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UNIT-I
Finite fields
Finite fields are field with a finite amount of elements. These are special types of sets that are
closed under addition, substraction, multiplication and division (except for 0).

Groups, Rings and Field

It contains Group. A Group G is a non-empty set together with a binary operation (*), such that
the following three properties are satisfied:
Associativity-> (a*b)*c=a*(b*c) for all a,b,c G
Identity-> There is an element e G, such that a * e=e * a=a for all a G
Inverses-> For each element a G, there is an element b G such that a*b=b*a=e

i.
ii.
iii.

Note: A binary operation on G is a function that assigns each ordered pair of elements G, an
element of G (closure) (i.e.) if a and b belongs to G, then a*b is also in G.
Its Terminologies:
i.
ii.

Order of a Group (G) is the number of elements it contains, denoted by |G|.

Order of an element g G is the smallest positive integer n such that gn=e ,
denoted by |g|.

iii.
iv.

gn=g y g
In a finite group, the order of each element of the group divides the order of the group.
Here

Properties of Group:
for all g G , g=e
for all n, m 1, g G ,

gn=g n1g
n
m
n +m
g g =g
(gn )1=gn = ( g1)n
(gm )n=gmn

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Abelian Groups:

If G is a group and for all a,b G , we have a*b=b*a (communtating ) then G is called

an abelian Group.
In an abelian Group G,. for all a,b G ,

( ab )1 = b1a1=a1b1 .
Cyclic Groups:

A group G is called Cyclic if there exists an element g G such that G= { gn /n G }

.
Such an element g is called a generator of G.
Here |g|=|G|
z 4 (Group of integers modulo 4 is cyclic since)
z 4 = {0, 1, 2, 3} and 3+0=3,3+3=6 2 (mod 4)
3+3+3=9 1(mod 4) , 3+3+3+3=12 0 (mod 4 ) .
So 3 is a generator.
An integer K in z n is a generator of z n if and only if gcd (n, k) =1.

Rings:

A Rings R is a non-empty set with two binary operations, addition (denoted by a+b) and

multiplication (denoted ab), such that for all a,b,c R.

R is an abelian group under addition.
a (bc) =(ab)c is associativity.
a (b+c)=ab+ac and (b+c)= a= bc+ ca, distributive law.
A unity in a ring is a non-zero element that is the identity under multiplication.

Commutative Rings:

A commutative Ring R is a ring a ring such that for all a, b, c

R.

a (b+c)=ab+ac=(b+c)a (commutativity).

A unit is a non-zero element of a commutative Ring with unity that has a multiplicative inverse.

Integral Domains:

A zero-divisor is a non-zero element a R, R is a commutative ring such that there is a nonzero element b R with ab=0.
An Integral Domain is a commutative ring with unity and no zero-divisors.

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Fields:

A field is a commutative ring with unity in which every non-zero element is a unit. C,R,Q are all
examples of infinite fields.
Every field is an integral domain, infact a finite integral domain is a field.

Z m Ring of Integers modulo m:

For all m>1, m Z.

Z m ={0,1,2........,m-2,m-1}.
Addition modulo m (denoted mod m)
Z m , (x+y) is the remainder of (x+y) divided by m.
for all x,y
Multiplication modulo m (denoted mod m).
Z m ,xy is the remainder if xy divided by m.
for all x,y
Z m is the ring of integer under addition and multiplication modulo m.

Z p is a field:
For every prime P, Z p , the ring of integers modulo P, is a field.

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Modular Arithmetic

For given any positive integer n and non-negative integer a, if we divide a/n, gets an
integer Quotent of the integer remainder r.

a=Qn+r 0 r n ; Q=

[]

a
.
n

Residue:
The remainder r is often called as residue.
Modules:
If a is an integer, n is a positive integer, we defined a mod n to be a remainder when a/n.
The integer A is called Modulus.
Hence for any integer a.
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[]

a
n+ ( a mod n ) .
n

Congruent Modulo:

The integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, if

(a mod n)= (b mod n)
a b(mod n).

Divisors:

If b/a, we say that b is a divisors of a.

Properties:

If a/1, then a= 1.

If a/b and b/a then a= b

any b 00.

If b/g and b/h, then b/(mg+nh) for arbitrary integers of m and n.

Modular arithmetic operation:

(mod n) operator can map all integers into the set of integers {0,1,.(n-1))}, this
technique is called modular arithmetic.

Its Properties:

[(a mod n)+ (b mod n)] mod n= (a+b) mod n.

[(a mod n)- (b mod n)] mod n= (a-b) mod n.

[(a mod n)* (b mod n)] mod n= (a*b) mod n.

The set Z n ; the non- negative integers less than n:

Z n ={ 0,1, .. ( n1 ) }
Properties of modular arithmetic for integers in Z n .
i)

Commutative laws.
(w+x) mod n= (x+w) mod n
(w*x) mod n=(x*w) mod n.

ii)

Associative Laws.
[(w+x)+y] mod n=[ w+(x+y)] mod n
[(w*x)*y] mod n=[w*(x*y)] mod n.

iii)

Distribution laws.

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[w*(x+y)] mod n= [(w*x)+ (w*y)] mod n

[w*(x*y)] mod n= [(w+x)* (w+y)] mod n
iv)

Identities
(o+w) mod n=w mod n
(l*w) mod n = w mod n.

v)

Additive inverse (-w).

Therefore each w Z m , there exists z, such that
w+z 0 mod n
The Euclidean Algorithm

It helps to determine greatest common divisor (gcd) of two positive number.

The notation gcd (a,b), is the greatest common divisor of a and b. The
Positive integer of c is said to be greatest common divisor of a and b if

C is a divisor of a and b.
Any divisor of a and b, is a divisor of c.
An equivalent definition:
gcd(a, b)=max[k, such that k/a and k/b].
The gcd is positive.
Example:
Gcd(60,24)

Gcd(60,-24)=12
Finding Greatest Common Divisor:
The Euclidean algorithm is based on following theorem: For any non-negative a, and any
positive integer b,
gcd(a,b)=gcd(b,a mod b).
i.e gcd(55,22)
gcd(22, 55 mod 22)
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gcd(22,11)
gcd(22,-11)=11

The Euclidean algorithm makes repeated use of above equation to determine gcd.
Algorithm assumes a>b>0.
The Algorithm Proces
A 1=B1Q1 + R1
A 2=B2Q 2+ R 2
A 3=B3Q3+R 3
A 4 =B 4Q4 + R4
Finite Fields of the form GF (p)
GF stands for Galois field, the mathematician, first studied finite fields.
Finite fields play important role in many cryptographic algorithms.

It is shown the order of a finite field must be a power of prime Pm .

P
Finite field of order Pn is written GF ( n)

Finite fields of order P:

For a given prime P, the finite field of order P, GF (P) is defined as the Set Z p of integers
{0,1,,P-1}, together with arithmetic operation modulo P.
Example:
w1

0 1

-w

0 0

0 1

Addition (XOR)

Multiplication
(logical AND)

Inverse

Polynomial Arithmetic:
There are three charges of Polynomial arithmetic:
i)

Ordinary polynomial arithmetic, using the basic rules of algebra.

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ii)

Polynomial arithmetic in which the arithmetic on the coefficients is performed

iii)

modulo P; that is the coefficients are in GF (P).

Polynomial arithmetic in which the coefficients are in GF, and the polynomials are
defined modulo a polynomial m(x) whose highest power is some integer n.

Ordinary polymial Arithmetic:

i)

A polynomial of degree n (integer n 0 ) is an expression of the form

n

n
n1
i
f(x)= an x + an1 x ++ a , x +a 0= a i x
i=0

Constant Polynomial: A zeroth degree polynomial is called a constant polynomial and is

simply an element of the set of co-efficients.

Monic polynomial: An nth degree polynomial is said to be a monic polynomial if
a0 = 1

Finding the Great Common Divisor:

The polynomial c(x) is said to be the greatest common divisor of a(x) and b(x) if
i)
c(x) divides both a(x) and b(x).
ii)
Any divisor of a(x) and b(x) is a divisor of c(x).
An equivalent definition is:

Gcd [a(x), b(x)] is the polynomial of maximum degree that divider both a(x) and b(x).
According to Euclidean algorithm to complete gcd of two polynomials:
Gcd[a(x),b(x)]=gcd[b(x),a(x)modb(x)].

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