Opflow

practical ideas for water operators

Distribution

PIPE Repair:
CFRP to the rescue
Treatment

Optimize spent-filter
backwash water

Online Tools

database delivers
contaminant resources

Taste and Odor Control

reservoir circulation
reduces geosmin

volume 34, no. 11

N ove m b e r 2008

Distribution

Shah Rahman is vice president,

Pipelines Division, Fibrwrap Construction
(www.fibrwrapconstruction.com), Ontario, Calif.

Technology is helping utilities locate water main breaks, estimate damage, and
repair specific sections quickly and cost-effectively.

BY SHAH RAHMAN

DONT STRESS OVER

PRESTRESSED CONCRETE CYLINDER

PIPE FAILURES

ARBON FIBER-REINFORCED poly-

201 in. (about 17 ft). Pipe retrofits can also be

mers (CFRPs) have been used to

performed externally.

structurally rehabilitate steel and

CFRP composites used in strengthening applica-

concrete structures in North America

tions are additional tension members that bond to

for more than two decades. Using these advanced

and supplement the strength of an existing rein-

bridges, buildings, waterfront piers, industrial

of high-tensile strength combined with a resin

facilities, and many other civil works structures

matrix. Several thousand carbon fiber filaments

that have been in service for many years. Struc-

are twisted together to form a yarn that can be

tural renewal of large-diameter pressure pipe-

woven or stitched into a fabric (Figure 1). CFRPs

lines also has been performed with CFRPs in

are held together by a resin matrixthe poly-

municipal and industrial facilities for more than

mer component of the CFRP (Figure 2). CFRPs

a decade. The method is typically trenchless and

are high-strength-to-weight ratio materials that are

performed completely inside pipes with diame-

ideal for high-tensile strength, low-weight, and

ters of 30-in. and largereven pipes as large as

low-thermal-expansion applications.

10 Opflow November 2008

www.awwa.org/communications/opflow

PHOTOGRAPHS: FIBRWRAP CONSTRUCTION

composite systems, engineers routinely strengthen forced concrete structure. CFRPs consist of fibers

CFRP repair requires the host pipe to be placed out

of service and dewatered for entry by repair personnel
and manual application of the composite layers.

Distribution

Figure 1. Dry Carbon

Fiber Fabric
Carbon fiber filaments are twisted
together to form a yarn that can be
woven or stitched into a fabric.

The resin matrix serves as a load

path between each fiber filament, making the composite pliable and protecting
the fiber. Epoxy is the most commonly
used resin in strengthening applications. Each epoxy has unique properties
and contributes to a composites unique
strength, stiffness, and other physical/
mechanical properties for engineered
applications.
AWWARF RESEARCH ON PCCP

Most water transmission mains in North

America are large-diameter prestressed
concrete cylinder pipe (PCCP) and steel
pipe. Because these pipes are so large,
their failures can be catastrophic, usually

affecting large populations. According to

a recent Awwa Research Foundation study
on PCCP, Failure of Prestressed Concrete
Cylinder Pipe:
O
Almost 100 million ft (about 19,000 mi)
of PCCP was manufactured between
1940 and 2006.
O
A database of PCCP failures contains
592 independent entries, representing
three categories of failure in 35 states
and the District of Columbia.
O
Within 50 yr of installation, one rupture and 66 other failures occurred for
every 264,000 ft (50 mi) of pipe.
O
A significant increased failure rate
occurred for pipe installed between
1971 and 1979 because of the type
of prestressing wire used during this
period.
O
Half of the recorded catastrophic leaks
and breaks involved pipe manufactured or installed between 1971 and
1979.
In the last decade, electromagnetic
and acoustic technologies have been
developed that can help municipalities
locate and accurately estimate the number of wire breaks in pipe sections. Further analysis of the electromagnetic and
acoustic data helps pipeline owners prioritize rehabilitation initiatives. The ability to precisely isolate and repair specific
deficient pipe sections results in tremendous cost and time savings.

Figure 2. Cross-Sectional View of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced

Polymer Composite
CFRPs are held together by a resin matrixthe polymer component of the CFRP.

Carbon Fiber

Resin Matrix

12 Opflow November 2008

Single Carbon
Fiber Filament

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

When a structurally deficient pipe section

has been identified, it can be repaired
with CFRP. Most pipes rehabilitated with
CFRP have been PCCP, but large-diameter
steel pipes also have been repaired using
this technology.
CFRP repair provides several benefits. The CFRP repair method is trenchless, eliminating the need to dig around or
through surface structures. All components
of the systemfiber, epoxies, tack coats,
primers, and top coatsmust be NSF-61
certified and ideal for potable water applications. The volatile organic compounds
in all CFRP epoxies should be well below
US Environmental Protection Agency
limits and environmentally friendly.
The segmental repair system allows
personnel to repair only a specific pipe
section. Significant time savings result. For
example, 20-ft pipe sections with diameters larger than 66-in. can be rehabilitated
in as little as 72 hr, which is often less time
than is required to remove and replace a
pipe section or for other repair options.
Because one layer of CFRP is only 0.04-in.
thick, pipeline flow losses are negligible.
A typical high-pressure application usually
renders only a - to -in.-thick composite liner. In addition, the CFRP system provides a significantly smoother flow surface
than the host pipe. However, CFRP repair
requires the host pipe to be placed out of
service and dewatered for entry by repair
personnel and manual application of the
composite layers.
SYSTEM DESIGN

CFRP composite systems are linearly

elastic to failure, whereas steel yields
and plastically deforms to failure. When
designing a structural strengthening system, its important to consider stiffness,
strength, and strain. In CFRP liners, elastic modulus and strain limitations control
the systems performance. Inside a PCCP
line, the CFRP liner acts as a barrier that
controls the level of strain experienced
by the steel cylinder in the host pipe. The
www.awwa.org/communications/opflow

In CFRP liners, elastic modulus

and strain limitations control
the systems performance.

composite liner enables the steel cylinder to perform within its elastic range
at or below industry-recommended
levelsto ensure the pipelines longterm performance is maintained.

AWWA-recommended strain limitations are 50 percent and 75 percent

of the steel yield point for operating and
surge conditions, respectively. Consequently, these limits result in low CFRP

STEP BY STEP

INSIDE A CFRP REHABILITATION PROJECT

The wet lay-up carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) process is a method by which the
dry CFRP fabric is saturated in the field with
epoxy resin, then applied internally to full sections/pieces of structurally deficient pipe.
1. Before commencing repairs, assess
the host pipes condition, set up emergency
plans, check for hazardous gases, and set
up ventilation and dehumidification systems.
2. In PCCP lines (2a), use a high-pressure
hydroblasting unit to remove a minimum

1/16-in.

of concrete from the inner core surface. In steel lines (2b), the cementmortar
lining or any other type of internal lining
should be removed first, followed by a further
abrasive treatment of the pipe to white steel.
3. In preparation for the fiber saturation
process, epoxy resins are mixed on-site (3a).
A specially designed saturator is used to saturate measured lengths of 2-ft-wide dry fiber
fabric (3b). When saturation is complete, the
composites must be applied within three hr.

stresses, providing a factor of safety

greater than 5 for the CFRP liner. So when
a composite liner is used, the retrofitted
pipeline will have the ability to address
standard operating and surge pressures
4. After the surface is properly prepared
and the walls have dried, additional repairs
to the concrete surface can be conducted if
necessary. Next, the surface is primed for
application of composite layers.
5. The saturated rolls of composite are
applied to the pipe wall. When the composite
is applied in the circumferential direction, the
pipe is strengthened for hoop stress (5a).
When the composite is applied in the longitudinal direction, some level of resistance to
bending moments is accomplished (5b).
6. A final topcoat further protects the
composite layers.

2a

2b

3a

3b

5a

5b

www.awwa.org/communications/opflow

November 2008 Opflow 13

Distribution

per industry recommendations, but will

also have the ability to control shortterm pressures common to unforeseen
rapid valve closures that result in transient
pressures up to five times operating conditions. Therefore, CFRP-liner designs are
CASE STUDIES

CFRP TO THE RESCUE

Case studies demonstrate that carbon fiberreinforced polymer (CFRP) repair saves time
and money, eliminating the need for large
open-trench repair projects.
Southwest Transmission Main, Maryland. Following a 2006 condition assessment of Marylands Southwest Transmission
Maina PCCP line that serves the city of
Baltimore and Baltimore, Howard, and Anne
Arundel countiesit was determined that
repairs were necessary to avoid future catastrophic failures. Deficiencies identified prestressing wire breaks, longitudinal cracking,
and delamination of the concrete core.
Fully structural CFRP renewal was carried
out on 68 sections of 54-in. and 36-in. pipe,
with internal pressures ranging from 75 psi to
150 psi. Another 19 sections of pipe in Anne
Arundel County with minor circumferential
cracking were stitched with CFRP to prevent
groundwater infiltration through the cracks.
Howard Countys 33 sections of 36-in. pipe
were completed in 23 days. Feasibility studies had shown that traditional repair methods
would have taken four to six mo.
The Southwest Transmission Main
called for internal visual and sounding
inspections before surface preparation
could begin.

14 Opflow November 2008

based on strain compatibility between the

liner and host pipeline. Controlling strain
significantly increases long-term durability
by ensuring the CFRP and host materials dont exceed limits for stress, cracking, and creep.
Conduit 94, Denver. In February 2008,
Denver Water experienced a catastrophic
failure in a 66-in.-diameter section of steel
pipe in Conduit 94 because of a pump failure. The failed section, located near an
elbow where the steel pipe transitioned to
PCCP, was replaced on an emergency basis
with 40 ft of new cementmortar-lined steel
pipe that was procured from the inventory
of a local steel pipe manufacturer. The two
new sections were 0.307-in. and 0.375-in.
thick, which didnt meet the Denver Water
Boards specified factor of safety of 2 for
the design working pressure of 225 psi
and surge pressure of 90 psi. Due to the
location of the line 15 ft directly underneath the highway, CFRP repair was the
only available option to upgrade the pipe.
CFRP design considered safety factors
for long-term load, short-term load, core
crushing, and radial tensile strength. The
parameters were met by using eight layers
of carbon-fiber composites. The cement
mortar lining was removed, and one longitudinal layer of glass fiber served as a
dielectric barrier. The project was completed in a week during a scheduled maintenance shutdown.
Denver Waters John Bambei (left)
investigated the failed pipe section
with Dr. Mehdi Zarghamee (right).

ONGOING AWWARF RESEARCH

AWWARF and USEPA are funding research

being performed by the US Bureau of
Reclamation on the use of CFRP for the
structural renewal of PCCP. AWWA RF
Project No. 4114, Fiber Rehabilitation of
Superior Pipeline, Phoenix. The 60-in.
PCCP Superior Pipeline conveys surface
water from the Val Vista Water Treatment
Plant to customers in southern Phoenix. It
was designed for 175 psi, a working pressure of 125 psi and 50 psi surge pressure.
In October 2006, a 24-ft section catastrophically failed. The failure was later attributed
to corrosion of prestressing wire due to
hydrogen embrittlement and possible pipe
damage during installation.
Before placing the pipeline back into service, inspection revealed that 22 sections of
the 60-in. line needed immediate structural
repair, which was performed using CFRP. Due
to high demand on the water main and the
short time allowed for completing the work,
repair schedules were tight. On all occasions, the projects were completed on time
or ahead of schedule.
Authors Note: The case studies on the
Southwest Transmission Main and the Superior Pipeline were adapted from technical
papers presented at the American Society of
Civil Engineers Pipelines International Conference 2008, Atlanta, authored by Frank
Donaldson et al. and Aimee Conroy et al.,
respectively.
On the Superior Pipeline project,
crews performed repairs farther from
the access point than they had ever
attempted.

www.awwa.org/communications/opflow

New CFRP research and development

will continue to yield more efficient
systems and economical solutions.

Prestressed Concrete Pipe, is addressing

CFRP material properties and installation
issues, as well as taking an in-depth look at
design issues and long-term material durability. At the conclusion of the three-year
study, an AWWARF report will be produced,
along with a USBR specification on CFRP
rehabilitation that can be used as a basis
for designing and installing CFRP systems
for PCCP repair and renewal. These efforts
will supplement current design methods
and may also serve to initiate what will
eventually result in the publication of an
AWWA Standard. In recent AWWA Concrete Pipe Committee discussions, it has
been suggested that the report may be a
good basis for the inclusion of a chapter
on the rehabilitation of PCCP in the AWWA
Manual of Water Supply Practice M9, Concrete Pressure Pipe.

CFRP repair can also be performed

externally when appropriate.

ON THE HORIZON

Faced with the challenges of structurally deficient large-diameter PCCPs, some

of which fail catastrophically, there is
a conscious effort today on the part of
many large infrastructure owners to be
proactive rather than reactive. Using

various electromagnetic and acoustic

technologies, they are making worthwhile
investments in investigating and analyzing their large-diameter buried transmission lines and taking immediate action

to structurally rehabilitate the worst pipe

sections with CFRP technology. New CFRP
research and development will continue
to yield more efficient systems and economical solutions.

CFRP INSTALLATION

R ESO URCES

QUALITY CONTROL IS KEY TO EFFECTIVE USE

O

The performance and long-term durability of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) systems inside pipelines can be ensured by
O
using experienced installers who have more than five years of underground infrastructure work experience and an equal amount of experience with CFRP applications.
O
submitting structural and durability testing results by the materials manufacturer and
the applicator (examples include full-scale external load testing and internal pressure
testing of pipes, environmental durability testing, biological growth-support-potential
testing, anticavitation testing, checking for volatile organic compounds in resins, and
ultraviolet testing for external applications).
O
material approvals from independent agencies such as International Code Council.
O
ensuring that all components of the CFRP system, including the fiber, epoxies, tack
coats, primers, and top coats are all certified to NSF 61 requirements for potable water
applications.
O
confirming in-field sample tensile strength for all applications per ASTM D3039, Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Polymer Matrix Composite Materials and
adhesion testing on bond-critical projects per ASTM D4541, Standard Test Method for
Pull-off Strength of Coatings Using Portable Adhesion Testers.

www.awwa.org/communications/opflow

O

O

O

O

AWWA Manual of Water Supply Practices

M9: Concrete Pressure Pipe, 1995.
ICC AC 125: Acceptance Criteria for Concrete and Reinforced and Unreinforced
Masonry Using Externally Bonded FiberReinforced Polymer.
ICC ESR 2103: Concrete and Masonry
Strengthening Using the Tyfo Fibrwrap
Fiber-Reinforced Composite Systems.
Loera, R. 2006. PCCP Carbon-Fiber-Liner
Repair Standard Specifications. In: Atalah,
A., Tremblay, A., editors. Service to the
Owner. Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers Pipelines International Conference, Chicago. Reston, Va.
Romer, A.E., Bell, G.E.C. 2008. Failure
of Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipe.
AWWA Research Foundation. Report
No. 91214, Denver.

November 2008 Opflow 15