Further, this narrow space when made to contain the end
mixture, knocking is avoided because of better cooling. Even if knock occurs its
severity will be lesser. This feature was incorporated in the General Motors Research
combustion chamber and this permitted the use of a 12.5:1 compression ratio with
100 ON fuel. This principle was also incorporated in the Ricardo turbulent
combustion chamber.