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Chapter 28 Part A

Pregnancy
and Human
Development

Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images

2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

PowerPoint Lecture Slides

prepared by
Karen Dunbar Kareiva
Ivy Tech Community College

Why This Matters

Understanding of pregnancy and human
development is critical so that you can counsel
your pregnant patients about bodily changes
they will experience and educate them on fetal
development, as well as stages of the birthing
process.

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Video: Why This Matters

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Pregnancy and Development

Pregnancy: events that occur from fertilization
until infant is born
Conceptus: developing offspring
Gestation period: time from last menstrual
period until birth (~280 days)
Embryo: conceptus from fertilization through
week 8
Fetus: conceptus from week 9 through birth

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Figure 28.1 Diagrams showing the approximate size of a human conceptus from fertilization to the early fetal stage.

Embryo

Fertilization 1-week
conceptus

3-week
embryo
(3 mm)

5-week embryo
(10 mm)

8-week embryo
(22 mm)

12-week fetus
(90 mm)

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28.1 Fertilization
Before fertilization can occur, sperm must reach
secondary oocyte
Oocyte viable for 12 to 24 hours
Sperm viable 24 to 48 hours after ejaculation

For fertilization to occur, coitus must occur no

more than 2 days before and at least 24 hours
after ovulation
Fertilization: sperms chromosomes combine
with those of secondary oocyte to form fertilized
egg, called a zygote
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Sperm Transport and Capacitation

Most ejaculated sperm do not make the 12-cm
(5-inch) trip to join with egg
Some leak out of vagina immediately after
deposition
Some are destroyed by acidic vaginal
environment
Some fail to make it through cervix
Some are dispersed in uterine cavity or
destroyed by phagocytes
Only a few thousand out of millions reach
uterine tubes
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Sperm Transport and Capacitation (cont.)

Sperm must be capacitated before they can
penetrate oocyte
Motility must be enhanced, and cell membranes
must become fragile enough to release hydrolytic
enzymes

Secretions of female tract help to weaken and

thin out acrosome membrane
Sperm have olfactory receptors that can follow
chemical trail released by by egg or surrounding
cells
Sperm sniff their way to oocyte
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Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm Penetration

Sperm reaches oocyte by several steps:
1. Approach: aided by enzymes, sperm weaves
through corona radiata
Hyaluronidase on cell surface of sperm acts to digest
connection between granulosa cells, causing them to
separate
Sperm heads then bind to sperm-binding receptors in
zona pellucida, causing sperm membrane calcium
channels to open
Ca2+ flows into each sperm, triggering acrosomal
reaction

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Focus Figure 28.1-1 Sperm use acrosomal enzymes and receptors to approach, bind, and enter the oocyte. Blocks to polyspermy prevent further sperm entry,
ensuring that only two copies of each chromosome are present in the fertilized ovum.

Sperm, delivered to the vagina and

capacitated in the female reproductive
tract, stream toward a secondary
oocyte.

1 Approach. Aided by enzymes

on its surface, a sperm cell weaves
its way past granulosa cells of the
corona radiata.

Extracellular
space
Sperm

Sperm

Zona pellucida
Oocyte nucleus
arrested in meiotic
metaphase II
Polar body

Granulosa
cells of corona
radiata

Zona pellucida
Extracellular space
Oocyte plasma membrane

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Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm Penetration

(cont.)
2. Acrosomal reaction
When triggered by calcium influx, enzymes from many
sperm are released that digest holes in zona pellucida
Enzymes include hyaluronidase, acrosin, proteases,
and others

Hundreds of acrosomes in region all release enzymes

at same time to digest zona pellucida
Many are needed to clear a path to oocyte membrane

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Focus Figure 28.1-2 Sperm use acrosomal enzymes and receptors to approach, bind, and enter the oocyte. Blocks to polyspermy prevent further sperm entry,
ensuring that only two copies of each chromosome are present in the fertilized ovum.

2 Acrosomal reaction. Binding of

the sperm to receptors in the zona
pellucida causes Ca2+ levels within the
sperm to rise, triggering the acrosomal
reaction. Acrosomal enzymes from many
sperm digest holes through the zona
pellucida, clearing a path to the
oocyte membrane.

3 Binding. The
sperms membrane
binds to the oocytes
sperm-binding
receptors.

Oocyte sperm-binding
membrane receptors
Zona pellucida
sperm-binding
receptors

4 Fusion. Sperm
and oocyte plasma
membranes fuse.
Sperm contents enter
the oocyte.

5 Blocks to polyspermy.
Oocyte sperm-binding membrane
receptors are shed. Ca2+ levels
in the oocytes cytoplasm rise,
triggering the cortical reaction
(exocytosis of cortical granules).
As a result, the zona pellucida
hardens and the zona pellucidas
sperm-binding receptors
are clipped off.

Microtubules from
sperm flagellum
Cortical
granules

Mitochondria
Sperm
nucleus

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Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm Penetration

(cont.)
3. Binding
After path has been cleared in zona pellucida,
a single sperm forcibly swims towards oocyte
membrane
Acrosomal collar on rear portion of acrosomal
membrane binds to oocyte plasma membrane spermbinding receptor
Binding causes:
Oocyte to form microvilli that wrap around sperm head
Trigger fusing of oocyte and sperm membranes

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Focus Figure 28.1-2 Sperm use acrosomal enzymes and receptors to approach, bind, and enter the oocyte. Blocks to polyspermy prevent further sperm entry,
ensuring that only two copies of each chromosome are present in the fertilized ovum.

2 Acrosomal reaction. Binding of

the sperm to receptors in the zona
pellucida causes Ca2+ levels within the
sperm to rise, triggering the acrosomal
reaction. Acrosomal enzymes from many
sperm digest holes through the zona
pellucida, clearing a path to the
oocyte membrane.

3 Binding. The
sperms membrane
binds to the oocytes
sperm-binding
receptors.

Oocyte sperm-binding
membrane receptors
Zona pellucida
sperm-binding
receptors

4 Fusion. Sperm
and oocyte plasma
membranes fuse.
Sperm contents enter
the oocyte.

5 Blocks to polyspermy.
Oocyte sperm-binding membrane
receptors are shed. Ca2+ levels
in the oocytes cytoplasm rise,
triggering the cortical reaction
(exocytosis of cortical granules).
As a result, the zona pellucida
hardens and the zona pellucidas
sperm-binding receptors
are clipped off.

Microtubules from
sperm flagellum
Cortical
granules

Mitochondria
Sperm
nucleus

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Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm Penetration

(cont.)
4. Fusion of membranes
Oocyte and sperm membranes fuse
Cytoplasmic contents of sperm enter oocyte
Tail and other parts, such as sperm cell membrane and
mitochondria, are left behind on oocyte cell membrane
surface

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Focus Figure 28.1-2 Sperm use acrosomal enzymes and receptors to approach, bind, and enter the oocyte. Blocks to polyspermy prevent further sperm entry,
ensuring that only two copies of each chromosome are present in the fertilized ovum.

2 Acrosomal reaction. Binding of

the sperm to receptors in the zona
pellucida causes Ca2+ levels within the
sperm to rise, triggering the acrosomal
reaction. Acrosomal enzymes from many
sperm digest holes through the zona
pellucida, clearing a path to the
oocyte membrane.

3 Binding. The
sperms membrane
binds to the oocytes
sperm-binding
receptors.

Oocyte sperm-binding
membrane receptors

4 Fusion. Sperm
and oocyte plasma
membranes fuse.
Sperm contents enter
the oocyte.

5 Blocks to polyspermy.
Oocyte sperm-binding membrane
receptors are shed. Ca2+ levels
in the oocytes cytoplasm rise,
triggering the cortical reaction
(exocytosis of cortical granules).
As a result, the zona pellucida
hardens and the zona pellucidas
sperm-binding receptors
are clipped off.

Microtubules from
sperm flagellum
Cortical
granules

Zona pellucida
sperm-binding
receptors

Mitochondria
Sperm
nucleus

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Blocks to Polyspermy
Polyspermy does occur in some animals, but in
humans, only monospermy, in which one
sperm penetrates oocyte, is allowed
One-sperm-per-oocyte condition

Two mechanisms ensure monospermy

1. Oocyte membrane block: when a sperm binds
to sperm-binding receptor on oocyte, it causes
oocyte to shed all other sperm-binding receptors
Other sperm can no longer bind to oocyte plasma
membrane

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Blocks to Polyspermy (cont.)

2. Zona reaction
Also called slow block to polyspermy
Entry of sperm into oocyte triggers Ca2+ surge from
oocyte ER that causes:
Activation of oocyte to prepare for second meiotic
division
Cortical reaction: granules located just inside oocyte
plasma membrane release zonal inhibiting proteins, or
ZIP enzymes, into extracellular space below zona
pellucida
ZIPs destroy zona pellucida sperm-binding
receptors; fragments bind water and swell,
detaching any other sperm still around
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Focus Figure 28.1-2 Sperm use acrosomal enzymes and receptors to approach, bind, and enter the oocyte. Blocks to polyspermy prevent further sperm entry,
ensuring that only two copies of each chromosome are present in the fertilized ovum.

2 Acrosomal reaction. Binding of

the sperm to receptors in the zona
pellucida causes Ca2+ levels within the
sperm to rise, triggering the acrosomal
reaction. Acrosomal enzymes from many
sperm digest holes through the zona
pellucida, clearing a path to the
oocyte membrane.

3 Binding. The
sperms membrane
binds to the oocytes
sperm-binding
receptors.

4 Fusion. Sperm
and oocyte plasma
membranes fuse.
Sperm contents enter
the oocyte.

Oocyte sperm-binding
membrane receptors
Zona pellucida
sperm-binding
receptors

5 Blocks to polyspermy.
Oocyte sperm-binding membrane
receptors are shed. Ca2+ levels
in the oocytes cytoplasm rise,
triggering the cortical reaction
(exocytosis of cortical granules).
As a result, the zona pellucida
hardens and the zona pellucidas
sperm-binding receptors
are clipped off.

Microtubules from
sperm flagellum
Cortical
granules

Mitochondria
Sperm
nucleus

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Completion of Meiosis II and Fertilization

Events involved include:
1. Ca2+ surge triggers completion of meiosis II in
oocyte, resulting in ovum + second polar body
Ovum nucleus swells to become female pronucleus

2. As sperm nucleus moves toward oocyte

nucleus, it also swells
Forms male pronucleus

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Figure 28.2a-1 Events of fertilization.

Sperm nucleus
Extracellular
space
Corona
radiata
Zona
pellucida
Second meiotic
division of oocyte

1 After the sperm

penetrates the
secondary oocyte,
the oocyte completes
meiosis II, forming
the ovum and second
polar body.

Second meiotic
division of first
polar body

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Figure 28.2a-2 Events of fertilization.

Male pronucleus
Female pronucleus (swollen
ovum nucleus)

2 Sperm and ovum

nuclei swell, forming
pronuclei.

Polar bodies

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Completion of Meiosis II and Fertilization

(cont.)
3. DNA in each pronucleus replicates, and as
pronuclei get closer, a mitotic spindle forms
between them
Nuclear envelopes dissolve, releasing chromosomes
together in vicinity of mitotic spindle

4. Maternal and paternal chromosomes combine,

forming diploid zygote
Fertilization: moment chromosomes combine

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Figure 28.2a-3 Events of fertilization.

Male
pronucleus
Mitotic spindle
Centriole
Female
pronucleus

3 The DNA in each

pronucleus replicates.
The pronuclei
approach each other
and a mitotic spindle
forms between them.

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Figure 28.2a-4 Events of fertilization.

4 Chromosomes of
the pronuclei intermix.
Fertilization is
accomplished and the
cell, now called a
zygote, is ready for the
first cleavage division.

Zygote

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Figure 28.2 Events of fertilization.

Sperm nucleus
Extracellular
space
Corona
radiata
Zona
pellucida
Second meiotic
division of oocyte

1 After the sperm

penetrates the
secondary oocyte,
the oocyte completes
meiosis II, forming
the ovum and second
polar body.

Second meiotic
division of first
polar body
Male pronucleus
Female pronucleus (swollen
ovum nucleus)

2 Sperm and ovum

nuclei swell, forming
pronuclei.

Polar bodies

Male
pronucleus
Mitotic spindle
Centriole
Female
pronucleus

Zygote

3 The DNA in each

pronucleus replicates.
The pronuclei
approach each other
and a mitotic spindle
forms between them.

Male and female

pronuclei

4 Chromosomes of
the pronuclei intermix.
Fertilization is
accomplished and the
cell, now called a
zygote, is ready for the
first cleavage division.

Polar bodies

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Figure 28.2b Events of fertilization.

Male and female

pronuclei

Polar bodies

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28.2 Zygote to Blastocyst Implantation

Embryonic development continues as embryo
travels through uterine tube to uterus, where it
floats freely until it implants
Significant events in this process:
Cleavage
Blastocyst Formation
Implantation

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Cleavage
Occurs while zygote moves toward uterus
Rapid mitotic divisions of zygote occur
Produces cells with high surface-to-volume ratio
that enhances uptake of nutrients and oxygen
and disposal of wastes

First cleavage occurs after ~36 hours and

produces two daughter cells called blastomeres,
which continue to divide
After 72 hours, cluster of cells contains16 or
more cells and is referred to as a morula
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Blastocyst Formation
Around day 4 or 5, embryo, which consists of
~100 cells and is now referred to as a
blastocyst, reaches uterus
Blastocyst is fluid-filled hollow sphere composed
of:
Trophoblast cells
Display immunosuppressive factors
Participate in placenta formation

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Blastocyst Formation (cont.)

Inner cell mass: cluster of 2030 rounded cells
Becomes embryonic disc, which will form embryo and
three or four extraembryonic membranes
Fourth extraembryonic membrane (chorion) is formed
by trophoblast

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Figure 28.3 Cleavage: From zygote to blastocyst.

4-cell stage
2 days

Zygote
(fertilized egg)
Zona
pellucida

Morula (a solid ball

of blastomeres)
3 days

Early blastocyst
(Morula hollows out,
fills with fluid, and
hatches from the
zona pellucida)
4 days

Degenerating
zona
pellucida
Sperm

Blastocyst
cavity

Uterine
tube
Fertilization
(sperm
meets and
enters egg)

Implanting blastocyst
(Consists of a sphere
of trophoblast cells and
an eccentric cell cluster
called the inner cell
mass) 7 days

Ovary

Oocyte
(egg)

Trophoblast
Ovulation

Uterus

Blastocyst
cavity

Endometrium

Inner cell
mass

Cavity of
uterus

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28.3 Implantation and Placentation

Implantation
Blastocyst floats for about 23 days
Nourished by uterine secretions

Implantation begins 67 days after ovulation

Trophoblast cells adhere to site with proper
receptors and chemical signals
Inflammatory-like response occurs in
endometrium
Uterine blood vessels become more permeable and
leaky; inflammatory cells invade area
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Figure 28.4a Implantation of the blastocyst.

Endometrium
Uterine endometrial
epithelium
Inner cell mass
Trophoblast
Blastocyst cavity
Lumen of uterus

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Implantation (cont.)
Trophoblast cells proliferate and form two
distinct layers
Cytotrophoblast (cellular trophoblast): inner
layer of cells
Syncytiotrophoblast (syncytial trophoblast):
cells in outer layer lose plasma membranes,
becoming multinuclear mass
Send out long protrusions that invade and digest
endometrium

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Implantation (cont.)
As endometrium is eroded, blastocyst burrows
into lining, surrounded by pool of leaked blood
Endometrial cells then cover and seal off
implanted blastocyst

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Figure 28.4b Implantation of the blastocyst.

Endometrial stroma
with blood vessels
and glands
Syncytiotrophoblast
Cytotrophoblast

Blastocyst cavity
Lumen of uterus

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Figure 28.4c Implantation of the blastocyst.

Endometrial stroma
with blood vessels
and glands
Syncytiotrophoblast
Cytotrophoblast

Lumen of uterus

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Implantation (cont.)
Implantation is usually completed by day 12
after ovulation (day 26 of menstrual cycle);
about same time menstruation would occur
Corpus luteum is maintained by hCG to prevent
menstruation

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Implantation (cont.)
Hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG):
Secreted by trophoblast cells and later chorion
Prompts corpus luteum to continue secretion of
progesterone and estrogen
Promotes placental development via its autocrine
growth factor activity
hCG levels rise until end of month 2
Decline as placenta begins to secrete progesterone
and estrogen
Low values occur at 4 months and continue for rest
of pregnancy
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Implantation (cont.)
In cases where implantation fails to occur,
uterus becomes nonreceptive again
About two-thirds of all zygotes formed fail to
implant by end of first week or spontaneously
abort
An estimated 30% of implanted embryos later
miscarry because of genetic defects of embryo,
uterine malformation, or unknown problems

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Figure 28.5 Hormonal changes during pregnancy.

Relative blood levels

Human chorionic
gonadotropin

Estrogens

Progesterone

Ovulation
and fertilization

12

16
20
24
28
Gestation (weeks)

32

36
Birth

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Placentation
Formation of placenta, temporary organ that
originates from both embryonic and maternal
tissues
Embryonic portion of placenta includes:
Inner cell mass, which gives rise to layer of
extraembryonic mesoderm that lines inner surface
of trophoblast
Together these structures form chorion that then
develops fingerlike projections called chorionic villi

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Placentation (cont.)
Chorionic villi are then invaded by new blood vessels,
which extend to embryo as umbilical arteries and vein
Continuing erosion of endometrium produces large,
blood-filled lacunae (intervillous spaces) in stratum
functionalis
Villi lie in intervillous spaces totally immersed in
maternal blood

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Figure 28.6a Events of placentation, early embryonic development, and extraembryonic membrane formation.

Maternal
blood vessels
Proliferating
syncytiotrophoblast
Cytotrophoblast
Amniotic cavity
Bilayered
embryonic disc
Epiblast
Hypoblast
Endometrial
epithelium
Implanting 7-day blastocyst. The syncytiotrophoblast is eroding the endometrium. Cells of
the embryonic disc are now separated from the
amnion by a fluid-filled space.
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Figure 28.6b Events of placentation, early embryonic development, and extraembryonic membrane formation.

Endometrium

Maternal
blood vessels
Proliferating
syncytiotrophoblast

Amnion

Cytotrophoblast
Amniotic cavity

Yolk sac

Bilayered
embryonic disc
Epiblast
Hypoblast

Extraembryonic
mesoderm
Lumen of uterus
Chorion
being formed

12-day blastocyst. Implantation is complete. Extraembryonic

mesoderm is forming a discrete layer beneath the cytotrophoblast.
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Figure 28.6c Events of placentation, early embryonic development, and extraembryonic membrane formation.

Lacuna (intervillous
space) containing
maternal blood

Amniotic
cavity
Primary
germ layers

Chorionic villus

Ectoderm

Chorion

Mesoderm

Amnion

Endoderm

Yolk sac

Forming
umbilical
cord

Extraembryonic
mesoderm
Lumen of uterus

Allantois

Extraembryonic
coelom

16-day embryo. Cytotrophoblast and associated mesoderm have

become the chorion, and chorionic villi are elaborating. The embryo
exhibits all three germ layers, a yolk sac, and an allantois, which
forms the basis of the umbilical cord.

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Placentation (cont.)
Maternal portion of placenta includes:
Decidua basalis: stratum functionalis of endometrium
located between chorionic villi and stratum basalis of
endometrium
Decidua capsularis: part of endometrium at uterine
cavity face of implanted embryo
Portion of placenta that expands to accommodate
growing fetus
Villi in decidua capsularis degenerate as fetus grows,
while villi in decidua basalis increase in number and
branches

Together chorionic villi and decidua capsularis

make up placenta
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Figure 28.6d Events of placentation, early embryonic development, and extraembryonic membrane formation.

Decidua basalis
Maternal blood
Chorionic villus
Umbilical blood
vessels in
umbilical cord
Amnion
Amniotic cavity
Yolk sac
Extraembryonic
coelom
Chorion

Lumen
of uterus

Decidua
capsularis

4-week embryo. The decidua capsularis, decidua basalis, amnion, and

yolk sac are well formed. The chorionic villi lie in blood-filled intervillous
spaces within the endometrium. The embryo is nourished via the umbilical
vessels that connect it (through the umbilical cord) to the placenta.

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Figure 28.6e Events of placentation, early embryonic development, and extraembryonic membrane formation.

Placenta
Decidua basalis
Chorionic villi
Yolk sac
Amnion
Amniotic
cavity

Umbilical
cord

Decidua
capsularis
Extraembryonic
coelom

Uterus
Lumen of
uterus

13-week fetus.
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Placentation (cont.)
Placenta is fully formed and functional by end of
month 3
Provides nutritive, respiratory, excretory, and
endocrine functions

Maternal and embryonic blood supplies normally

do not intermix
Embryonic placental barriers include:
Membranes of chorionic villi
Endothelium of embryonic capillaries

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Figure 28.7 Detailed anatomy of the vascular relationships in the mature decidua basalis.

Chorionic villi

Decidua
capsularis

Decidua basalis

Chorion
Amnion
Amniotic
fluid
Yolk sac
Placenta
Umbilical cord
Lumen of
uterus

Fetal portion
of placenta
(chorion)

Uterus

Maternal
Stratum
portion of
basalis of
placenta
endometrium
(decidua basalis)

Myometrium

Umbilical arteries
Mucous
plug

Umbilical vein
Amnion
Umbilical
cord

Maternal
veins

Connection
to yolk sac

Fetal venule
Fetal arteriole
Maternal
arteries

Maternal blood in lacuna

(intervillous space)

Chorionic villus containing

fetal capillaries

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Placentation (cont.)
If placental hormones are inadequate for any
reason, pregnancy is aborted
Throughout pregnancy, blood levels of
estrogens and progesterone increase
Prepare mammary glands for lactation

Placenta also secretes human placental

lactogen, human chorionic thyrotropin, and
relaxin

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28.4 Embryonic Development

During process of implantation, blastocyst
begins being converted into gastrula
Three germ layers, as well as extraembryonic
membranes, develop from gastrula

Inner cell mass divides into two layers: epiblast

and hypoblast
Subdivided inner cell mass is now called
embryonic disc

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Extraembryonic Membranes
Extraembryonic membranes form during first
23 weeks of development and include:
Amnion: epiblast cells form transparent sac filled
with amniotic fluid that envelopes embryo
Also called bag of waters, it provides buoyant
environment that protects embryo
Helps maintain constant homeostatic temperature
Allows freedom of movement; prevents parts from
fusing together
Initially, amniotic fluid comes from maternal blood;
later, fetal urine contributes to volume
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Extraembryonic Membranes (cont.)

Yolk sac: sac that hangs from ventral surface
of embryo
Forms part of digestive tube
Source of earliest blood cells and blood vessels

Allantois: small outpocketing at caudal end of

yolk sac
Structural base for umbilical cord
Becomes part of urinary bladder

Chorion: helps form placenta

Encloses embryonic body and all other membranes

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Figure 28.6a Events of placentation, early embryonic development, and extraembryonic membrane formation.

Maternal
blood vessels
Proliferating
syncytiotrophoblast
Cytotrophoblast
Amniotic cavity
Bilayered
embryonic disc
Epiblast
Hypoblast
Endometrial
epithelium
Implanting 7-day blastocyst. The syncytiotrophoblast is eroding the endometrium. Cells of
the embryonic disc are now separated from the
amnion by a fluid-filled space.
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Figure 28.6b Events of placentation, early embryonic development, and extraembryonic membrane formation.

Endometrium

Maternal
blood vessels
Proliferating
syncytiotrophoblast

Amnion

Cytotrophoblast
Amniotic cavity

Yolk sac

Bilayered
embryonic disc
Epiblast
Hypoblast

Extraembryonic
mesoderm
Lumen of uterus
Chorion
being formed

12-day blastocyst. Implantation is complete. Extraembryonic

mesoderm is forming a discrete layer beneath the cytotrophoblast.
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Figure 28.6c Events of placentation, early embryonic development, and extraembryonic membrane formation.

Lacuna (intervillous
space) containing
maternal blood

Amniotic
cavity
Primary
germ layers

Chorionic villus

Ectoderm

Chorion

Mesoderm

Amnion

Endoderm

Yolk sac

Forming
umbilical
cord

Extraembryonic
mesoderm
Lumen of uterus

Allantois

Extraembryonic
coelom

16-day embryo. Cytotrophoblast and associated mesoderm have

become the chorion, and chorionic villi are elaborating. The embryo
exhibits all three germ layers, a yolk sac, and an allantois, which
forms the basis of the umbilical cord.

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Figure 28.6d Events of placentation, early embryonic development, and extraembryonic membrane formation.

Decidua basalis
Maternal blood
Chorionic villus
Umbilical blood
vessels in
umbilical cord
Amnion
Amniotic cavity
Yolk sac
Extraembryonic
coelom
Lumen
of uterus

Chorion
Decidua
capsularis

4-week embryo. The decidua capsularis, decidua basalis, amnion, and

yolk sac are well formed. The chorionic villi lie in blood-filled intervillous
spaces within the endometrium. The embryo is nourished via the umbilical
vessels that connect it (through the umbilical cord) to the placenta.

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Figure 28.6e Events of placentation, early embryonic development, and extraembryonic membrane formation.

Placenta
Decidua basalis
Chorionic villi
Yolk sac
Amnion
Amniotic
cavity

Umbilical
cord

Decidua
capsularis
Extraembryonic
coelom

Uterus
Lumen of
uterus

13-week fetus.
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Gastrulation: Germ Layer Formation

Gastrulation occurs during week 3, when
embryonic disc transforms into three-layered
embryo with three primary germ layers
present:
Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

Begins with appearance of primitive streak,

a raised dorsal groove that establishes
longitudinal axis of embryo

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Gastrulation: Germ Layer Formation (cont.)

Cells begin to migrate into groove
First cells that enter displace hypoblast of yolk
sac and form endoderm
Cells that follow push laterally, forming
mesoderm
Notochord: rod of mesodermal cells that serves as
first axial support of embryo
Formed from aggregation of mesoderm cells

Cells that remain on embryos dorsal surface

form ectoderm (formerly epiblast layer)

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Gastrulation: Germ Layer Formation (cont.)

Ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are
primitive tissues from which all body organs
are derived
Epithelia cells found in:
Ectodermbecome nervous system and skin
epidermis
Endodermbecome epithelial linings of
digestive, respiratory, and urogenital systems
and associated glands

Mesenchyme cells are found in mesoderm

Mesodermbecomes everything else
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Figure 28.8 Formation of the three primary germ layers.

Amnion
Bilayered
embryonic disc

Head end of bilayered

embryonic disc

Yolk sac
Frontal
section

3-D view

Section
view in (e)

Primitive streak
Head end

Cut edge
of amnion

Epiblast

Yolk sac
(cut edge)

Right

14-15 days

Endoderm

Hypoblast

Left
Ectoderm
Primitive
streak

Tail end
Bilayered embryonic disc, superior view

16 days

Mesoderm

Endoderm

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