Material Tchnology

ME1022 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
TO
MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY
III YR /V SEM
ACADEMIC YEAR :2015-2016
By
Mr. S.SHAKTHIVEL
A.P(Sr.G)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
SRM Univeristy
Kattankulathur
esrmnotes.in | Class notes made easy.
Syllabus
LT PC
3003
Total contact hours 45

Prerequisite Nil
PURPOSE
To impart the knowledge about the behavior of materials and their applications.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
1. Elastic, plastic and fracture behavior of materials.
2. Phase diagram and heat treatment.
3. Modern metallic and non metallic materials
UNIT I - ELASTIC AND PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR (9 hours)
Elasticity in metals - Mechanism of plastic deformation - Role of yield stress,shear
strength of perfect and real crystals - Strengthening mechanisms work hardening,
Solid solutioning, grain boundary strengthening, particle, fibre and dispersion
strengthening - Effect of temperature, strain and strain rate on plastic behavior.
UNIT II - FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR (9 hours)
Griffith's theory, stress intensity factor and fracture toughness - Ductile to brittle
transition - High temperature fracture, modes of fracture, creep Deformation
mechanism maps - Fatigue, Low and high cycle fatigue test, crack initiation and
propagation mechanisms - Fracture of Non-metallic materials. Failure analysis, Sources
of failure, procedure of failure analysis
.UNIT III - PHASE DIAGRAMS AND HEAT TREATMENTS (9 hours)
Introduction - Solid solutions - Intermediate phases - Phase rules - Free energy in

intermediate phases - Phase diagrams - Phase changes in alloys Determination of
phase diagrams - Ternary phase diagrams - Cooling curves Equilibrium diagrams of
Iron and Iron -Carbide diagram - Definition of structures Annealing Normalizing
Tempering Hardening.
UNITIV - MODERN METALLIC MATERIALS (9 hours)
Dual phase alloys - Micro alloyed steels, High Strength Low alloy (HSLA) steel Transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) steel, Maraging steel - Intermettalics, Ni and
Ti aluminides - Smart materials - Shape memory alloys - Metallic glasses -Quasi
crystals and nano crystalline materials.
UNIT V - NON METALLIC MATERIALS (9 hours)
Polymeric materials - Formation of polymer structure - Production techniques of fibre,
foams, adhesives and coating - structure and properties and applications of engineering
polymers - Advanced structure ceramics, WC, TiC, Al2O3, SiC, Si2N4, CBN and
Diamond - Properties, processing and applications. Composite materials: Types,
production techniques, structure, properties and applications.
TEXT BOOKS
1. Flake.C Campbell, Elements of Metallurgy and Engineering Alloys, ASM
International, 2008.
2. Dieter.G.E, Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw Hill, Singapore, 2001.
3. Thomas H. Courtney, Mechanical Behaviour of Engineering materials, McGraw

Hill, Singapore, 2000.
REFERENCES
1. Flinn.R.A and Trojan.P.K, Engineering Materials and their applications,
Jaico, Bombay, 1990.
2. Budinski.K.G and Budinski.M.K, Engineering Materials Properties and
selection, Prentice Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi, 2004.
3. ASM Metals Hand book, Failure analysis and prevention, Vol: 10, 14th edition,
New York, 2002.
MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Material Science investigates the relationship existing between the Structure
and Properties of materials. Role of material scientist is to develop or
synthesize new materials.
Material Engineering: On the basis of Structure and Properties correlations,
engineering or designing the structure of a material to produce a predetermined
set of properties. Role of material engineer is to create new products or systems
using existing material and to develop technique for processing materials.
Structure:
Arrangement of internal components.
Subatomic structure involves electrons and interaction with nuclei.
An atomic level, structure encompasses the organization or molecules
relative to one another.
Structural elements when viewed with microscope known as microscopic
view and when viewed with a naked eye is known as macroscopic view.
Property
All materials are exposed to external stimuli that evokes some type of
response.
Property is defined as a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of
response to a specific imposed stimulus.
Six different properties of material are mechanical, electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optic, and deteriorative.
Mechanical : deformation to an applied load /force.
Electrical: Electric conductivity/dielectric constant in stimulus to electronic
field.
Thermal: heat capacity and thermal conductivity.
Magnetic: response to application of magnetic field.
Optic: refractive index and reflectivity.
Deteriorative: chemical reactivity of material.
In additive to Structure and Property, two other components are involved in
material science and engineering viz: Processing and Performance.
Inter-relationship between processing , structure , properties and performance is
depicted in the below figure.
Processing
Structure
Properties
Performance
WHY STUDY MATERIAL SCIENCE & ENGINEERING?

An Engineer or Scientist should be more familiar with various characteristics
and structure-property relationship as well as processing techniques, which
Helps them to be more proficient and confident in selecting materials based
on above components.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
Basic classification
Metals
Ceramics
Polymers
Composites
Advance
materials
Metals:
Materials composed of one or more metallic elements (Fe,Al,Cu,Ti,Au)
and few more non-metallic elements(C,N,O) in relative small amount.
Atoms are arranged in orderly manner in metals.
Metals are relatively denser than ceramics and polymer.
Metals are relatively stiff and strong but ductile and resistant to fracture.
Metallic materials have large number of non localized electron to
particular atoms. This attribute the metal as good conductors of electricity,
heat and not transparent to visible light.
Ceramics: are compounds between metallic and non metallic elements,

mostly oxides, nitrides and carbides. Eg:Al2O3,SiO2,SiC and SiN4. Traditional
Ceramics are clay minerals, cement and glass.
Relatively stiff and strong comparable to metals.
Ceramics are hard.
Extremely brittle and highly susceptible to fracture.
Insulative to heat and electricity.
More resistant to high temperature.
With regard to optical characteristics, ceramics may be transparent,
translucent or opaque.
Composites: two or more individual elements from metals, ceramics and

polymer.
Combination of properties.
Natural components eg: wood and bone.
Synthesis composites
-Eg: Fiber glass in which small glass fiber are embedded in polymer
(epoxy/ polyester) .Glass fiber are relatively strong and stiff.
Eg: CFRP Carbon fiber reinforced plastics i.e. carbon fiber embedded
in plastic. CFRP are used in some aircraft and aerospace application.
Advanced Material:
Materials utilized in high technology applications.
Semi-conductors and Bio materials.
ATOMIC STRUCTURE & BONDING

Each atom consist of very small nucleus composed of protons and
neutrons which is encircled by moving electrons.
Both electrons and protons are electrically charge particles.( 1.60 x1019C).
Electrons are negatively charged, protons are positively charged and
Neutrons are electrically neutral.
Atomic number (Z) tells number of protons in nucleus. H-1 to U92.
Mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons.
Atomic mass (A) is the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons within
the Nucleus.
Atoms of some element have two or more different atomic masses,
known as isotopes. The atomic weight in the weighted average of the
atomic masses of the atoms naturally occurring isotopes.
A= Z+N where A- atomic mass , Z- atomic number and N- Nos of
neutrons.
ELECTRONS
Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus. Circling around
outside the nucleus are tiny little particles called electrons.
Electrons spin as they circle the nucleus billions of times every
second.
They are moving so fast and the path that they travel is not the same
each time, so that if we could see these electrons, they might appear
to look like a cloud around the nucleus.
According to current theory, electrons are arranged in energy levels
around the nucleus. When electrons gain or lose energy, they jump
between energy levels as they are rotating around the nucleus.
For example, as electrons gain energy, they might move from the
second to the third level. Then, as they lose energy, they might
move back to the second level or even to the first energy level.
Only a certain number of electrons can be in an energy level at the
same time.
BONDING FORCES
There are forces within the atom that account for the behavior of the protons,
neutrons, and electrons. Without these forces, an atom could not stay together.
Recall that protons have a positive charge, electrons a negative charge, and
neutrons are neutral. According to the laws of physics, like charges repel
each other and unlike charges attract each other.
A force called the strong force opposes and overcomes the force of repulsion
between the protons and holds the nucleus together. The net energy associated
with the balance of the strong force and the force of repulsion is called
the binding energy. The electrons are kept in orbit around the nucleus
because there is an electromagnetic field of attraction between the positive
charge of the protons and the negative charge of the electrons.
BONDING FORCES
Interactive forces bind the atoms together.
At larger distances , interactions are negligible but as the atoms
approach, each exerts forces on the other.
Two types of forces: Attractive forces FA and Repulsive forces FR.
Outer electrons shells of the two atoms begin to overlap as a strong
repulsive forces comes in to play
Net forces FN between two atoms is sum of both attractive and
repulsive components.
FN= FA + FR
Potential energies between two atoms are significant i.e E= Fdr Eenergy
EN= EA + ER
F-force.
Primary Bonding
Ionic
Types of bonding
Secondary Bonding
Covalent
Metallic
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
It is desirable to examine the structural elements and defects.
In most materials, the grains are of microscopic dimensions, grain size
and shape of that dimensions is know as microstructure.
Optical, Electron and Scanning probe microscope are used in
microscopy.
Optical Microscopy: Light microscope is used to study the microstructure.
For materials that are opaque to visible light (metals, ceramics and polymer),
the surface is subject to observation and light microscope must be used in a
Reflectivity mode.
times.
Compound
SimpleMagnification up to 2000
microscope
uses lens or set
of lenses to
enlarge an
object through
angular
magnification .
It is capable of
smaller
magnification
microscope uses a
lens close to the
object. That image
is then magnified
by a second lens or
group of lenses
gives the viewer an
enlarged inverted
virtual image of the
object.
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
An image of the structure is formed using because of electrons of light
radiations.
A velocity electron is inversely proportional to wave length. High velocity
electrons will have small wavelength in the order of 0.003mm.
High magnification and resolution are due to short wave length of electron
beam.Both transmission & reflection beam modes of operation are possible for
electron microscope.
Types : i)Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
ii)Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

TEM uses a high voltage electron beam to create an image. The electron
gun produces electron beam, having tungsten filament cathode as the
source. Electron is accelerated by an anode with respect to the cathode,
focused by electrostatic and electromagnetic lenses and transmitted
through the specimen that is in part transparent to electrons and in
part scatters them out of the beam.
When it emerges from the specimen, the electron beam carries information
about the structure of the specimen that is magnified by the objective
lens system of the microscope.
The spatial variation in this information (the "image") may be viewed by
projecting the magnified electron image onto a fluorescent viewing screen
coated with a phosphor or scintillator material such as zinc sulfide.
The image can be photographically recorded by exposing a photographic
film or plate directly to the electron beam, or a high-resolution phosphor
may be coupled by means of a lens optical system or a fibre optic lightguide to the sensor of a CCD (charge-coupled device) camera.
The image detected by the CCD may be displayed on a monitor or
computer.
High-resolution transmission
electron microscopy (HRTEM) has
allowed the production of images
with resolution below0.5 angstrom.
(50 picometres) and magnifications
above 50 million times.
The advantages TEM over X-ray
crystallography are that the
specimen need not be a single
crystal or even a polycrystalline
powder and no need for solving
phase problem.
The major disadvantage of the
transmission electron microscope is
the need for extremely thin sections
of the specimens, typically about
100 nanometers.
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

A SEM is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by
scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms
in the sample, producing various signals that can be detected and that contain
information about the sample's surface topography and composition.
The electron beam is generally scanned in a raster scan pattern, and the beam's
position is combined with the detected signal to produce an image.
SEM has resolution better than 1 nanometre. Specimens can be observed in
high vacuum, in low vacuum, in wet conditions and at a wide range of
cryogenic or elevated temperatures.
The most common SEM mode is detection of secondary electrons emitted
by atoms excited by the electron beam. The number of secondary electrons
depends on the angle at which beam meets surface of specimen,i.e. on
specimen topography.
By scanning the sample and collecting the secondary electrons with a special
detector, an image displaying the topography of the surface is created
.
The types of signals produced by a

SEM include secondary electrons
(SE), back-scattered electrons
(BSE), characteristic X-rays, light
(cathodoluminescence) (CL),
specimen current and transmitted
electrons.
Secondary electron detectors are
standard equipment in all SEMs,
but it is rare that a single machine
would have detectors for all
possible signals
SEM is based on scattered

electrons
SEM focuses on the samples
surface and its composition
TEM is based on transmitted

electrons
TEM provides the details about
internal composition.
No such need with SEM
The sample in TEM has to be cut

thinner
SEM has much lower resolution
SEM is used for surfaces,

powders, polished & etched
microstructures, IC chips,
chemical segregation
TEM is used for imaging of

dislocations, tiny precipitates, grain
boundaries and other defect structures
in solids
SEM also provides a 3dimensional image
TEM provides a 2-dimensional

picture.
THANK YOU

UNIT I - ELASTIC AND PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR
III YR /V SEM
ACADEMIC YEAR :2015-2016
By
Mr. S.SHAKTHIVEL
A.P(Sr.G)
Department of Mechanical
Engineering
SRM Univeristy
Kattankulathur
ELASTIC AND PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR

Elasticity is the physical property of materials which return to their
original shape after the stress that caused their deformation is no
longer applied.(within elastic limit)
Plasticity is the property of a material where it undergoes permanent
deformation under the load.
Stress - Force or load per unit area of cross-section over which the
force or load is acting.
Strain - Elongation change in dimension per unit length.
Youngs modulus - The slope of the linear part of the stress-strain
curve in the elastic region, same as Modulus of elasticity.
The Tensile Test: Use of the Stress-Strain Diagram

Load - The force applied to a material during testing.
Strain gage or Extensometer - A device used for measuring change in
length and hence strain.
Glass temperature (Tg ) - A temperature below which an otherwise
ductile material behaves as if it is brittle.
Engineering stress - The applied load, or force, divided by the
original ross-sectional area of the material.
Engineering strain - The amount that a material deforms per unit
length in a tensile test.
True stress The load divided by the actual cross-sectional area of the
specimen at that load.
True strain The strain calculated using actual and not original
dimensions,
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark

used herein under license.
A unidirectional force is
applied to a specimen in the
tensile test by means of the
moveable crosshead. The
cross-head movement can be
performed using screws or a
hydraulic mechanism
DUCTILE MATERIALS
DUCTILE MATERIALS
They include steel, copper, tungsten etc
.The proportional limit as the stress at which stress is no longer proportional
to strain.
The elastic limit as the stress at which the very first plastic deformation
occurs
The yield strength or yield point of a material is defined as the stress at
which a material begins to deform plastically.
Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be
permanent and non-reversible.
Ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress that a material can
withstand while being stretched or pulled before necking.
Necking is when large amount of strain is applied and there is a prominent
decrease in the cross-sectional area, which provides the name necking.
Stress-strain of 0.2% offset yield

strength in gray cast ion
Stress-strain curve for an aluminum

alloy
Brittle materials,which includes

cast iron, glass, and stone, are
characterized by the fact that
rupture occurs without any
noticeable prior change in the rate
of elongation
Stress-strain curve of low carbon alloy

True stress The load divided by the actual cross-sectional area of the
specimen at that load.
True strain The strain calculated using actual and not original dimensions,
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson

Learning is a trademark used herein under license.
The relation between the true stress-true

strain diagram and engineering stressengineering strain diagram.
The curves are identical to the yield point
The stress-strain behavior of brittle materials

compared with that of more ductile materials
POLYMERS
A polymer is a large molecule (macromolecule) composed of
repeating structural units. These sub-units are typically connected
by covalent chemical bonds.
Examples of polymers are plastic, rubber, proteins etc
Elastic properties of polymers differ from metals.
Their elastic moduli are very small when compared to those of
metals
They endure large deformation without rupture and can still return
to their original shape.
Their elastic moduli is increased with temperature.
MECHANISMS OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION

1.This type of deformation is irreversible.
2.However, an object in the plastic deformation range will first
have undergone elastic deformation, which is reversible.
3.Plastic deformation is characterized by a strain hardening region
and a necking region and finally, fracture (also called rupture).
4.During strain hardening the material becomes stronger through
the movement of atomic dislocations.(dislocations are
imperfections in crystal structure which increases as strain
increases)
5.There are two types of dislocations: edge and screw.
6.The modes of deformation are twinning and slip.
7.Necking, in engineering or materials science, is a mode of
tensile
deformation
where
relatively
large
amounts
of strain localize disproportionately in a small region of the
material. The resulting prominent decrease in local cross-sectional
area provides the basis for the name "neck".
This type of deformation is also irreversible. A break occurs after the

material has reached the end of the elastic, and then plastic, deformation
ranges. At this point forces accumulate until they are sufficient to cause a
fracture. All materials will eventually fracture, if sufficient forces are
applied.
Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test

produces a necked region. The micrograph shows necked region in a
fractured sample
Mechanism of elastic and plastic deformation
DEFECTS /IMPERFECTIONS
The arrangement of the atoms or ions in engineered materials contains
imperfections or defects(Real Crystals). These defects often have a profound
effect on the properties of materials.
These imperfections only represent defects in or deviations from the perfect
or ideal atomic or ionic arrangements expected in a given crystal structure.
Three basic types of imperfections :Point defects, Line defects (or
dislocations), Surface(Plane) defects and Volume defects
The material is not considered defective from a technological viewpoint.
In many applications, the presence of such defects is useful. Eg: Defects
known as dislocations are useful for increasing the strength of metals and
alloys.
Often the defects may be created intentionally to produce a desired set of
electronic, magnetic, optical, or mechanical properties.
Eg:i)Pure iron is relatively soft, adding a small amount of carbon, creating
defects and getting trasformed to Plain carbon steel of higher strength.
ii)Pure alumina is transparent and colorless,adding small amount of
chromium,creatin a special defect, resulting in a beautiful red ruby crystal.
Point Defects
A point defect is an irregularity in the lattice associated with a missing atom
(vacancy), an extra atom (interstitial), or an impurity (substitutional)
Atom, Frenkel defect, and Schottky defect.
Vacancy is simply
missing from the
crystalline lattice.
Vacancies are created
during solidification due to
imperfect packing and
elevated temperatures. The
atoms are constantly being
displaced from their ideal
locations by thermal
vibrations. The frequency
of vibration is
almost independent of
temperature, but the
amplitude increases with
increasing temperature.
The number of vacancies increases exponentially with temperature according

to: nv=N e-Ev/KT where nv is the number of vacancies at temperature;
N is the total number of lattice sites( no of atoms per cm cube.
Ev is the energy necessary to form a vacancy;
k is the Boltzmann constant (1.38x10-24 J/K); and
T is the absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin.
As Vacancies increases , density slightly and electrical conductivity
also decreases Vacancies enhance atomic diffusion.
Interstitial Defects formed when an extra atom or ion is inserted into the
crystal structure at a normally unoccupied position.
Interstitial atoms or ions, although much smaller than the atoms or ions
located at the lattice points, are still larger than the interstitial sites that they
occupy; consequently, the surrounding crystal region is compressed and
distorted.
Eg.:Interstitial atoms such as hydrogen are often present as impurities.
Carbon atoms are intentionally added to iron to produce steel. For small
concentrations, carbon atoms occupy interstitial sites in the iron crystal
structure, introducing a stress in the localized region of the crystal in their
vicinity. Once introduced, the number of interstitial atoms or ions in the
structure remains nearly constant, even when the temperature esrmnotes.in
is changed.
| Class notes made easy.
Substitutional defect :When one atom or ion is replaced by a different

type of atom or ion The substitutional atoms or ions occupy the normal
lattice site. Substitutional atoms or ions may either be larger or smaller
than the normal atoms or ions in the crystal structure, causing surrounding
interatomic spacings be reduced and have larger interatomic spacings
Examples:i)Incorporation of dopants such as phosphorus (P) or boron (B)
into Si. ii) Add copper to nickel, copper atoms will occupy crystallographic
sites where nickel atoms would normally be present.
Substitutional atoms often increase the strength of the metallic material.
MECHANISMS FOR CREATING VACANCIES

Frenkel mechanism (Vacancy and interstitial):
An atom is displaced from its normal lattice
position into an interstitial site. This requires
quite a bit of energythe energy to form a
vacancy and the energy to form an
interstitial. Therefore, the probability is quite
low. Frenkel defect can occur in metals and
covalently bonded materials.
Schottky mechanism (Vacancy and substitutional): vacancies originate at free
surfaces and move by diffusion into the crystal interior. Solute atoms of a
second metal can be present as impurities or added as intentional alloying
elements. These solute atoms can substitute on the crystalline lattice for
solvent atoms and form substitutional point defects, or they can be located in
the interstitial locations between the atoms of the crystalline lattice to form
interstitial defects.It is commonly found in many ceramic materials.
For example,
One Mg+2 vacancy and one O-2 vacancy in MgO constitute a Schottky pair.
Line Defects (Dislocations)

The existence of line defects is known as Dislocations .This happens
during solidification of the material or when the material is deformed
permanently.Particularly useful in explaining deformation and strengthening
in metallic materials. A crystalline metal without dislocations, although
extremely strong, would also be extremely brittle and practically useless as
an engineering material. Thus, dislocations play a central role in the
determination of strength and ductility
Three types of dislocations: the Screw dislocation, Edge dislocation, and
Mixed dislocation.
Screw Dislocations: By cutting partway through a perfect crystal and then
skewing the crystal by one atom spacing. When crystal was skewed,
starting at point x and traveling equal atom spacings in each direction, and
finish at point y one atom spacing below our starting point.
If a screw dislocation were not present, the loop would close. The vector
required to complete the loop is the Burgers vector b. The Burgers vector
is parallel to the screw dislocation. The motion of a screw dislocation is
also a result of shear stress
Edge Dislocations:By slicing partway through a perfect crystal, spreading

the crystal apart, and partly filling the cut with an extra half plane of atoms.
The bottom edge of this inserted plane represents the edge dislocation.
If a clockwise loop around the edge dislocation is taken, starting at point x
and traveling an equal number of atom spacings in each direction, and
finish at point y one atom spacing from the starting point.
If an edge dislocation were not present, the loop would close.
The vector required to complete the loop(Burgers vector) is perpendicular
to the dislocation.
Dislocation Motion :A plane that contains both the dislocation line and the
Burgers vector is known as slip plane. When large shear stress acting
parallel to the Burgers vector is applied to a crystal containing a dislocation,
the dislocation can move through a process known as slip.
The bonds across the slip plane between the atoms in the column to the
right of the dislocation shown are broken.
The atoms in the column to the right of the dislocation below the slip plane
are shifted slightly so that they establish bonds with the atoms of the edge
dislocation.
In this way, the dislocation has shifted to the right [Figure 47(b)].
If this process continues, the dislocation moves through the crystal [Figure
4-7(c)] until it produces a step on the exterior of the crystal [Figure 4-7(d)]
in the slip direction (which is parallel to the Burgers vector).
Slip
Plastic deformation takes place by sliding (slip) of close-packed planes over
one another.
If an edge dislocation is subjected
to a shear stress that acts parallel
to the Burgers vector and
perpendicular to the dislocation line.
A component of the shear stress
must act parallel to the Burgers
vector in order for the dislocation to
move. The dislocation line
moves in a direction parallel to the
Burgers vector.
For a screw dislocation, a component

of the shear stress must act parallel to
the Burgers vector (and thus the
dislocation line) in order for the
dislocation to move. The dislocation
moves in a direction perpendicular to
the Burgers vector, and the slip step
that is produced is parallel to the
Burgers vector. Since the Burgers
vector of a screw dislocation
is parallel to the dislocation line,
specification of the Burgers vector and
dislocation line does not define a slip
plane for a screw dislocation.
The Peierls-Nabarro stress is required to move the dislocation
from one equilibrium location to another
where is the shear stress, d is the interplanar spacing
between adjacent slip planes, b is the magnitude of the Burgers
vector, and both c and k are constants for the material.
Factors influencing Slip Systems

1.The stress required for dislocation to move increases exponentially with
the length of the Burgers vector. Thus, the slip direction should have a small
repeat distance or high linear density. The close-packed directions in metals
and alloys satisfy this criterion and are the usual slip directions.
2. The stress required for dislocation to move decreases exponentially with
the interplanar spacing of the slip planes. Slip occurs most easily between
planes of atoms that are smooth (so there are smaller hills and valleys on
the surface) and between planes that are far apart (or have a relatively large
interplanar spacing). Planes with a high planar density fulfill this
requirement. Therefore, the slip planes are typically close-packed planes or
those as closely packed as possible.
3. Dislocations do not move easily in materials such as silicon, which have
covalent bonds. Because of the strength and directionality of the bonds, the
materials typically fail in a brittle manner before the force becomes high
enough to cause appreciable slip.
Dislocations also play a relatively minor role in the deformation of
polymers. Most polymers contain a substantial volume fraction of material
that is amorphous and, therefore, does not contain dislocations.
Permanent deformation in polymers primarily involves the stretching, rotation,

and disentanglement of long chain molecules.
4. Materials with ionic bonding, including many ceramics such as MgO, also
are resistant to slip. Movement of a dislocation disrupts the charge balance
around the anions and cations, requiring that bonds between anions and cations
be broken.
Common slip systems in several materials
Twinning is a mechanism that causes plastic deformation, is of less

important to dislocation movement.
Mechanical twinning is the coordinated movement of large numbers of
atoms that deform a portion of the crystal by an abrupt shearing motion.
Atoms on each side of the twinning plane, or habit plane, form a mirror
image with those on the other side of the plane.
Twins occur in pairs, such that the change in orientation of the atoms
introduced by one twin is restored by the second twin.. Twins can occur as a
result of plastic deformation (deformation twins) or during annealing
(annealing twins).
Mechanical twinning occurs in bcc and hcp metals, while annealing twins
are fairly common in fcc metals.
Mechanical twinning increases the strength because it subdivides the crystal,
thereby increasing the number of barriers to dislocation movement.
The amount of bulk plastic deformation in twinning is small compared
to slip.
There is a difference in orientation of the atoms in the twinned region
compared to the untwinned region that constitutes a phase boundary.
Twins form suddenly, at a rate approaching the speed of sound, and can
produce audible sounds, such as tin cry.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SLIP AND TWINNING

SLIP
orientation above and

Orientation below the slip plane is the
same
Mirror
Image
No such relationship exists

in slip.
the deformation is
Deformation nonhomogeneous
Stress
lower stress is required to

initiate it, while a higher
stress is required to
keep it propagating.
TWINNING
orientation change
across the twin plane.
Atoms in the twinned portion
of the lattice form a mirror
image with the
untwinned
deformationportion.
is homogeneous
because all of the atoms move
cooperatively at the sametime.
In twinning, a high stress is
required to initiate, but a very
low stress is required for
propagation.
Significance of Dislocation
-Strength of metals is much lower than metallic bond. If slip occurs, only a
tiny fraction of all of the metallic bonds across the interface need to be
broken at any one time. Strength of metals is 103 to 104 times lower than
that strength of metallic bonds.
-Slip provides ductility in metals. If no dislocations were present, an iron
bar would be brittle and the metal could not be shaped by metalworking.
-The dislocation density, or total length of dislocations per unit volume, is
usually used to represent the amount of dislocations present. Dislocation
densities of 106cm/cm3 are typical of the softest metals, while densities up to
1012 cm/cm3 can be achieved by deforming the material.
-Dislocations also influence electronic and optical properties of materials.
Eg: the resistance of pure copper increases with increasing dislocation
density.
-Presence of dislocations has a deleterious effect on the performance of
photo detectors, light emitting diodes, lasers, and solar cells.
Schmids Law :Differences in behaviour of metals that have different

crystal structures can be understood by examining the force required to
initiate the slip process. If a unidirectional force F is applied to a cylinder
of metal that is a single crystal We can orient the slip plane and slip
direction to the applied force by defining the angles and . .The angle
between the slip direction and the applied force is , and is the angle
between the normal to the slip plane and the applied force.
Note that the sum of angles and can be, but does not have to be, 90.
In order for the dislocation to move in its slip system, a shear force acting in
the slip direction must be produced by the applied force.
This resolved shear force Fr is given by
If we divide the equation by the area of the slip plane,
There fore
known as Schmid Law.
Calculation of Resolved Shear Stress

If we apply Schmidt's law, in which the single crystal is oriented so that the
slip plane is perpendicular to the applied tensile stress.
Suppose the slip plane is perpendicular to the applied stressEven if the applied stress is enormous, no resolved shear stress
develops along the slip direction and the dislocation cannot
move. Slip cannot occur if the slip system is oriented so that
Either or is 90
The critical resolved shear stress crss is the shear stress required for slip to
occur. Thus slip occurs, causing the metal to plastically deform, when the
applied stress produces a resolved shear stress (r) that equals the critical
resolved shear stress crss .
Yield stress for real crystals

1.The stress level at which a metal or other material ceases to behave
elastically. The stress divided by the strain is no longer constant. The
point at which this occurs is known as the yield point.
2.The initial elastic strain is caused by the simple stretching of bonds.
Hooke's Law applies to this region.
3.At the yield point, stage I begins. The crystal will extend considerably
at almost constant stress. This is called easy glide, and is caused by slip
on one slip system.
4.The geometry of the crystal changes as slip proceeds.
5.In this stage of deformation, known as stage II, dislocations are gliding
on two slip systems, and they can interact.
6.Consequently, the crystal becomes more difficult to extend. This
phenomenon is called work hardening.
7.Stage III corresponds to extension at high stresses, where the applied
force becomes sufficient to overcome the obstacles, so the slope of the
graph becomes progressively less steep. The work hardening saturates.
8.Stage III ends with the failure of the crystal.
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Defects in materials, such as dislocations, point defects and grain boundaries,
serve as stop signs for dislocations. It is necessary to provide resistance to
dislocation motion, and any mechanism that impedes dislocation motion
makes a metal stronger. Strengthening Mechanisms are :Strain Hardening
Solid-Solution Strengthening
Grain-Size Strengthening
Dispersion strengthening
Strain Hardening :Strengthening of a material by increasing the number of
dislocations by deformation, or cold working. Also known as work
hardening. Work hardening is a measure of how the resistance to plastic
flow increases as the metal is deformed.
While slip is required to facilitate plastic deformation and therefore allow a
metal to be formed into useful shapes, strengthening metals requires
increasing the number of barriers to slip and reducing the ability to
plastically deform. Increasing the interference to slip and increasing the
strength can be accomplished by methods such as plastic deformation.
As a metal is plastically deformed, new dislocations are created,

so that the dislocation density becomes higher and higher. In addition to
multiplying, the dislocations become entangled and impede each others
motion. The result is increasing resistance to plastic deformation with
increasing dislocation density. The number of dislocations is defined by the
dislocation density, , which is the length of dislocations per unit volume
of material. Therefore, the units of are cm/cm3 or cm-2.
The dislocation density of an annealed metal usually varies between
approximately 106 and 107 cm/cm2, while that for a cold-worked metal
may run as high as 108 to 1011 cm/cm2.
Work hardening results in a simultaneous increase in strength and a
decrease in ductility. Since the work hardened condition increases the
stored energy in the metal and is thermodynamically unstable, the deformed
metal will try to return to a state of lower energy.
This generally cannot be accomplished at room temperature. Elevated
temperatures, in the range of 1/2 to 3/4 of the absolute melting point, are
necessary to allow mechanisms, such as diffusion, to restore the
lower-energy state. The process of heating a work-hardened metal to
restore its original strength and ductility is called annealing
Relationship of Cold Working to the Stress-Strain Curve.
Many techniques for deformation processing are used to simultaneously

shape and strengthen a material by cold working.Viz:
Rolling is used to produce metal plate, sheet, or foil.
Forging deforms the metal into a die cavity, producing relatively complex
shapes such as automotive crankshafts or connecting rods.
Drawing is pulling a metallic rod through a die to produce a wire or fiber.
In extrusion, a material is pushed through a die to form products of uniform
cross-sections, including rods, tubes, or aluminium trims for doors/ windows.
Deep drawing is used to form the body of aluminum beverage cans.
Stretch forming and bending are used to shape sheet material.
Strain-Hardening Exponent (n): The response of a metallic material
to cold working is given by the strain-hardening exponent, which is the
slope of the plastic portion of the true stress-true strain curve.
This relationship is governed by so-called power law behaviour according
to true stress -true strain curve when a logarithmic scale is used
Larger degrees of strengthening are

obtained for a given strain as n increases.
The strain-hardening exponent
is relatively low for HCP metals, but is
higher for BCC and FCC metals
Springback: When a metallic material is
deformed using a stress above its yield strength
to a higher level (S1)the corresponding strain
existing at stress S1 is obtained by dropping a
perpendicular line to the horizontal axis (point
etotal). A strain equal to (etotal - e1) is recovered
since it is elastic in nature. The elastic strain
that is recovered after a material has been
plastically deformed is known as springback
The occurrence of springback is extremely
important for the formation of automotive body
panels from sheet steels.
Strain Hardening Mechanisms:When we apply a stress greater than

the yield strength, dislocations begin to slip (Schmids Law)Hence, a
dislocation moving on its slip plane encounters obstacles that pin the
dislocation line. As we continue to apply the stress, the dislocation attempts
to move by bowing in the center. The dislocation may move so far that a
loop is produced. when the dislocation loop finally touches itself, a new
dislocation is created. The original dislocation is still pinned and can create
additional dislocation loops. This mechanism for generating dislocations is
called a Frank-Read source.
Solid Solution Strengthening

Unlimited Solubility
-The water is one phase, and the alcohol is a second phase. If we pour the
water into the alcohol and stir, only one phase is produced.The glass contains
a solution of water and alcohol having unique properties and composition.
Water and alcohol are soluble in each other and they display Unlimited
solubility. Only one phase is produced when they are mixed together.
-Similarly, Mix any amounts of liquid copper and liquid nickel, only one
liquid phase would be produced. This liquid alloy has the same composition
and properties everywhere because nickel and copper have Unlimited liquid
solubility.
-If the liquid copper-nickel alloy solidifies and cools to room temperature
while maintaining thermal equilibrium, only one solid phase is produced.
After solidification, they dont separate but, instead, are randomly located
within the FCC crystal structure. Within the solid phase, the structure,
properties, and composition are uniform and no interface exists between the
copper and nickel atoms. Therefore, copper and nickel also have Unlimited
solid solubility. The solid phase is a Solid solution of copper and nickel.
A solid solution is not a mixture. A mixture contains more than one type
of phase, and the characteristics of each phase are retained when the
mixture is formed. But in a Solid solution ,they completely dissolve in one
another and do not retain their individual characteristics.
Other Examples:
Solid solutions of Barium titanate(BaTiO3)with Strontium titanate SrTiO3
and other oxides to make electronic components such as capacitors. Millions
of multilayer capacitors are made each year using such materials.
Solid solutions of Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and Aluminum arsenide
(AlAs).They are used for red LEDs for displays
Limited Solubility When we add a small quantity of salt (one phase) to
a glass of water (a second phase) and stir, the salt dissolves completely in the
water. Only one phasesalty water or brineis found. If we add too much
salt to the water, the excess salt sinks to the bottom of the glass . Now we
have two phaseswater that is saturated with salt and excess solid salt. We
find that salt has a limited solubility in water.
If small amount of liquid zinc added to liquid copper, a single liquid

solution is produced. When that copper-zinc solution cools and solidifies, a
single solid solution having an FCC structure results, with copper and zinc
atoms randomly located at the normal lattice points.
If the liquid solution contains more than about 30% Zn, some of the excess
zinc atoms combine with some of the copper atoms to form a CuZn
compound
Two solid phases now coexist: a solid solution of copper saturated with
about 30% Zn plus a CuZn compound. The solubility of zinc in copper is
limited.
Conditions for Unlimited Solid Solubility-Hume-Rothery rules:

1.Size factor: The atoms or ions must be of similar size, with no more
than a 15% difference in atomic radius, in order to minimize the lattice strain
2. Crystal structure: The materials must have the same crystal structure;
otherwise, there is some point at which a transition occurs from one phase to
a second phase with a different structure.
3. Valence: The ions must have the same valence; otherwise, the valence
electron difference encourages the formation of compounds rather than
solutions.
4. Electronegativity: The atoms must have approximately the same
electronegativity. Electronegativity is the affinity for electrons If the electro
negativities differ significantly, compounds formas when sodium and
chloride ions combine to form sodium chloride.
The figure shows schematically

the two-dimensional structures of
MgO and NiO. The Mg+2andNi+2
ions are similar in size and valence
and consequently can replace on
another, forming a complete series
of solid solutions of the form ,
(Mgx+2Ni+21-x)O where x = the
mole fraction of Mgx+2 or MgO.
Solid Solution Strengthening: This strengthening through solid

solution formation is caused by increased resistance to dislocation
motion.This is one of the important reasons why brass (Cu-Zn alloy) is
stronger than pure copper. Carbon also plays another role in the
strengthening of steels by forming ironcarbide (Fe3C), Jewellery could be
made out from pure gold or silver; however, pure gold and pure silver are
extremely soft and malleable. Jewelers add copper to gold and silver so that
the jewellery will retain its shape.
Degree of Solid-Solution Strengthening: The degree of solid solution

strengthening depends on two factors.
First, a large difference in atomic size between the original (host or
solvent) atom and the added (guest or solute) atom increases the
strengthening effect. A larger size difference produces a greater disruption
of the initial
crystal structure, making slip more difficult
Second, the greater the amount of alloying element added, the greater the
strengthening effect (Figure 10-7). A Cu-20% Ni alloy is stronger than a
Cu-10% Ni alloy. Of course, if too much of a large or small atom is added,
the solubility limit may be exceeded and a different strengthening
mechanism, dispersion strengthening, is produced.
Formation of Solid Solution Strengthening

When a metal is alloyed with another metal, either substitutional or
interstitial solid solutions are usually formed.
Substitutional solid solutions are those in which the solute and solvent atoms
are nearly the same size, and the solute atoms simply substitute for solvent
atoms on the crystalline lattice.
Interstitial solid solutions are those in which the solute atoms are much
smaller and fit within the spaces between the existing solvent atoms on the
crystalline structure.
However, the only solute atoms small enough to fit into the interstices of
metal crystals are hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, and boron. The other smalldiameter atoms, such as oxygen, tend to form compounds with metals rather
than dissolve in them.
When both small and large solute atoms are present, the solid solution can
be both interstitial and substitutional.
Interstitial Solid Solutions: The four elements carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen,

and boron have such small diameters that they can form interstitial solid
solutions. Only the transition metals (e.g., iron, nickel, titanium,
and zirconium) have appreciable solubilities for carbon, nitrogen, and boron.
Very small atoms, such as carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen, can fit in the
spaces between the larger atoms. These sites are called interstitial sites and
can be of either the tetrahedral or octahedral variety
Interstitial atoms generally strengthen a metal more than substitutional
atoms do, since the interstitials cause more distortion. Carbon atoms in the
BCC form of iron are particularly potent hardeners in this respect.
Carbon, nitrogen, and boron are important
alloying elements in steels. Interstitial carbon
in
iron forms the basis of steel hardening. Indeed,
steels are alloys of iron and small amounts of
carbon. In addition, carbon and nitrogen are
diffused into the surfaces to provide hardness
and wear resistance in processes called
carburizing and nitriding.
Substitutional Solid Solutions

The four rules that give a qualitative estimate of the ability of two metals
to form substitutional solid solutions were developed by Hume-Rothery.
Ordered Structures: Substitutional solid solutions can further be

divided into three types: random, clustered, and ordered.Random solid
solutions are by far the most common. In a random solution, two types of
atoms, A and B, show no preference in their bonding. In other words, A-A,
A-B, and B-B bonds are equally formed. In clustering, there is a free energy
reduction in the system when A-A and B-B bonds form into A-A and B-B
regions or clusters. Finally, in an ordered solution, the lowest free
energy is obtained when A-B bonds are preferred.
Grain boundary Strengthening

Grain Boundaries:
The microstructure of metallic materials consists of many grains.
A grain is a portion of the material within which the arrangement of the
atoms is nearly identical; however, the orientation of the atom
arrangement, or crystal structure, is different for each adjoining grain.
Eg:In Figure aThree grains are shown, the arrangement of atoms in each grain
is identical but the grains are oriented differently.
A grain boundary, the surface that separates the individual grains, is a
narrow zone in which the atoms are not properly spaced. That is,the atoms
are so close together at some locations in the grain boundary resulting in
region of compression, and in other areas they are far apart causing a region
of tension. Fig b shows a micrograph of grains in a stainless steel sample.
Atoms within the grain boundaries are highly strained and distorted;
therefore, grain boundaries are high energy sites. The average diameter of
the individual grains within a polycrystalline metal defines the metal grain
size. Grain boundaries are a result of the solidification process and occur as
a result of the misorientation of the grains as they are frozen into position.
How grain boundary strengthening occurs?

One method of controlling the properties of a material is by controlling the
grain size. By reducing the grain size, we increase the number of grains and,
hence, increase the amount of grain boundary area.
Any dislocation moves only a short distance before encountering a grain
boundary, and the strength of the metallic material is increased.
Reducing the grain size produces more changes in direction of the slip path
and also lengthens it, making slip more difficult; therefore, grain boundaries
are effective obstacles to slip. In addition, dislocations cannot cross the highenergy grain boundaries; instead, they are blocked and pile up at the
boundaries. Decreasing the grain size is effective in both increasing strength
and also increasing ductility, and, as such, is one of the most effective
strengthening mechanisms.
The Hall-Petch equation relates the grain size to the yield strength,
Where y is the yield strength

(the level of stress necessary
to cause a certain amount of
permanent deformation).
d is average diameter of the grains
and o and K are constants for the
metal. The Hall-Petch equation is
not valid for materials with
unusallylarge or ultrafine grains
The yield strength of mild steel with an average grain size of 0.05 mm is
20,000 psi. The yield stress of the same steel with a grain size of 0.007 mm
is 40,000 psi. What will be the average grain size of the same steel with a
yield stress of 30,000 psi? Assume the Hall-Petch equation is valid and that
changes in the observed yield stress are due to changes in grain size.
Solution:
Thus, for a grain size of 0.05 mm, the yield stress is
The process of preparing a metallic sample and observing or recording its

microstructure is called metallography. A sample of the material is sanded
and polished to a mirror-like finish.
The surface is then exposed to chemical attack, or etching, with grain
boundaries being attacked more aggressively than the remainder of the
grain. Light from an optical microscope is reflected or scattered from the
sample surface, depending on how the surface is etched. When more light is
scattered from deeply etched features such as the grain boundaries, these
features appear dark
ASTM grain size number:
The number of grains per square inch is determined from a photograph of
the metal taken at a magnification of 100. The ASTM grain size number n is
calculated as
where N is the number of grains per square inch.
Dispersion strengthening
Most engineered materials are composed of more than one phase, and many
of these materials are designed to provide improved strength.
In dispersion-strengthened alloys, small particles of one phase, usually very
strong and hard, are introduced into a second phase, which is weaker but
more ductile. The soft phase, usually continuous and present in larger
amounts, is called the matrix. The hard-strengthening phase may be called
the dispersed phase or the precipitate, depending on how the alloy is
formed.
For dispersion strengthening to occur, the dispersed phase or precipitate must
be small enough to provide effective obstacles to dislocation movement, thus
providing the strengthening mechanism.
Eg: Eutectic reaction- solidification transformation in which a liquid freezes
to simultaneously form two solid phases.(cast irons & aluminium alloys.)
Note: Eutectic A three-phase invariant reaction in which one liquid phase
solidifies to produce two solid phases.
Factors influencing Dispersion Strengthening:

1. The
matrix should be soft and ductile, while the dispersed phase should be
hard and strong. The dispersed phase particles interfere with slip, while the
matrix provides at least some ductility to the overall alloy.
2. The hard dispersed phase should be discontinuous, while the soft, ductile
matrix should be continuous. If the hard and brittle dispersed phase were
continuous, cracks could propagate through the entire structure.
3. The dispersed phase particles should be small and numerous, increasing
the likelihood that they interfere with the slip process since the area of the
interphase interface is increased significantly.
4. The dispersed phase particles should be round, rather than needle-like or
sharp edged, because the rounded shape is less likely to initiate a crack or to
act as a notch.
5. Higher concentrations of the dispersed phase increase the strength of the
alloy.
Intermetallic compound:
Dispersion-strengthened alloys contain an intermetallic compound as the
dispersed phase.Many intermetallic compounds, are being investigated and
developed for high temperature applications.
An intermetallic compound contains two or more metallic elements,
producing a new phase with its own composition, crystal structure, and
properties. Intermetallic compounds are almost always very hard and brittle.
Dispersion hardened materials can be produced with the help of powder

metallurgy- a process in which powder(of materials) of required shape, size
and distribution are mixed in desired proportions and then compacted and
sintered at the appropriate temperature.
Particle Hardening(Artificial)
Particle, hardening occurs when extremely small particles are dispersed
throughout the matrix.
When a dislocation encounters a fine particle, it must either cut through
the particle or bow (loop) around it, as particles are usually classified as
deformable or non deformable, meaning that the dislocation is able to cut
through it (deformable) or the particle is so strong that the dislocation
cannot cut through (non deformable).
For effective particle strengthening, the matrix should be soft and ductile,
while the particles should be hard and discontinuous.
A ductile matrix is better in resisting catastrophic crack propagation.
Smaller and more numerous particles are more effective at interfering
with dislocation motion than larger and more widely spaced particles.
Note: Two types of particle strengthening are : precipitation hardening,

which takes place during heat treatment, and true dispersion hardening,
which can be achieved by mechanical alloying and powder metallurgy
consolidation
PRECIPITATION HARDENING is used extensively to strengthen

aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, nickel-base superalloys, berylliumcopper alloys, and precipitation hardening stainless steels.
In precipitation hardening, an alloy is heated to a high enough temperature to
take a significant amount of an alloying element into solid solution.
It is then rapidly cooled (quenched) to room temperature, trapping the
alloying elements in solution.
On reheating to an intermediate temperature, the host metal rejects the
alloying element in the form of fine precipitates that create matrix strains in
the lattice. These fine precipitate particles act as barriers to the motion of
dislocations and provide resistance to slip, thereby increasing the strength and
hardness.
Theory of Precipitation Hardening

Precipitation hardening is also known as age hardening or aging, to indicate
that the resulting strength increase develops with time. However, in both cases,
the hardening mechanism is the precipitation of extremely fine particles, which
impedes dislocation movement.
When the alloy is heated to the solution heat treating temperature and held for a
sufficient length of time, the solvent metal absorbs some of the solute metal.
Then, when it is rapidly cooled to room temperature, atoms of the solute metal
are trapped as a supersaturated solid solution in the solvent metal.
On reheating to an intermediate aging temperature, the supersaturated
solution precipitates very fine particles that act as barriers to dislocation
movement.
If the metal is aged at too low a temperature (T1), the precipitation process will
be incomplete, and the desired strength will not be achieved, a condition known
as underaging.
On the other hand, aging at too high a temperature (T4) also results in lowerthan-desired strength because the precipitate particles coarsen, and the
alloy is now said to be overaged.
Commercial heat treatments are closer to T2 and T3, in which the optimal
strength can be obtained in a reasonable aging time.
Microstructural Evolution in Age or Precipitation Hardening

The Al-4% Cu alloy is a classic example of an age-hardenable alloy.There are three steps in
the age hardening heat treatment.
A solvus is a line on a phase diagram which separates a homogeneous solid
solution from a field of several phases.
Step 2: Quench After solution
treatment, the alloy, which contains only

in its structure, is rapidly cooled, or
quenched.
The atoms do not have time to diffuse to
potential nucleation sites, so the does not
form.
After the quench, the structure is a
supersaturated solid solution ss
containing excess copper, and it is not an
equilibrium structure. It is a metastable
structure. This situation is effectively the
same as undercooling of water, molten
metals, and silicate glasses . The only
difference is we are dealing with materials in
their solid state.
Step 3: Age
Finally, the supersaturated is heated at a

temperature below the solvus temperature.
At this aging temperature, atoms diffuse only
short distances. Because the supersaturated
is metastable, the extra copper atoms diffuse to
numerous nucleation sites and precipitates
grow. Eventually, if we hold the alloy for a
sufficient time at the aging temperature, the
equilibrium + structure is produced.
Note that even though the structure that is
formed has two equilibrium phases (i.e. + )
, the morphology of the phases is different from
the structure that would have been obtained by
the slow cooling of this alloy
This produce the phase in the form of ultrafine uniformly dispersed second-phase
precipitate particles. This is what we need for
effective precipitation strengthening.
Fiber Reinforced Strengthening

Fiber-reinforced composites provide improved strength, fatigue resistance,
Youngs modulus, and strength-to-weight ratio by incorporating strong, stiff,
but brittle fibers into a softer, more ductile matrix
The matrix material transmits the force to the fibers, which carry most of the
applied force. The matrix also provides protection for the fiber surface
and minimizes diffusion of species such as oxygen or moisture that can
degrade the mechanical properties of fibers.
The strength of the composite may be high at both room temperature and
elevated temperatures.
Straw has been used to strengthen mud bricks for centuries. Steel-reinforcing
bars are introduced into concrete structures.
Glass fibers in a polymer matrix produce fiberglass for transportation and
aerospace applications. Fibers made of boron, carbon, polymers and ceramics
provide exceptional reinforcement in advanced composites based on matrices
of polymers, metals, ceramics, and even intermetallic compounds.
The Rule of Mixtures in Fiber-Reinforced Composites

where the subscripts m and f refer to the matrix and
the fiber
Different geometric arrangements of the fibers are possible. The fibers may
be unidirectionally aligned, aligned at 90 to one another in a woven fabric,
or randomly oriented.
The fibers may be very long or chopped into short segments for easy
fabrication. In thick sections, it is possible to have three-dimensional
composites with randomly oriented short fibers. Fiber reinforcement is used
to impart stiffness (increased modulus of elasticity) or strength to the matrix.
Fiber reinforcement also increases toughness
Characteristics of Fiber Reinforced Composites

length, diameter, orientation, amount, and properties of the fibers; the
properties of the matrix; and the bonding between the fibers and the matrix
Fiber Length and Diameter Fibers can be short, long, or even continuous.
Their dimensions are often characterized by the aspect ratio l/d, where l is
the fiber length and d is the diameter. Typical fibers have diameters varying
from 10 m to 150 m.
The strength of a composite improves when the aspect ratio is large. Fibers
often fracture because of surface imperfections.
Making the diameter as small as possible gives the fiber less surface area and,
consequently, fewer flaws that might propagate during processing or under a
load.
Amount of Fiber A greater volume fraction of fibers increases the strength
and stiffness of the composite, as we would expect from the rule of mixtures.
The maximum volume fraction is about 80%, beyond which fibers can no
longer be completely surrounded by the matrix.
Orientation of Fibers The reinforcing

fibers may be introduced into the
matrix in a number of orientations.
Short, randomly oriented fibers having a
small aspect ratiotypical of
fiberglassare easily introduced into the
matrix and give relatively
isotropic behavior in the composite.
Long, or even continuous, unidirectional
arrangements of fibers produce
anisotropic properties, with particularly
good strength and stiffness parallel to the
fibers.
These fibers are often designated as 0
plies, indicating that all of the fibers are
aligned with the direction of the applied
stress. Unidirectional orientations
provide poor properties
if the load is perpendicular to the fibers
DISPERSION HARDENING
Dispersion hardening is a mean of

strengthening a metal by creating a fine
dispersion of insoluble particles within the
metal.
So metals containing finely dispersed particles
are much stronger than the pure metal matrix.
(A metal matrix composite (MMC) is composite
material with at least two constituent parts, one
being a metal. The other material may be a
different metal or another material, such as a
ceramic or organic compound.)
PARTICULATE STRENGTHENED
SYSTEMS
The difference between particulate and
dispersion strengthened systems are in the size
of dispersed particles and their volumetric
concentration.
In dispersion strengthening the particle size are
small as compared to particulate strengthened
systems
Because of their size the particle can not
interfere with dislocations and exhibits a
strengthening effect by hydrostatically
SUPERPLASTICITY
In materials science, superplasticity is a state in

which solid crystalline material is deformed well
beyond its usual breaking point, usually over
about 200% during tensile deformation.
Such a process happens at a very high
temperature.
Examples of superplastic materials are some
fine-grained metals and ceramics.
Other non-crystalline materials (amorphous)
such as silica glass ("molten glass") and
polymers also deform similarly, but are not
SUPERPLASTICITY OF NANOCRYSTALLINE COPPER

AT ROOM TEMPERATURE
DEFORMATION OF NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS
In non-crystalline materials, permanent

deformation is often related to localized slip
and/or viscous flow (low stress or high
temperature)
Viscous flow is due to permanent displacement
of atoms in different locations within the
material.
Glass transition temperature is an important
factor to the deformation in non-crystalline
material.
The glass-liquid transition (or glass
Strengthening Mechanisms
Slip in single crystals
s
o
c
s
o
c
PA
ss
oo
cc
/
PA
Cylindrical single crystal of area A under tensile load P.

Area of the slip plane A/cos and load on the plane P cos.
Shear stress for slip to occur is called the critical resolved
shear stress (CRSS), R.
Effect of Grain boundaries

Grain boundaries act as obstacles to dislocations and hence,
dislocations pile up at the grain boundaries
Number of dislocations in the pile-up, n = ksL/Gb (G, shear

modulus, b, Burger vector, s, avg. resolved shear stress).
A pile-up of n dislocations One big dislocation with Burger
vector nb.
Stress at the tip of the pile up = nbs
Grain boundary strengthening

For a dislocation source at the center of a grain diameter D,
n = ksD/4Gb
The critical shear stress to cross the grain boundary barrier,
c = ns = s2 D/4Gb
s = i (i is the lattice resistance to dislocation motion)
c = ( i)2D/4Gb = i + (c4Gb/D)1/2 = i + kD-1/2
2
/
1
D
k
Expressing this in terms of normal stresses gives rise to the
Hall-Petch relationship
k is known as locking parameter, which is a measure of the
relative hardening contribution of grain boundaries and i is
known as friction stress which represents overall resistance
of the lattice to dislocation motion.
Solid solution strengthening

Solute atoms introduce lattice strain as their size is different
from the host atoms.
A larger substitutional solute atom will impose a compressive
stress (Fig. a) while a smaller interstitial atom will cause tensile
stresses in the lattice (Fig. b).
Interstitial atoms are often bigger than the interstitial space
they occupy, resulting in a compressive stress field.
(a)
(b)
Solid solution hardening

Dislocations have strain field at their cores due to lattice
distortion
Solute atoms with a tensile strain field will diffuse to the
dislocation core to nullify part of the compressive strain field of
the dislocation to reduce the strain energy.
This hinders motion of the dislocation and hence, the
strength increases.
Solid solution hardening

Dislocation strain field
Precipitation hardening
Strength and hardness of some alloys can be increased by
formation of fine precipitates.
The solute should have increasing solubility with increasing
temperature (e.g. Al-Cu) for the precipitation to occur.
Heat treatment Solutionizing or heating to single phase
region. Quenching - rapid cooling to get a superstaurated solid
solution (SSS) (Normal cooling Coarse equilibrium CuAl2
phase below TN). Isothermal holding at certain temperature.
Precipitation Sequence
When the supersaturated solid solution is held isothermally
(aging), fine particles of precipitates form in several steps.
The precipitation sequence Guiner-Preston (GP) zones
(cluster of Cu atoms)
and have different crystal structures than the parent
phase () and are coherent with the parent lattice, while the
equilibrium phase , which forms on prolonged aging
(Overaging) is not coherent.
Hardening mechanism
and have different crystal structures but maintain
coherency with parent lattice resulting in lattice strain. This
impedes dislocation motion and hence, the hardness and
strength increases.
Further aging for longer time dissolves the phase and the
equilibrium phase (CuAl2) forms. This phase is no longer
coherent with parent lattice and as a result hardness decreases,
a phenomenon called overaging.
Coherent precipitate
Incoherent precipitate
Strain Hardening
Increasing strength and hardness by plastic deformation is
called strain hardening or work hardening. Also referred as cold
working as deformation takes place at RT.
Extent of strain hardening increases with degree of cold
working (% area reduction).
Since the metal is deformed in a certain direction, grains are
elongated in the direction of working.
Initial structure
Cold-worked
Strain Hardening mechanism

Cold working generates dislocations dislocation density
increases. Higher density of dislocations impedes their motion
due to interactions of dislocation strain fields.
Hence the strength increases according to the relation
o = i + Gb1/2. is the dislocation density, b, Burger vector,
G, shear modulus and is a constant.
The ductility decreases after cold working.
Examples
Ex.1 Calculate the resolved shear stress for an FCC single
crystal on the (111) [01 1] slip system if a stress of 14 MPa
is applied in [001] direction.
7
7
5
.
0
s
o
and
a
a3
s
o
c
Therefore,
wv c
w
u
v
v
7
w
0
7
.
u
uv 0
a
ua 2
s
o
c
Solution: The angle between two direction vectors [u1v1w1]

and [u2v2w2] is given as
R = 14 cos cos = 14 x 0.707 x 0.577 = 5.7 MPa
Quiz
1. What is critical resolve shear stress? Derive the expression
for CRSS.
2. Calculate the resolved shear stress for an Ni single crystal
on the (111) [01 1] slip system if a stress of 15 MPa is applied
in [001] direction.
3. A stress of 5 MPa is applied to a single crystal FCC metal in
the [0 01] direction. Calculate the CRSS on (1 11) plane in
[1 01], [011] and [1 1 0] directions.
4. What is the mechanism of grain refinement strengthening?
5. Show that strength is proportional to D-1/2 (D = grain dia).
6. An iron rod has a grain size of 0.01 mm and yield strength
of 230 MPa. The strength is 275 MPa at a grain size of 0.006
mm. In order achieve a yield strength of 310 MPa what should
be the grain size?
7. Why is strain hardening also called cold working?
8. What kind of microstructure develops after cold working?
Quiz
9. Why does hardness and strength increase on clod working?
What is the effect of cold working on ductility?
10. How is dislocation density related to strength?
11. What is the mechanism of strengthening by solid solution?
12. What kind of strain field interstitial atoms generally
introduce?
13. What kind of strain fields are associated with dislocations?
14. What are the different stages of precipitation hardening?
15. What kind of alloy system hardens by precipitation?
16. Will precipitation hardening occur if the alloy is cooled
slowly from the single phase region?
17. What is supersaturated solid solution?
18. How does the strength increase by precipitation?
19. What is coherent and incoherent precipitate?
20. What is the main strengthening phase in Al-Cu alloys.
References
http://www.soton.ac.uk/~engmats/xtal/deformation/control.htm
http://people.virginia.edu/~lz2n/mse209/Chapter7.pdf
http://kth.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:9474/FULLTEXT01
http://imechanica.org/files/handout4.pdf
Key words. Strengthening mechanism, Hall-Petch equation,

Solid solution hardening, precipitation hardening, strain
hardening.
Introduction to Materials Science, Chapter 7, Dislocations and strengthening mechanisms
Chapter Outline
Dislocations and Strengthening

What is happening during plastic deformation?
Dislocations and Plastic Deformation
Motion of dislocations in response to stress
Slip Systems
Plastic deformation in
single crystals
polycrystalline materials
Strengthening mechanisms
Grain Size Reduction
Solid Solution Strengthening
Strain Hardening
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
Not tested: 7.7 Deformation by twinning,
Direction and plane nomenclature in 7.4.
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and

Engineering
*
Introduction
How do metals plastically deform?

Why does forging change properties?
Why deformation occurs at stresses smaller
than those for perfect crystals?
Taylor, Orowan and Polyani 1934 :
Plastic deformation due to motion of

large number of dislocations.
Plastic deformation under shear stress

Engineering
*
Dislocations allow deformation at much

lower stress than in a perfect crystal
Top of crystal slipping one plane at a time.

Only a small of fraction of bonds are broken
at any time.
Propagation of dislocation causes top half of
crystal to slip with respect to the bottom.
The slip plane crystallographic plane of
dislocation motion.
Engineering
*
Direction of Dislocation Motion
Edge dislocation line moves parallel to applied stress
Screw dislocation line moves perpendicular to applied stress
Mixed dislocations: direction is in between parallel

and perpendicular to applied shear stress
Engineering
*
Strain Field around Dislocations
Strain fields from distortions at dislocations:

Drops radially with distance.
Edge dislocations compressive, tensile, and
shear lattice strains.
Screw dislocations shear strain only.

Engineering
*
Interactions between Dislocations
Strain fields around dislocations cause them

to exert force on each other.
Direction of Burgers vector Sign
Same signs Repel
Opposite signs Attract (annihilate)
Engineering
*
Where do Dislocations Come From ?

Dislocation density
dislocation length/ volume OR number of
dislocations intersecting a unit area.
105 cm-2 in carefully solidified metal crystals
to 1012 cm-2 in heavily deformed metals.
Most crystalline materials have dislocations due to
stresses associated with the forming process.
Number increases
during plastic
deformation.
Spawn from
dislocations, grain
boundaries, surfaces.
Picture is snapshot from

simulation
of
plastic
deformation in a fcc single
crystal (Cu).
See animation at http://zig.onera.fr/lem/DisGallery/3D.html

Engineering
*
Slip System
Preferred planes for dislocation movement

(slip planes)
Preferred crystallographic directions
(slip directions)
Slip planes + directions (slip systems)
highest packing density.
Distance between atoms shorter than average;
distance perpendicular to plane longer than average.
Far apart planes can slip more easily. BCC and FCC
have more slip systems compared to HCP: more
ways for dislocation to propagate FCC and BCC are
more ductile than HCP.

Engineering
*
Slip in a Single Crystal
Each step (shear band) results

from the generation of a large
number of dislocations and
their propagation in the slip
system
Zn

Engineering
*
Resolving (Projecting) Applied Stress onto

Slip System
Dislocations move along particular planes
and directions (the slip system) in response
to shear stresses along these planes and
directions Applied stress is resolved onto
slip systems?
Resolved shear stress,
R,
Deformation due to
tensile stress, .
R = cos cos

Engineering
*
Slip in Single Crystals

Critical Resolved Shear Stress
Resolved shear stress increases crystal will start to

yield (dislocations start to move along most
favorably oriented slip system).
Onset of yielding yield stress, y .
Minimum shear stress to initiate slip:
Critical resolved shear stress:
CRSS = y (cos cos )MAX

CRSS
y =
(cos cos )MAX
Maximum of (coscos)
= = 45o coscos= 0.5 y = 2CRSS
Slip occurs first in slip systems oriented close to
(= = 45o) with respect to the applied stress
Engineering
*
Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials
Grain orientations with respect to applied

stress are typically random.
Dislocation motion occurs along slip systems
with favorable orientation
(i.e. highest resolved shear stress).
Cu
Engineering
*
Larger plastic deformation corresponds to

elongation of grains along direction of
applied stress.
Before
After

Engineering
*
Polycrystalline metals are typically

stronger than single crystals. WHY?
Slip directions vary from crystal to crystal

Some grains are unfavorably oriented with
respect to the applied stress (i.e. coscos
low)
Even those grains for which coscos is
high may be limited in deformation by
adjacent grains which cannot deform so
easily
Dislocations cannot easily cross grain
boundaries because of changes in direction
of slip plane and disorder at grain boundary
Engineering
*
Strengthening
The ability of a metal to deform depends on
the ability of dislocations to move
Restricting dislocation motion can make
material stronger
Mechanisms of strengthening in single-phase

metals:
grain-size reduction
solid-solution alloying
strain hardening
Ordinarily, strengthening reduces ductility

Engineering
*
Strengthening by grain-size reduction (I)
Grain boundaries are barriers to dislocation

motion: slip plane discontinues or change
orientation.
Small angle grain boundaries are not very
effective.
High-angle grain boundaries block slip and
increase strength of the material.
Engineering
*
Strengthening by grain-size reduction (II)
Finer grains larger area of grain boundaries to

impede dislocation motion: also improves
toughness.
Hall-Petch equation:
y = 0 + k y d
o and ky constants for particular material
d is the average grain diameter.
70 Cu - 30 Zn
brass alloy
d determined by rate of solidification, by plastic deformation and by

heat treatment.
Engineering
*
Solid-Solution Strengthening (I)
Alloys usually stronger than pure metals

Interstitial or substitutional impurities cause
lattice strain and interact with dislocation
strain fields
hinder dislocation motion.
Impurities diffuse and segregate around
dislocation to find atomic sites more suited
to their radii:
Reduces strain energy + anchors dislocation
Motion of dislocation away from impurities
moves it to region where atomic strains are
greater

Engineering
*
Solid-Solution Strengthening (II)
Smaller and larger substitutional impurities diffuse into strained

regions around dislocations leading to partial cancellation of impuritydislocation lattice strains.
Engineering
*
Principles and Examples of

Dispersion Strengthening
Dispersion strengthening - Increasing the strength of
a material by forming more than one phase.
Matrix - The continuous solid phase in a complex
microstructure.
Precipitate - A solid phase that forms from the
original matrix phase when the solubility limit is
exceeded.
Eutectic - A three-phase invariant reaction in which
one liquid phase solidifies to produce two solid
phases.
*
Engineering
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a

trademark used herein under license.
Considerations for effective dispersion strengthening: (a) The

precipitate phase should be hard and discontinuous.
*
Engineering

Considerations for effective dispersion strengthening: (b) The

dispersed phase particles should be small and numerous.
*
Engineering

Considerations for effective dispersion strengthening: (c)

The dispersed phase particles should be round rather than
needlelike.
*
Engineering

Considerations for effective dispersion strengthening: (d)

Larger amounts of dispersed phase increase strengthening.
*
Engineering
Intermetallic Compounds
Intermetallic compound - A compound formed of two
or more metals that has its own unique composition,
structure, and properties.
Stoichiometric intermetallic compound - A phase
formed by the combination of two components into a
compound having a structure and properties different
from either component.
Nonstoichiometric intermetallic compound - A phase
formed by the combination of two components into a
compound having a structure and properties different
from either component.
Ordered crystal structure - Solid solutions in which
the different atoms occupy specific, rather than
random, sites in the crystal structure.
*
Engineering

The strength and ductility of the intermetallic compound Ti3Al

compared with that of a conventional nickel superalloy. The Ti3Al
maintains sits strength to higher temperatures longer than does the
nickel superalloy.
*
Engineering

(a) In an ordered structure, the substituting atoms occupy

specific lattice points,(b) while in normal structure, the
constituent atoms are randomly located at different lattice
points.
*
Engineering

The unit cells of two intermetallic compounds: (a) TiAl has an

ordered tetragonal structure, and (b) Ni3Al has an ordered cubic
structure.
*
Engineering
Materials Selection for an Aerospace

Vehicle
Design a material suitable for the parts of an aerospace
vehicle that reach high temperatures during re-entry from
Earth orbit.
SOLUTION
The material must withstand the high temperatures
(1600oC - 1700oC) generated as the vehicle enters Earths
atmosphere.
Some ductility is needed to provide damage tolerance
to the vehicle. Finally, the material should have a low
density.
TiAl and Ni3Al have good high-temperature properties
and oxidation resistance and, at high temperatures, have at
least some ductility.
Thus, carbon or aramid fiber-matrix composites (based
on KevlarTM), coated properly to protect oxidation, also will
be very good choices for outer space applications.
*
Engineering
Phase Diagrams Containing ThreePhase Reactions

Peritectic - A three-phase reaction in which a solid and
a liquid combine to produce a second solid on cooling.
Monotectic - A three-phase reaction in which one
liquid transforms to a solid and a second liquid on
cooling.
Miscibility gap - A region in a phase diagram in which
two phases, with essentially the same structure, do not
mix, or have no solubility in one another.
Metastable miscibility gap - A miscibility gap that
extends below the liquidus or exists completely below
the liquidus.
*
Engineering
the lead-tin equilibrium phase diagram.
*
Engineering
Solidification and microstructure of a Pb-2% Sn alloy. The

alloy is a single-phase solid solution.
*
Engineering
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.
Solidification and microstructure of a Pb-2% Sn alloy. The

alloy is a single-phase solid solution.
*
Engineering
(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used
herein under license.
Solidification, precipitation, and microstructure of a Pb-10% Sn alloy.

Some dispersion strengthening occurs as the solid precipitates.

Engineering
*

Solidification and microstructure of the eutectic alloy Pb61.9% Sn.

Engineering
*

Solidification and microstructure of the eutectic alloy Pb61.9% Sn.

Engineering
*
The solidification and microstructure of a hypoeutectic alloy (Al-Cu)

Engineering
*
The solidification and microstructure of a hypoeutectic alloy (Pb-30%

Sn).

Engineering
*
The effect of the composition and strengthening

mechanism on the tensile strength of lead-tin alloys.

Engineering
*

Material Tchnology

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ME1022 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

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Total contact hours 45

.UNIT III - PHASE DIAGRAMS AND HEAT TREATMENTS (9 hours)

Introduction - Solid solutions - Intermediate phases - Phase rules - Free energy in

3. Thomas H. Courtney, Mechanical Behaviour of Engineering materials, McGraw

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MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

WHY STUDY MATERIAL SCIENCE & ENGINEERING?

Ceramics: are compounds between metallic and non metallic elements,

Composites: two or more individual elements from metals, ceramics and

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE & BONDING

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TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

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SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

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The types of signals produced by a

esrmnotes.in | Class notes made easy.

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SEM is based on scattered

TEM is based on transmitted

No such need with SEM

The sample in TEM has to be cut

SEM has much lower resolution

SEM is used for surfaces,

TEM is used for imaging of

SEM also provides a 3dimensional image

TEM provides a 2-dimensional

ME1022 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

ELASTIC AND PLASTIC BEHAVIOUR

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The Tensile Test: Use of the Stress-Strain Diagram

esrmnotes.in | Class notes made easy.

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark

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Stress-strain of 0.2% offset yield

Stress-strain curve for an aluminum

Brittle materials,which includes

Stress-strain curve of low carbon alloy

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(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson

The relation between the true stress-true

The stress-strain behavior of brittle materials

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MECHANISMS OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION

This type of deformation is also irreversible. A break occurs after the

Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test

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Mechanism of elastic and plastic deformation

esrmnotes.in | Class notes made easy.

The number of vacancies increases exponentially with temperature according

Substitutional defect :When one atom or ion is replaced by a different

MECHANISMS FOR CREATING VACANCIES

Schottky mechanism (Vacancy and substitutional): vacancies originate at free

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