Introduction to Satellite Communications By Okech Ouma

Communication satellites bring the world

to you anywhere and any time..as long
as you can see the sky..

What exactly is a satellite?

The word satellite originated from the Latin word Satellit- meaning
an attendant, one who is constantly hovering around & attending to a
master or big man. For our own purposes however
A satellite is simply any body that moves around another (usually
much larger) one in a mathematically predictable path called an orbit.
A communication satellite is a microwave repeater station in
space that is used for tele communcation , radio and television signals.
The first man made satellite with radio transmitter was in 1957.
. There are about 958 satellite in the space, most of them are used
for communication.
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Theory of satellites

The theory of satellites was simple

enough - shoot something out into space
at the right speed and on the correct
trajectory and it will stay up there, orbiting
Earth, for years - if not forever.
How do we escape gravity & place an
object in orbit?
If an object is fired fast enough it should
escape the earths pull.
This is done through the use of Rocket
Launchers
If the orbit is the right distance in space
the
satellite will keep pace with the rotation of
the Earth.
4

Why do satellites stay moving

and in orbit?
v (velocity)
F2
F1
(Gravitational
Force)

(Inertial-Centrifugal
Force)

How does a satellite stay in its orbit?

Propulsion
Rocket motors produce thrust in a process which can be
explained by Newton's third law (for every action there is an
equal but opposite reaction).
Rocket engines:- the reactionary force is produced by the
combustion of fuel in a combustion chamber.
This force then acts upon the rocket nozzle, causing the
reaction which propels the vehicle. In space, the rocket
mortors require an oxidizer in order for combustion to take
place.
This oxidizer is, in many cases, liquid oxygen. There are
three different types of rocket engines:
1. Solid propelled rockets
2. Liquid propelled rockets
3. 7 Nuclear rockets

Satellite Components

Antennas
Power System & Solar Panels
Guidance System
Propulsion Jets
RF Equipment
Switching and Redundancy
Components
Transponder
Receives

signals on the uplink,

translates them to the downlink
frequency, and amplifies them for
retransmission to earth
Usually 12-16 Transponders per
satellite 36MHz each
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Components of a satellite

10

11

Major problems for satellites

Positioning in orbit
Use small rocket motors
Rocket mortars use fuel - over half of the weight of most satellites is
made up of fuel
Fuel availability determines the lifetime of a satellite
Commercial life of a satellite typically 10-15 years
Stability
ensure that solar panels and communication antennae are aligned
properly
Use spin stabilisation and reaction wheel stabilization
Power
Use solar power solar panels and batteries
Communications
It is also possible for satellites to communicate with other satellites by
microwave or by optical laser
Harsh environment
Hardened components
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electric heaters keep circuits and other vital parts warmed up

History of Satellites
Important Milestones (before 1950)
Putting the concepts together

1600 Tycho Braches experimental observations on

planetary motion.

1609-1619 Keplers laws on planetary motion

1926 First liquid propellant rocket lauched by R.H.

Goddard in the US.

1927 First transatlantic radio link communication

1942 First successful launch of a V-2 rocket in Germany.

1945 Arthur Clarke publishes his ideas on geostationary

satellites for worldwide communications (GEO concept).
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History of Satellites

Pioneer Satellites (1957)

Early in October 1957 - Russia's Sputnik 1, the world's
first man-made satellite.
January 1958 -a Jupiter rocket successfully launched
Explorer 1, the first American satellite.

14

Sputnik - I

15

Explorer - I

16

History of Satellites

1960 First passive communication satellite launched into

space (Large balloons, Echo I and II).

1962: First non-government active communication satellite

launched Telstar I (MEO).
1963: First satellite launched into geostationary orbit Syncom 1
(comms. failed).
NASA's Syncom programme (1963) GEOs
- In July 1963 - Hughes Aircraft Corporation launched the
experimental Syncom 2 for NASA, the world's first
geosynchronous communications satellite.
- It carried the first live two-way satellite call between President
John F. Kennedy in Washington, D.C and Nigerian Prime
Minister Abubaker Balewa in Africa.

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History of Satellites

1964: International Telecomm. Satellite Organization

(INTELSAT) created.

1965 : Early Bird (re-named INTELSAT 1).

April 6, 1965, - Hughes built Early Bird the world's first
commercial communications satellite for the Communications
Satellite Corporation (COMSAT).
The satellite was placed in commercial service after moving
into geosynchronous orbit 22,300 miles above the equator.
Didn't have a battery - worked only when its solar panels
were exposed to the sun.

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ECHO I

19

Telstar I

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Intelsat I

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History of Satellites

Later communications satellites

1969 - launch of the Intelsat 3 satellites created a global TV and
speech communications network that spanned the Atlantic,
Pacific and Indian Oceans.
1980s - introduction of multiple-beam antennas brought new
improvements in efficiency, as a satellite's power could now be
concentrated on small regions of the Earth, making possible
smaller-aperture (coverage area), lower-cost ground stations.
The Capacity (the number of simultaneous television and
speech channels carried) grew as well

1984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational

(Japan).

1987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications

(Inmarsat22).

History of Satellites

1990-95:
- Several organizations propose the use of non-geostationary (NGSO)
satellite systems for mobile communications.
- Continuing growth of VSATs around the world.
- Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems.
- Continuing growth of direct broadcast systems. DirectTV created.
1997:
- Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium).
- Voice service telephone-sized desktop and paging service pocket
size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat).
1998: Iridium initiates services.
1999: Globalstar Initiates Service.
2000: ICO initiates Service. Iridium fails and system is sold to Boeing.
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iridium

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How do Satellites Work?

Two Stations on Earth want to communicate through radio
broadcast but are too far away to use conventional means.
The two stations can use a satellite as a relay station for their
communication.
One Earth Station transmits the signals to the satellite.
Up link frequency is the frequency at which Ground Station is
communicating with Satellite.
The satellite Transponder converts the signal
and sends it down to the second earth station.
This frequency is called a Downlink.

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How Satellites Work

1.

A Earth Station
sends message in
GHz range.
(Uplink)

1.

Satellite Receive
and retransmit
signals back.
(Downlink)

2.

Other Earth
Stations receive
message in useful
strength area.
(Footprint)
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Classification of orbits:
Satellite orbits are also classified based on their heights above the earth:

GEO
LEO
MEO
Molniya Orbit
HAPs
POLAR

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Satellite orbit altitudes

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Main orbit types:

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GEO

36,000 km

MEO

5,000 15,000 km

LEO

500 -1000 km

Satellite Orbits

Source: Union of Concerned Scientists [www.ucsusa.org]

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Low-Earth-Orbit (LEO)

LEO satellites are much closer to the

earth than GEO satellites, ranging from
500 to 1,500 km above the surface
Revolution time: 90 min - 3 hours..
LEO satellites dont stay in fixed
position relative to the surface, and are
only visible for 15 to 20 minutes each
pass.
A network of LEO satellites is
necessary for LEO satellites to be
useful

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Low-Earth-Orbit (LEO)

Advantages
A LEO satellites proximity to earth gives it a better
signal strength and less of a time delay, which makes it
better for point to point communication.
A LEO satellites smaller area of coverage is less of a
waste of bandwidth.
Eliminates need for bulky receiving equipment.
Disadvantages
A network of LEO satellites is needed, which can be
costly
LEO satellites have to compensate for Doppler shifts
cause by their relative movement.
Atmospheric drag effects LEO satellites, causing
gradual orbital deterioration.
Smaller coverage area.
Shorter
32 life span (5-8 yrs.) than GEOs (10 yrs).

Low-Earth-Orbit (LEO)

Application
Vehicle tracking, environmental
monitoring and two-way data
communication. Used for short,
narrowband communications.
data communications and real-time
voice delivery to hand-held devices.
Examples:
Hubble space telescope
Iridium - satellite constellation is
group of 66 satellites at approx
height of 781 Km providing voice
and data coverage to satellite
phones, pagers and integrated
transceivers over Earth's entire
surface
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Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

A MEO satellite is in orbit

somewhere between 8,000 km and
20,000 km above the earths
surface.
MEO satellites are similar to LEO
satellites in functionality.
MEO satellites are visible for much
longer periods of time than LEO
satellites, usually between 2 to 8
hours.
MEO satellites have a larger
coverage area than LEO satellites.
Used for communications satellites
that cover the North and South
Pole.
Approximately a dozen medium
Earth orbiting satellites are
necessary to provide continuous
global coverage 24 hours a day.
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Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

Advantage

A MEO satellites longer duration of

visibility and wider footprint means fewer
satellites are needed in a MEO network
than a LEO network.

Disadvantage

A MEO satellites distance gives it a longer

time delay and weaker signal than a LEO
satellite, though not as bad as a GEO
satellite.

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Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

Application

GPS (Global Positioning System)- a spacebased satellite navigation system that provides
location and time information in all weather,
anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an
unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS
satellites.
The GPS constellation calls for 24 satellites to
be distributed equally among six circular orbital
planes
Glonass - a radio-based satellite navigation
system operated for the Russian government.
Alternative Navigation system to the american
GPS with global coverage and of the same
precision
Galileo - a satellite navigation system currently
being built by the European Union (EU) and
European Space Agency (ESA). Political
alternative to the GPS and GLONASS
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Molniya Orbit

37

Used by Russia for decades.

Molniya Orbit is an elliptical orbit. The satellite remains in a
nearly fixed position relative to earth for eight hours.
A series of three Molniya satellites can act like a GEO satellite.
Useful in near polar regions.

High Altitude Platform (HAP)

One of the newest ideas in

satellite communication.
A blimp or plane around 20
km above the earths surface
is used as a satellite.
HAPs would have very small
coverage area, but would
have a comparatively strong
signal.
Cheaper to put in position,
but would require a lot of
them in a network.

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Geosynchronous-Earth-Orbit (GEO)
From geo = Earth + synchronous = moving at the
same rate).
These satellites are in orbit 35,786 km above the earths
surface along the equator.
Objects in Geostationary orbit revolve around the earth
at the same speed as the earth rotates.(Orbit is
sychroneous with the earths rotation).
This means GEO satellites remain in the same position
relative to the surface of earth.
Coverage to 40% of planet per satellite.
The typical service life expectancy of a geostationary
satellite is 10-15 years.
circle the earth at the equator thus unable to provide
coverage at the Northernmost and Southernmost
latitudes.
A geosynchronous earth orbit is sometimes referred to
as the Clarke orbit or Clarke belt, after Arthur C. Clarke,
who first suggested
its existence in 1945 and proposed
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its use for communications satellites

40

Clarke Orbit

The Clarke orbit meets the concise set of

specifications
for
geosynchronous
satellite orbits:

1.
2.
3.
4.

be located directly above the

equator
travel in the same direction as
Earth's rotation at 6840 mph
have an altitude of 22,300 miles
above Earth
complete one revolution in 24
hours

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GEO contd.

Advantages

Disadvantages

A GEO satellites distance from earth gives it a large coverage area, almost
a fourth of the earths surface.
GEO satellites have a 24 hour view of a particular area.
These factors make it ideal for satellite broadcast and other multipoint
applications
Minimal doppler shift
A GEO satellites distance also cause it to have both a comparatively weak
signal and a time delay in the signal, which is bad for point to point
communication.
GEO satellites, centered above the equator, have difficulty for broadcasting
signals to near polar regions
Launching of satellites to orbit are complex and expensive.

Application

communications
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weather-observation.

Inclined-orbit satellites

A satellite intended for radio communications among fixed earth stations must
meet two criteria:

The satellite must remain at a fixed position in the sky. - in a geostationary

orbit. The owners of most geostationary satellites try to maintain their
satellites within a box measuring 0.1 x 0.1 .
Unfortunately, once a satellite is placed in proper position and attitude, it
doesn't stay there: it tends to drift. Drift degrades satellite performance in two
ways: the satellite may move out of position, or it may assume an improper
attitude.

Drift results from external forces. While there are hundreds of external forces
acting on the satellite, the primary forces are these:

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Inclined-orbit satellites

The gravitational pull of the sun. The intensity and direction of this
force changes continuously, in daily, yearly, and 55-year cycles.
The cyclic nature of this force tends to cause it to cancel itself: an
easterly pull at one part of the cycle is offset by a westerly pull half a
day later; similarly, a northerly pull is offset by a southerly pull.
Nevertheless, there is a net resultant force which, over the course of
several months, causes the satellite to drift away from its
geostationary position.

The gravitational pull of other objects in the solar system. Although

these forces are considerably weaker than the sun's gravity, their
effects can be measured and predicted. Precise orbit calculations
usually account for the moon's gravity, and sometimes include the
gravitational forces of other planets as well.

The uneven distribution of land mass on the surface of the earth. The
following figure illustrates this situation

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Polar orbits

Polar Orbit A Polar orbit is a particular

type of Low Earth Orbit. The only
difference is that a satellite in polar
orbit travels a north-south direction,
rather than the more common eastwest direction.

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Satellite Missions

Source: Union of Concerned Scientists [www.ucsusa.org]

46

Communication Satellites

47

Satellites in Orbit

48

Communication satellites (comsat)

Satellite is a RF repeater in orbit.

The design is governed by the communication capacity, physical
environment in which it is operated and state of technology.
Main considerations of a comm. satellite are:1.
Type of service to be provided (eg: mobile communication,
DTH)
2.
Communication capacity (transponder BW and satellite EIRP)
3.
Coverage area
4.
Technological limitations
Basic specifications are laid out for satellite depending on the
communication requirement.
A domestic fixed satellite service it is the EIRP per carrier, number
of carriers and coverage area.
A direct broadcast satellite it is the number of television channels
and coverage area.
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Why Satellite Communication?

Huge Geographical Coverage

No line-of-site problems
Extremely reliable
Single Vendor
Easy to deploy
Private Network
Independent from PTTs
Ideal for large distributed networks
Supports multiple applications:
Data
Voice

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How Satellites are used

Service Types
Fixed Service Satellites (FSS)
Example: Point to Point Communication
Broadcast Service Satellites (BSS)
Example: Satellite Television/Radio
Also called Direct Broadcast Service (DBS).
Mobile Service Satellites (MSS)
Example: Satellite Phones
GPS

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Advantages of satellite over

terrestrial communication :
The coverage area of a satellite greatly exceeds that of a
terrestrial system.
Transmission cost of a satellite is independent of the
distance from the center of the coverage area.
Satellite to Satellite communication is very precise.
Higher Bandwidths are available for use.

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Disadvantages of satellites

53

Launching satellites into orbit is costly.

Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming
used up.
There is a larger propagation delay in
satellite communication than in terrestrial
communication.

Life time and reliability

Lifetime of a geostationary satellite is determined by the

maximum acceptable deviation in inclination and orbital
location.
Satellite is maintained in its orbital location by firing thrusters
regularly, using stored fuel
Hence the operational lifetime of a satellite is determined bya) Increasing fuel capacity
b) Saving fuel by accepting orbital deviation to the maximum
extent possible.
However there is a practical limit to a satellites fuel storage
capacity. Hence satellite lifetime is between 12-15 years.

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Spectrum Regulation
International Telecommunication Union (ITU): Members from
practically all countries around the world.
Allocates frequency bands for different purposes and
distribute them around the planet.
Creates rules to limit RF Interference (RFI) between
countries that reuse same RF bands.
Mediates disputes and creates rules to deal with harmful
interference when it occurs.
Meets bi-annually with its members, to review rules and
allocations: World Radio Communication Conference (WRC).
There are also the Regional Radio Communication
Conferences (RCC), which happen less often.
55

Satellite Frequencies
C-Band
Ku-Band
Ka-Band

C and Ku-Band frequencies

are widely used in VSAT
communications.

56

Radio Frequency Spectrum

Commonly Used Bands

0.1

AM

HF

VHF

10

100

UHF

L S
1

MHz

10

GHz

Terrestrial Bands
Space Bands
Shared (Terrestrial and Space)

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SHF
C X Ku Ka V Q
100

Satellite Footprint

The footprint of a communications satellite is the ground area that

its transponders offer coverage.
determines the satellite dish diameter required to receive each
transponder's signal.
The size of the footprint depends on
the location of the satellite in its orbit,
the shape and size of beam produced by its transponder
the distance from the earth.
There is usually a different map for each transponder (or group of
transponders) as each may be aimed to cover different areas of the
ground.
Footprint maps usually show either
estimated minimal satellite dish diameter required
the signal strength in each area measured in dBW.
dBW (decibel watt) is a standard unit of measurement of the
58
strength
of a signal expressed in decibels relative to one watt.

Satellite beam coverage patterns

Uplink: The path that the transmission takes

between the earth stations and the satellite

Downlink: The path that the transmission

takes between the satellite and
the earth
stations

59

Downlink beam

A 3 dB reduction in power level (like going down from 45 dBW to 42

dBW) means you need a receive dish of 2 times the area. A 6 dB
reduction requires a receive dish with 4 times the area.

The expression dBW refers to the power radiated from the satellite
in the direction towards the contour line.

EIRP means Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power. 45 dBW is the

same as 10^(45/10) = 31622 watt transmitter feeding an omnidirectional antenna.

In practice, an EIRP contour of 43 dBW could be produced by a

satellite using a 200 watt transmitter (200W = 10log(200) dBW = 23
dBW) plus a satellite transmit down antenna with a gain of 22 dBi
(maximum) but on the -2 dB beam contour.
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Downlink beam

The satellite downlink beam coverage maps show

contour lines where each line refers to a particular power
level from the satellite with EIRP values like 45 dBW, 44
dBW, 43 dBW, 42dBW etc in decending order from the
maximum.

The highest number, towards the middle of the coverage

map shows where the downlink beam is strongest and
most easy to receive.
In the centre of the beam a smaller receive dish on the
ground is required.
As you move further away from the beam peak the beam
becomes less powerful and a larger dish is required.

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Downlink beam

Effective Isotropic Radiated Power/ Equivalent

isotropically radiated power (EIRP) - is the amount of output
power that a theoretical isotropic antenna (which evenly distributes
power in all directions) would emit to produce the peak power density
observed in the direction of maximum antenna gainsimply when a
signal is concentrated into a smaller area by the Antenna.

EIRP (dBm or dBW = Power of transmitter (dBm or dBW) + Antenna

Gain (dBi) Line loss i.e Feeder Loss plus Combiner Loss (dB)
Feeder Loss depends on operating frequency, type of feeder (coax,
waveguide, ladder-line, etc.), and nominal frequency for which the
feeder is designed.

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Downlink beam
Transmitter power = 25 dBm
Antenna gain = 15 dBi
Line loss = 9.6 dB
EIRP (dBm or dBW) = P (dBm or dBW) + G (dBi) -- L (dB)
EIRP = 25 + 15 - 9.6
EIRP = 30.4 dB

45 dBW is the same as 10^(45/10) = 31622 watt transmitter feeding an

omni-directional antenna.

In practice, an EIRP contour of 43 dBW could be produced by a satellite

using a 200 watt transmitter (200W = 10log(200) dBW = 23 dBW) plus a
satellite transmit down antenna with a gain of 22 dBi (maximum) but on
the -2 dB beam contour.
63

Converting W to dBW and dBm

dBm uses a reference of 1 mW
dBW uses a reference of 1 W.
dBW = 10 log ( Transmitter Power/ 1 W)
dBm= 10 log ( Transmitter Power/ 1 mW)
Example
50 W transmitter is equivalent to
dBW = 10 log ( 50W) =10 log 50 =16.9897 dBW
dBW = 10 log ( 50000W) =10 log 50000 =47 dBm

dBm= 10 log ( 50/ 1 mW) = 10 log

64

Converting dBW and dBm to W

log x = y
x = log inv (y) = 10^y

65

Uplink beam

Sometimes satellite coverage maps are marked with

G/T contours.
PFDsat contours.
These are uplink maps and refer to the sensitivity of the
satellite receive system to signals sent up from the
ground.
This is of particular importance to satellite internet
access services since it is desirable to keep the
personal satellite earth station as low size and with as
low power transmitter as possible, yet powerful enough
to get a good signal into the satellite.

66

Uplink beam

If the satellite uplink is very good (high G/T) then it can

pick up weaker signals from your little transmit dish.

G/T contours are typically +4 dBK +3 dBK +2 dBK etc. The

beam peak number varies a good deal according to the
size of the coverage beam. Small spot beams receiving
from just the area of one country have much higer G/T
than larger regional zone or hemi or global beams.

67

Uplink beam
Antenna gain-to-noise-temperature ratio
G/T means gain to noise temperature ratio.

Gain is simply the gain (in dBi) of the satellite receive

(uplink) antenna with consideration of what contour you
are on.

The temperature is the system noise temperature of the

satellite receive system. This will primarily be the satellite
LNA noise temperature plus the earth surface
temperature (approx) which, of course, is fully visible to
the beam from the satellite.

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Uplink beam
power flux density to saturate the transponder

PFDsat contours follow the G/T contours exactly.

PFDsat is the uplink power flux density required at the satellite to

saturate a transponder. So if you put up sufficient power to achieve
that PFD you will just saturate the transponder.

For the satellite internet outlink DVB-S carrier, a high PFDsat is better
since this forces the large hub dish to transmit a more powerful uplink
signal, thus maximising the uplink C/N and reducing the potential for
interference.

For the satellite internet return links you need a low PFDsat to keep
the customer dishes small and transmitter costs down but you can't go
too far otherwise you pick up too much noise and interference from the
ground.
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Beam Types

70

Global Beam
covers up to one-third of the Earth's surface,
apart from the poles.

71

Intelsat 10 at 68.5 E Africa footprint.

Beam Types

Spot Beam

72

concentrated in power thus cover only a limited geographic

area on Earth.
used so that only earth stations in a particular intended
reception area can properly receive the satellite signal
Regional spot beam
covers a fraction of the area covered by a global beam,
but collectively all of the regional beams offer virtually
the same coverage as the global beams.
Use of regional beams allow VSATS to operate with
significantly smaller antennas.
Narrow Beams
several hundred kilometers across.
much smaller than the global or regional beams, but far
more numerous and hence offer the same global
coverage.
allow smaller antennas and much higher data rates.
form the backbone of Inmarsat's handheld (GSPS) and
broadband services (BGAN).

IS-709 at 55 E Spot Beams Example of a spot beam

73

IS-12 at 45 E Example of a regional beam

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Beam Types

Hemi beams

Hemispheres of the Earth in geography and cartography

refer to any bipartite division of the globe into hemispheres.
The most common such divisions are by latitudinal or
longitudinal markers:
Eastern Hemisphere and Western Hemisphere
Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere
Hemi beams covers up to one-half of the Earth's surface,
apart from the poles.

Northern hemisphere

Southern hemisphere
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Western hemisphere

Eastern hemisphere

IS-27 Example of a West Hemi beam

76

IS-18 at 180 E Example of a Southern Hemi beam

77

System Elements

78

Satellite System Elements

Space Segment
Satellite

Earth
Stations

Hub
Ground Station

Ground Segment
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Coverage Region

Space Segment

Satellite Launching Phase

Transfer Orbit Phase
Deployment
Operation
TT&C - Tracking Telemetry and Command Station:
Establishes a control and monitoring link with satellite. Tracks orbit
distortions and allows correction planning. Distortions caused by
irregular gravitational forces from non-spherical Earth and due to
the influence of Sun and Moon forces.

SSC - Satellite Control Center, a.k.a.:

OCC - Operations Control Center
SCF - Satellite Control Facility

Provides link signal monitoring for Link Maintenance and

Interference monitoring.
Retirement Phase

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Types of Satellite Stabilization

Spin Stabilization
Satellite is spun about the axis on which the moment
of inertia is maximum (ex., HS 376, most purchased
commercial communications satellite; first satellite
placed in orbit by the Space Shuttle.)

Three-Axis Stabilization
Bias momentum type (ex., INTELSAT V)
Zero momentum type (ex., Yuri)

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Satellite Subsystems

82

Communications
Antennas
Transponders
Common Subsystem (Bus Subsystem)
Telemetry/Command (TT&C)
Satellite Control (antenna pointing,attitude)
Propulsion
Electrical Power
Structure
Thermal Control

Ground Segment
Collection of facilities, users and applications.

FSS Fixed Satellite Service

MSS Mobile Satellite Service

Earth Station = Satellite Communication Station (air, ground or sea, fixed or mobile).
83

System Design Considerations

84

Basic Principles
Satellite

Uplink

Downlink

Earth
Station

Earth
Station

Tx

85

Source
Information

Output
Information

Rx

Signals

Signals:

Carried by wires as voltage or current

Transmitted through space as electromagnetic waves.
Analog:
Voltage or Current proportional to signal; e.g., Telephone.

Digital: Generated by computers.

Ex. Binary = 1 or 0 corresponding to +1V or 1V.

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Separating Signals

Up and Down:

FDD: Frequency Division Duplexing.

f1 = Uplink
f2 = Downlink
TDD: Time Division Duplexing.
t1=Up, t2=Down, t3=Up, t4=Down,.
Polarization
V & H linear polarization
RH & LH circular polarizations

87

Separating Signals

Between Users or Channels (Multiple Access):

FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access; assigns each
transmitter its own carrier frequency
f1 = User 1; f2 = User 2; f3 = User 3,
TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access; each transmitter is
given its own time slot
t1=User_1, t2=User_2, t3=User_3, t4 = User_1, ...
CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access; each transmitter
transmits simultaneously and at the same frequency and
each transmission is modulated by its own pseudo randomly
coded bit stream
Code
1 = User 1; Code 2 = User 2; Code 3 = User 3
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Digital Communication System

TRANSMITTER
Source
Data

Source
Coding

Channel
Coding

Modulator

RF
Channel
Output
Data

Source
Decoding

Channel
Decoder

RECEIVER

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Demodulator

Current Developments and

Future Trends

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Current Trends in Satellite

Communications

Bigger, heavier, GEO satellites with multiple roles

More direct broadcast TV and Radio satellites

Expansion into Ka, Q, V bands (20/30, 40/50 GHz)

Massive growth in data services fueled by Internet

Mobile services:

May be broadcast services rather than point to point

Make mobile services a successful business?

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The Future for Satellite

Communications

Growth requires new frequency bands

Propagation through rain and clouds becomes a problem as RF

frequency is increased

C-band (6/4 GHz)

Rain has little impact
99.99% availability is possible

Ku-band (10-12 GHz) Link margin of

for 99.8% availability

3 dB needed

Ka-band (20 - 30 GHz) Link margin of

for 99.6% availability

6 dB needed

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The Future for Satellite

Communications

Low cost phased array antennas for mobiles are

needed

Mobile systems are limited by use of omnidirectional antennas

A self-phasing, self-steering phased array

antenna with 6 dB gain can quadruple the
capacity of a system

Directional antennas allow frequency re-use

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