Received 09/12/12

Revised 11/09/12
Accepted 11/12/12
DOI: 10.1002/j.2161-1920.2013.00029.x

the effect of self-regulated decision

making on career path and
major-related career choice satisfaction
HaeYoung Eun, Young Woo Sohn, and Suran Lee
The present research examined the influence of self-regulated decision making on
satisfaction in career path (college major for Study 1, job for Study 2) and major-related
career choice. Results indicate a full mediating effect of fit in the relationship between
self-regulated decision making and satisfaction in career path. Self-regulated decision
making also influenced majorjob congruence via satisfaction with a participants
college major. Findings suggest that individuals who possess self-regulatory ability
in decision-making contexts were more likely to choose majors and jobs of good fit,
experience satisfaction from their career decisions, and choose careers relevant to
their college majors.

Some people prefer jobs that are relevant to their college majors, whereas others
do not. Staying in the same major field might not always be the best choice, but
this strategy may provide benefits by increasing income, degree of continuity in the
job field, and job satisfaction (Holland, 1997; Robst, 2007; Wolniak & Pascarella,
2005). Many factors affect majorjob (MJ) congruence, and satisfaction with college major may have a significant influence (Cho, 2009; Kang, 2010). Considering
benefits beyond the classroom in choosing major-related careers, helping students
to choose majors that will provide satisfaction might yield not only academic but
also career success.
Satisfaction with career path is important because it directly influences quality of
life (Lent & Brown, 2008). In modern society, careers carry not only economic and
social significance but also psychological value (Song & Park, 2005). Moreover, the
primary criteria for career choice have shifted from objective values, such as salary
and reputation, to subjective ones, such as joy and feelings of achievement (de Botton,
2009). More people now focus on career paths that fit their personal characteristics,
and organizations try to hire individuals who show a high compatibility with the organizations and their areas of expertise. However, not all people experience success
in finding college majors and jobs that match their attributes. Understanding oneself
is the first step in finding a career of good fit, but adolescents and young adults
often have difficulty choosing careers because of their lack of understanding about
themselves or the job market (Gati, Krausz, & Osipow, 1996). Even an individual
HaeYoung Eun, Young Woo Sohn, and Suran Lee, Department of Psychology, Yonsei University,
Seoul, South Korea. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Suran Lee,
Department of Psychology, Yonsei University, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, South Korea
120749 (e-mail: ddongddaeji@hotmail.com).

2013 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.

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with knowledge about him- or herself and the vocational world might fail to choose
a career of good fit if he or she lacks the ability to use the information.
To make wise career decisions, a person must take into account his or her own
personal characteristics while examining the available information about the vocational world. Furthermore, the individual has to control for various internal and
external factors that can interfere with the decision-making process, such as a procrastinating tendency or a conflict with parents. Altogether, these activities could
be interpreted as self-regulation, which comprises self-monitoring and self-control
(Barber, Munz, Bagsby, & Grawitch, 2009). Hence, an individual could benefit from
the self-regulatory ability while choosing a career.
The purpose of the present study was to observe the effects of self-regulated decision making on major-related career choice. Specifically, we looked into the role of
self-regulation in choosing college majors and jobs that match individuals abilities
and personalities and how it leads to satisfaction with career paths. Moreover, we
investigated the effect of self-regulated decision making in MJ congruence, which
is significantly influenced by major satisfaction.
Theoretical Background
Self-Regulated Decision Making
Decision making can be defined as the process of choosing an alternative among
various options in the course of a goal-directed process (Byrnes, 1998). Considering
the consequence of human decision, numerous scholars have attempted to understand
the process of decision making (Harren, 1979; Janis & Mann, 1977; Kahneman &
Tversky, 1972). Byrnes (1998) proposed the Self-Regulation Model of Decision Making
(SRMDM) and brought the concept of self-regulatory strategy into a decision-making
context, in which the ability to overcome the limitations of the human mind is a key
aspect of decision-making success. Self-regulation can be defined as the process
of self-awareness and behaving to achieve goals (Zimmerman, 2000). According to
the SRMDM, a self-regulated decision maker sets adaptive plans to achieve goals
and continue with the goal-directed process by taking appropriate actions through
the generating, evaluating, and learning phases (Byrnes, Miller, & Reynolds, 1999;
Miller & Byrnes, 2001b).
The benefits of self-regulation have been broadly investigated in various fields,
including vocational behavior (e.g., Lord, Diefendorff, Schmidt, & Hall, 2010),
yet few researchers have focused on regulatory abilities within a decision-making
context. Nam (2007) found that self-regulated decision making is positively related
with workers self-efficacy and job satisfaction. Similarly, Park, Park, Yoo, and Kim
(2008) investigated the effects of self-regulation on job satisfaction and job stress
among nurses and found that nurses who engage in self-regulated decision making
experience significantly higher job satisfaction and lesser job stress.
Miller and Byrnes (2001b) suggested that self-regulated decision making is only
necessary when making important decisions. Considering the meaning and importance of career choice, self-regulated decision making may be a significant influjournal of employment counseling

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ence (Harren, 1979; Murtagh, Lopes, & Lyons, 2011). Therefore, we propose that
the ability to self-regulate ones decision-making process is an influential aspect
of career decisions, and we investigated its effect on other career-related factors.
PersonJob (PJ) Fit and Fit With College Major
PJ fit, a specific type of personenvironment fit, is defined as the compatibility between
ones abilities and the demands of a job (Edwards, 1991). PJ fit can be outlined by two
concepts: demandsabilities fit and needssupplies fit. The first is the match between
the abilities, skills, and knowledge a person possesses and the requirements of a job.
The second depends on whether ones desires and needs are satisfied by pursuing a
job. Employees perceptions of the PJ fit have significant positive relationships with a
variety of work-related factors, including self-regulation in work and job satisfaction
(Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005; Saks & Ashforth, 2002).
At the same time, fit can be investigated not only within working environments
but also in college. A number of studies have proclaimed the importance of fit with
college major over the years, but the majority focused on matching interests and
personality traits rather than abilities (Cho, 2009; Tracey, Allen, & Robbins, 2012;
Tracey & Robbins, 2006). Only a few studies (Malgwi, Howe, & Burnaby, 2005;
Maple & Stage, 1991; Wessel, Ryan, & Oswald, 2008) have included compatibility
between the demands of a college major and individual abilities when examining fit
with college major. However, given that academic competitiveness can lead to satisfaction with field of study (Kang, 2010), whether an individual can meet the demands
of his or her major or not should not be neglected when discussing the notion of fit.
Fit with college major is important because it directly influences college experiences,
such as academic performance, major commitment, and major satisfaction, which can, in
turn, affect academic and career-related outcomes, such as dropping out, career choice,
job satisfaction, and income (Au, 2010; Cho, 2009; Pyhlt, Toom, Stubb, & Lonka,
2012; Robst, 2007; Wessel et al., 2008; Wolniak & Pascarella, 2005). For example, a
student whose abilities and skills well match the requirements of a major field is likely
to be satisfied with his or her major and might choose a major-related job (Au, 2010;
Cho, 2009). In addition, having a major-related career would result in higher income
compared with having a job that has no relation with an individuals college major. In a
study with college graduates, Robst (2007) found that graduates whose job mismatched
the college degree field earned less than adequately matched workers. Similarly, Allen
and van der Velden (2001) found a significant negative relationship between educational
mismatch and wage. Considering such evidence, it seems preferable for each student to
find a major that matches his or her capacities as well as personality.
Both PJ fit and college major fit have robust relationships with satisfaction in jobs
and majors (Cho, 2009; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). Cho (2009) found that the students
who showed a higher match reported more satisfaction with their majors compared
with those who showed a lower match. Logue, Lounsbury, Gupta, and Leong (2007)
also found a similar relationship in that business students with matching vocational
interest themes with the major tend to exhibit high satisfaction toward it. As with

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the relationship between PJ fit and job satisfaction, a number of studies have shown
a strong positive relationship (Cable & DeRue, 2002; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005;
Lauver & Kristof-Brown, 2001). Therefore, fit is important not only for predicting
job satisfaction but also satisfaction with college major.
Self-Regulated Decision Making, Fit, and Satisfaction
With Career Path
Self-regulated decision making, fit, and satisfaction with career path show significant
positive relationships with each other, yet no empirical research has included all
three variables (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Logue et al., 2007; Nam, 2007; Park
et al., 2008). Furthermore, no studies have examined the direct link between selfregulated decision making and PJ fit. Nonetheless, as Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad,
and Herma (1951) noted, career choice is affected by an individuals pursuit of a
match between his or her abilities with the preferences and demands of a job, so it
is clear that the ability to construct a self-image and to examine the compatibility
between this image and career requirements would assist an individual in choosing the right career. On the basis of results from previous research (Harren, 1979;
Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Logue et al., 2007; Nam, 2007; Park et al., 2008), we
hypothesized that fit might be the key to drawing the link between self-regulated
decision making and satisfaction in a chosen career path.
Research Hypotheses
In the current study, we tested the mediation model involving self-regulated decision
making, fit, and satisfaction with career path to understand the process of majorrelated career choice. Before examining the relationships among self-regulated decision making, PJ fit, and job satisfaction with working participants, we examined the
issue of university students major choice. Selecting a college major is as important
as choosing an occupation, because it can be regarded as the first step on a career
path and also because it has a significant influence on a students life satisfaction,
academic performance, and future career decisions (Cho, 2009; Tracey et al., 2012).
Therefore, it is preferable for a student to find a major that fits his or her personality.

Hypothesis 1-1 (Hypothesis 1, Study 1): Fit with college major mediates the relationship between self-regulated decision making and major satisfaction.
Hypothesis 2-1 (Hypothesis 2, Study 1): PJ fit mediates the relationship between
self-regulated decision making and job satisfaction.

In addition to investigating the impact of self-regulated decision making on satisfaction, we hypothesized that it might also influence students career choices. Studies
have shown that students who are satisfied with their college majors are more likely
to choose job fields that match their majors (Au, 2010; Cho, 2009). In a study with 198
undergraduate students, Cho (2009) found that students whose interests align with their

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college majors tend to report high major satisfaction and major-related career plans.
Similar findings were noted in Aus (2010) study, in which major satisfaction positively
predicted students major-related career plan. On the basis of such results, we hypothesized that self-regulated decision making affects career plans via major satisfaction.
Furthermore, to determine whether such a relationship is also positive for individuals who
have already made career choices, we investigated relationships among self-regulated
decision making, major satisfaction, and MJ congruence with workers.
Hypothesis 1-2 (Hypothesis 1, Study 2): Major satisfaction mediates the relationship between self-regulated decision making and major-related future careers.
Hypothesis 2-2 (Hypothesis 2, Study 2): Satisfaction with college major mediates
the relationship between self-regulated decision making and MJ congruence.
Study 1
The first study was conducted to understand the effect of self-regulated decision
making on college major choice. The measures used were all collected from previous studies.
Method
Participants and procedure. Two hundred and forty-seven undergraduate students at
Yonsei University in Seoul, Korea, participated in this study in exchange for course
credit (104 men and 143 women, mean age of 21.27 years, all South Korean). This
study was given review board approval by the universitys department of psychology.
Participants responded to questions regarding their college majors, and students
with double majors or minors in other fields were asked to respond to the questions
on the basis of their primary majors. The responses were collected online, and all
respondents were included in analyses.
Measures. The Decision Making Competency Inventory (DMCI; Miller & Byrnes,
2001a, 2001b) was used to measure students self-regulated decision making. This scale
consists of 20 items; using a 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = very uncharacteristic to 7 =
very characteristic), participants were asked to indicate how well each statement described
how they would act in circumstances in which they had to make important decisions.
As an assessment of fit with their college majors, Lauver and Kristof-Browns
(2001) five-item scale was completed by all participants (June & Mahmood, 2011).
Because the original scale was designed to assess PJ fit, we adjusted the items in
alignment with our research purpose to determine the compatibility between participants characteristics and college majors. Participants indicated how well each
statement described them on a 7-point Likert-type scale.
Eighteen items from the Brayfield and Rothe (1951) Index of Job Satisfaction were
completed to assess participants satisfaction with their college majors (Lent et al.,
2011). Responses were scored on a 7-point Likert-type scale.
As an assessment of major-related future careers, five items from Jang, Park, Na, and
Lees (1986) research were used (Cho, 2009). The items assess the intention of choosing

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career paths related to college major. Responses were scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale,
with higher scores indicating a greater intention of finding a job related to the college major.
Results for Study 1
The descriptive statistics, intercorrelations between variables, and scale reliabilities
are presented in Table 1. All scale reliability estimates exceeded .70 (ranging from
.75 to .91), the typical value point for acceptance (Nunnally, 1983). Table 1 shows
that self-regulated decision making had correlations with age and educational level
(both rs = .26, ps < .01), which was consistent with findings of previous research
that suggested that self-regulatory ability increases with age (McCabe, Cunnington,
& Brooks-Gunn, 2004). Additionally, positive correlations were found among the
four variables included in the study (see Table 1).
Results of the hierarchical multiple regression analyses are presented in Table 2. To
test our conceptual model, we followed the framework of Baron and Kenny (1986) for
mediation analysis and confirmed our results with the Sobel test (Sobel, 1982). Because
we identified a significant correlation in self-regulated decision making with age and
education level, we added the latter two variables as control variables. The results of
our mediation analyses (as shown in Table 2) indicated a full mediation effect of fit with
college major in the relationship between self-regulated decision making and major
satisfaction (Sobel test: z = 2.94, p < .01). Therefore, Hypothesis 1-1 was supported.
Additionally, we conducted another mediation analysis to examine the relationships among self-regulated decision making, major satisfaction, and future career.
Table 1
Study 1 and Study 2 Means, Standard Deviations, Correlations,
and Scale Reliabilities
Variable

SD

1. Age
2. ED
3. SRDM
4. PMF
5. MS
6. MR Future

21.27
2.25
4.50
4.80
4.32
3.43

2.56
1.18
0.56
0.97
0.93
0.82

.74**
.26**
.08
.01
.05

1. Age
2. Years
3. SRDM
4. PJF
5. JS
6. MS
7. MJ Congr.

35.54
9.11
4.58
5.20
4.61
3.84
3.24

7.34
7.74
0.54
0.98
1.11
0.86
1.32

.82**
.20
.26*
.32**
.16
.03

2
Study 1

.26**
.11
.07
.04
Study 2

.16
.29**
.27**
.01
.07

.79
.31** .87
.24** .61** .91
.17** .38** .43** .75

.77
.39**
.30**
.23*
.23*

.87
.64** .88
.10
.14
.13
.03

.93
.26*

Note. Study 1, n = 247; Study 2, n = 93. Reliability estimates are in boldface on the diagonal.
ED = education level; SRDM = self-regulated decision making; PMF = personmajor fit; MS =
major satisfaction; MR Future = major-related future careers; Years = number of years worked;
PJF = personjob fit; JS = job satisfaction; MJ Congr. = majorjob congruence.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

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Table 2
Results of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses
Frameworka
Study and Variables

Step and Path

Study 1 (Hypothesis 1-1)

Independent variable = SRDM (A)
Mediating variable = PMF (B)
Dependent variable = MS (C)
Study 1 (Hypothesis 2-1)
Independent variable = SRDM (A)
Mediating variable = MS (B)
Dependent variable = MR Future (C)
Study 2 (Hypothesis 1-2)
Independent variable = SRDM (A)
Mediating variable = PJF (B)
Dependent variable = JS (C)
Study 2 (Hypothesis 2-2)
Independent variable = SRDM (A)
Mediating variable = MS (B)
Dependent variable = MJ Congr. (C)

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4

AC
AB
BC
A C (B controlled)

.24***
.31***
.61***
.06

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4

AC
AB
BC
A C (B controlled)

.17**
.24***
.43***
.07

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4

AC
AB
BC
A C (B controlled)

.30**
.39***
.64***
.06

Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4

AC
AB
BC
A C (B controlled)

.23*
.23*
.26*
.18

Note. Study 1, n = 247; Study 2, n = 93. Hypothesis 1-1 = Hypothesis 1, Study 1; Hypothesis
2-1 = Hypothesis 2, Study 1; Hypothesis 1-2 = Hypothesis 1, Study 2; Hypothesis 2-2 = Hypothesis 2, Study 2; SRDM = self-regulated decision making; PMF = personmajor fit; MS =
major satisfaction; MR Future = major-related future careers; PJF = personjob fit; JS = job
satisfaction; MJ Congr. = majorjob congruence.
a
Following Baron & Kennys (1986) framework.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

The results indicated a full mediation effect of major satisfaction in the relationship
between self-regulated decision making and major-related future careers (Sobel
test: z = 2.30, p < .05; see Table 2). Therefore, Hypothesis 1-2 was also supported.
Study 2
The second study was conducted to extend the results from Study 1 and to examine
the mediating effect of PJ fit between self-regulated decision making and job satisfaction, as well as the mediating effect of major satisfaction between self-regulated
decision making and job satisfaction.
Method
Participants and procedure. One hundred and sixty-four participants working in
financial services located in Seoul, Korea, volunteered to participate in the study
(93 men and 71 women, mean age of 36.1 years, all Korean). Because of missing
data, only 93 participants (58 men and 35 women, mean age of 35.5 years) were

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included in the analyses. The survey was completed both in a paper-and-pencil

form and online during regular work hours, and participants were allowed to choose
between the two forms based on their preferences.
Measures from Study 1. Measures used in Study 1 were also completed by participants in Study 2 to assess self-regulated decision making, PJ fit, and job satisfaction.
In contrast with the previous study, we abbreviated the Brayfield and Rothe (1951)
Index of Job Satisfaction by selecting six items that showed the highest internal
consistency reliabilities in Study 1.
Major satisfaction. Five items were completed to retrospectively assess participants satisfaction with their college majors (Cho, 2009; Park, 2008). Responses
were scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale to indicate how well each statement
described the participants.
MJ congruence. To measure compatibility between college majors and current
occupations, a survey question from Graduates Occupational Mobility Survey (Au,
2010; Korea Employment Information Service, 2006) was completed by participants:
How similar is the work in your current job to work that was required in your college major? Participants responded to the question on a 5-point Likert-type scale,
depending on the similarity between their college majors and current occupations.
Results for Study 2
The descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between variables and scale reliabilities
are presented in Table 1. Scale reliability estimates ranged from .77 to .93, suggesting
high internal consistencies. Results of the hierarchical multiple regression analyses are
presented in Table 2. Again, we followed the framework of Baron and Kenny (1986) for
mediation analysis and confirmed our findings with the Sobel test (Sobel, 1982). The
results of mediation analyses (as shown in Table 2) indicated a full mediation effect of
PJ fit in the relationship between self-regulated decision making and job satisfaction,
providing support for Hypothesis 1-2 (Sobel test: z = 2.06, p < .05).
To assess the relationships among self-regulated decision making, major satisfaction, and MJ congruence, we conducted an additional mediation analysis. When we
followed Baron and Kennys (1986) framework, the results revealed a full mediation
effect of major satisfaction in the relationship between self-regulated decision making and MJ congruence (see Table 2; R2 = .10, F[2, 90] = 4.81, p < .01). However,
no significant results were found when we conducted the Sobel test to confirm our
results (Sobel, 1982; z = 1.09, p > .05). Still, on the basis of the results from Baron
and Kennys method, Hypothesis 2-2 was supported.
General Discussion
Our findings provide empirical evidence of the significance of self-regulation in
major-related career choice. In alignment with our expectations, self-regulated
decision making influenced major satisfaction as well as job satisfaction via fitness
for ones college major and later job. In addition, the ability to regulate oneself in a

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decision-making context had an impact on whether a person chose a major-related

career, and major satisfaction mediated this relationship. The relationship was found
to be true not only for university students but also for workers, despite the relatively
weak connection. Such a result is comprehensible considering more factors should
explain the MJ congruence of workers when compared with college students. However,
our results showed that when a person feels content with his or her college major,
the individual would aim for major-related careers and actually choose to work in
relevant fields. In sum, our results imply the importance of self-regulated decision
making, fit, and major satisfaction in understanding major-related career decisions.
The implications for career counseling and education of this study are as follows.
First, counselors and educators can help individuals make career-related decisions
by enhancing regulatory ability in decision-making contexts. Often, counseling and
educational sessions concentrate on discovering the participants aptitudes, interests,
and personality traits and provide information about various job opportunities. It is
necessary to facilitate self-understanding and knowledge of the potential vocational
world, but, at the same time, counselors and educators should make sure that each
individual pays attention to available resources and controls his or her activities in
addition to environmental factors to achieve the goals of career decision making.
Although a few counseling sessions might not have a dramatic influence on career
choices, research has shown that adults improve decision making in response to
feedback (Byrnes et al., 1999). Therefore, individuals may benefit from interventions that help to enhance regulatory ability when choosing college majors and jobs.
Second, the results of our study emphasize the importance of early intervention.
Many career interventions are geared toward juniors and seniors in high school and
university students with the purpose of assisting these students to gain admission to
prestigious schools and find good jobs. However, our results indicated that choosing
a major that matches ones abilities and personality can influence an individuals
career choice. Therefore, career interventions should include helping high school
and 1st-year college students major decisions by providing in-depth information
about various academic fields.
The generalizability of our findings is limited because they included only a sample
of participants who are working in financial services. Although the working positions of participants varied, the shared characteristics of their work in the same
industry may have influenced our results. Individuals in the financial industry are
likely to have degrees in finance or other related fields, inevitably resulting in high
MJ congruence. In addition, we did not take into account double majors or minors
when measuring major satisfaction and MJ congruence. However, considering that
these secondary academic fields might have influenced students college experiences
and career choices as much as primary majors, the effects of double majors and
minors should have been controlled for. Finally, the fact that all participants are
Korean could have influenced the results. Although recruiters have started to take
various factors into account when hiring college graduates, still the popular notion
among students is that the importance of grade point average and English skills
outweighs the benefit of extracurricular activities (Song & Park, 2005). Inevitably,

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college experience is the main factor that students consider when they make career
decisions. Considering such circumstances, the relationship among variables could
differ for participants from Western countries, where various factors such as summer
job experiences or extracurricular activities are available for consideration when
planning for future career. To confirm the possibility of cultural influence, future
research could include participants from various backgrounds.
Future research may include those who engage in professional occupations that
require years of education and practice to provide services and gain employment,
such as professors, doctors, and lawyers. For example, the phenomenon of continuing graduate school dropout rates (Pyhlt et al., 2012) might lead researchers to
compare the decision-making process of dropouts with those who stay the course.
This information might also add meaningful empirical support to help researchers
understand major-related career choices. In addition, future research could examine
the moderating effects of personal traits. For example, it might be interesting to
investigate the difference in the mediating effect of PJ fit between those who exhibit
a strong match for various fields in general and those who show a strong fit for only
one or two fields.
In summary, the present research showed the significance of self-regulatory ability and fit in career decision-making circumstances. Such abilities enable adequate
career choices and consequently facilitate happiness with these decisions. Furthermore, the results demonstrate the influence of self-regulated decision making on
major-related career choice via major satisfaction, indicating the role of regulatory
ability in choosing a satisfying academic field that can lead to related employment.
Therefore, despite a few limitations, this research has made a theoretical contribution to understanding the connections among self-regulated decision making, fit, and
satisfaction with career path and with major-related career choice.
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