ECSS E ST 10 12C (15november2008)

ECSS-E-ST-10-12C
15 November 2008
Space engineering
Methods for the calculation of
radiation received and its effects,
and a policy for design margins
ECSS Secretariat
ESA-ESTEC
Requirements & Standards Division
Noordwijk, The Netherlands
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
Foreword
This Standard is one of the series of ECSS Standards intended to be applied together for the
management, engineering and product assurance in space projects and applications. ECSS is a
cooperative effort of the European Space Agency, national space agencies and European industry
associationsforthepurposeofdevelopingandmaintainingcommonstandards.Requirementsinthis
Standardaredefinedintermsofwhatshallbeaccomplished,ratherthanintermsofhowtoorganize
and perform the necessary work. This allows existing organizational structures and methods to be
appliedwheretheyareeffective,andforthestructuresandmethodstoevolveasnecessarywithout
rewritingthestandards.
This Standard has been prepared by the ECSSEST1012 Working Group, reviewed by the ECSS
ExecutiveSecretariatandapprovedbytheECSSTechnicalAuthority.
Disclaimer
ECSSdoesnotprovideanywarrantywhatsoever,whetherexpressed,implied,orstatutory,including,
butnotlimitedto,anywarrantyofmerchantabilityorfitnessforaparticularpurposeoranywarranty
that the contents of the item are errorfree. In no respect shall ECSS incur any liability for any
damages,including,butnotlimitedto,direct,indirect,special,orconsequentialdamagesarisingout
of, resulting from, or in any way connected to the use of this Standard, whether or not based upon
warranty,businessagreement,tort,orotherwise;whetherornotinjurywassustainedbypersonsor
propertyorotherwise;andwhetherornotlosswassustainedfrom,oraroseoutof,theresultsof,the
item,oranyservicesthatmaybeprovidedbyECSS.
Publishedby:
Copyright:
ESARequirementsandStandardsDivision
ESTEC, P.O. Box 299,
2200 AG Noordwijk
The Netherlands
2008 by the European Space Agency for the members of ECSS
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
Change log
ECSSEST1012A
Neverissued
ECSSEST1012B
Neverissued
ECSSEST1012C
Firstissue
15November2008
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
Table of contents
Change log .................................................................................................................3
1 Scope.......................................................................................................................8
2 Normative references .............................................................................................9
3 Terms, definitions and abbreviated terms..........................................................10
3.1
Terms from other standards .....................................................................................10
3.2
Terms specific to the present standard ....................................................................10
3.3
Abbreviated terms .................................................................................................... 21
4 Principles ..............................................................................................................27
4.1
Radiation effects.......................................................................................................27
4.2
Radiation effects evaluation activities ......................................................................28
4.3
Relationship with other standards ............................................................................ 33
5 Radiation design margin......................................................................................34

5.1
Overview ..................................................................................................................34
5.1.1
Radiation environment specification........................................................... 34
5.1.2
Radiation margin in a general case ............................................................ 34
5.1.3
Radiation margin in the case of single events ............................................ 35
5.2
Margin approach ......................................................................................................35
5.3
Space radiation environment....................................................................................37
5.4
Deposited dose calculations..................................................................................... 38
5.5
Radiation effect behaviour........................................................................................ 38
5.6
5.5.1
Uncertainties associated with EEE component radiation susceptibility

data.............................................................................................................38
5.5.2
Component dose effects............................................................................. 39
5.5.3
Single event effects ....................................................................................40
5.5.4
Radiation-induced sensor background ....................................................... 41
5.5.5
Biological effects.........................................................................................41
Establishment of margins at project phases............................................................. 42

5.6.1
Mission margin requirement ....................................................................... 42
5.6.2
Up to and including PDR ............................................................................ 42

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5.6.3
Between PDR and CDR ............................................................................. 43
5.6.4
Hardness assurance post-CDR.................................................................. 43
5.6.5
Test methods..............................................................................................44
6 Radiation shielding ..............................................................................................45

6.1
Overview ..................................................................................................................45
6.2
Shielding calculation approach................................................................................. 45
6.3
6.4
6.2.1
General.......................................................................................................45
6.2.2
Simplified approaches ................................................................................ 49
6.2.3
Detailed sector shielding calculations......................................................... 51
6.2.4
Detailed 1-D, 2-D or full 3-D radiation transport calculations ..................... 52
Geometry considerations for radiation shielding model............................................ 53

6.3.1
General.......................................................................................................53
6.3.2
Geometry elements ....................................................................................54
Uncertainties ............................................................................................................56
7 Total ionising dose ...............................................................................................57

7.1
Overview ..................................................................................................................57
7.2
General.....................................................................................................................57
7.3
Relevant environments............................................................................................. 57
7.4
Technologies sensitive to total ionising dose ........................................................... 58
7.5
Radiation damage assessment ................................................................................60

7.5.1
Calculation of radiation damage parameters.............................................. 60
7.5.2
Calculation of the ionizing dose.................................................................. 60
7.6
Experimental data used to predict component degradation ..................................... 61
7.7
Experimental data used to predict material degradation .......................................... 62
7.8
Uncertainties ............................................................................................................62
8 Displacement damage..........................................................................................63
8.1
Overview ..................................................................................................................63
8.2
Displacement damage expression ........................................................................... 63
8.3
8.4
Technologies susceptible to displacement damage ................................................. 64
8.5

8.5.1
Calculation of radiation damage parameters.............................................. 65
8.5.2
Calculation of the DD dose......................................................................... 65
8.6
Prediction of component degradation.......................................................................69
8.7
Uncertainties ............................................................................................................69
9 Single event effects ..............................................................................................70

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9.1
Overview ..................................................................................................................70
9.2
9.3
Technologies susceptible to single event effects ..................................................... 71
9.4
9.5
9.4.1
Prediction of radiation damage parameters................................................ 72
9.4.2
Experimental data and prediction of component degradation .................... 77
Hardness assurance ................................................................................................79

9.5.1
Calculation procedure flowchart ................................................................. 79
9.5.2
Predictions of SEE rates for ions................................................................ 79
9.5.3
Prediction of SEE rates of protons and neutrons ....................................... 81
10 Radiation-induced sensor backgrounds ..........................................................84

10.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................84
10.2 Relevant environments............................................................................................. 84
10.3 Instrument technologies susceptible to radiation-induced backgrounds .................. 88
10.4 Radiation background assessment .......................................................................... 88
10.4.1
General.......................................................................................................88
10.4.2
Prediction of effects from direct ionisation by charged particles................. 89
10.4.3
Prediction of effects from ionisation by nuclear interactions....................... 89
10.4.4
Prediction of effects from induced radioactive decay ................................. 90
10.4.5
Prediction of fluorescent X-ray interactions ................................................ 90
10.4.6
Prediction of effects from induced scintillation or Cerenkov radiation in

PMTs and MCPs ........................................................................................91
10.4.7
Prediction of radiation-induced noise in gravity-wave detectors................. 91
10.4.8
Use of experimental data from irradiations................................................. 92
10.4.9
Radiation background calculations............................................................. 92
11 Effects in biological material .............................................................................95

11.1 Overview ..................................................................................................................95
11.2 Parameters used to measure radiation .................................................................... 95
11.2.1
Basic physical parameters..........................................................................95
11.2.2
Protection quantities ...................................................................................96
11.2.3
Operational quantities................................................................................. 98
11.3 Relevant environments............................................................................................. 98

11.4 Establishment of radiation protection limits .............................................................. 99
11.5 Radiobiological risk assessment ............................................................................100
11.6 Uncertainties ..........................................................................................................101
Bibliography...........................................................................................................105
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Figures
Figure 9-1: Procedure flowchart for hardness assurance for single event effects. ................ 80
Tables
Table 4-1: Stages of a project and radiation effects analyses performed .............................. 29
Table 4-2: Summary of radiation effects parameters, units and examples ............................ 30
Table 4-3: Summary of radiation effects and cross-references to other chapters.................. 31
Table 6-1: Summary table of relevant primary and secondary radiations to be quantified
by shielding model as a function of radiation effect and mission type ................. 47
Table 6-2: Description of different dose-depth methods and their applications ..................... 49
Table 7-1: Technologies susceptible to total ionising dose effects ........................................ 59
Table 8-1: Summary of displacement damage effects observed in components as a
function of component technology ....................................................................... 67
Table 8-2: Definition of displacement damage effects ........................................................... 68
Table 9-1: Possible single event effects as a function of component technology and
family. ..................................................................................................................72
Table 10-1: Summary of possible radiation-induced background effects as a function of
instrument technology.......................................................................................... 85
Table 11-1: Radiation weighting factors .................................................................................97
Table 11-2: Tissue weighting factors for various organs and tissue (male and female) ........ 97
Table 11-3: Sources of uncertainties for risk estimation from atomic bomb data................. 102
Table 11-4: Uncertainties of risk estimation from the space radiation field .......................... 102
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1
Scope
This standard is a part of the System Engineering branch of the ECSS
engineering standards and covers the methods for the calculation of radiation
receivedanditseffects,andapolicyfordesignmargins.Bothnaturalandman
madesourcesofradiation(e.g.radioisotopethermoelectricgenerators,orRTGs)
areconsideredinthestandard.
Thisstandardappliestotheevaluationofradiationeffectsonallspacesystems.
This standard applies to all product types which exist or operate in space, as
wellastocrewsofmannedspacemissions.Thestandardaimstoimplementa
space system engineering process that ensures common understanding by
participants in the development and operation process (including Agencies,
customers, suppliers, and developers) and use of common methods in
evaluationofradiationeffects.
This standard is complemented by ECSSEHB1012 Radiation received and
itseffectsandmarginpolicyhandbook.
Thisstandardmaybetailoredforthespecificcharacteristicandconstrainsofa
spaceprojectinconformancewithECSSSST00.
ECSSEST1012C
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2
Normative references
The following normative documents contain provisions which, through
reference in this text, constitute provisions of this ECSS Standard. For dated
references,subsequentamendmentsto,orrevisionofanyofthesepublications
donotapply,However,partiestoagreementsbasedonthisECSSStandardare
encouragedtoinvestigatethepossibilityofapplyingthemorerecenteditionsof
the normative documents indicated below. For undated references, the latest
editionofthepublicationreferredtoapplies.
ECSSSST0001
ECSSsystemGlossaryofterms
ECSSEST1004
SpaceengineeringSpaceenvironment
ECSSEST1009
SpaceengineeringReferencecoordinatesystem
ECSSQST30
SpaceproductassuranceDependability
ECSSQST60
Space product assurance Electrical, electronic and

electromechanical(EEE)components
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3
Terms, definitions and abbreviated terms
3.1
Terms from other standards

ForthepurposeofthisStandard,thetermsanddefinitionsfromECSSST0001
apply,inparticularforthefollowingterms:
derating
subsystem
3.2
Terms specific to the present standard

3.2.1
absorbed dose
energyabsorbedlocallyperunitmassasaresultofradiationexposurewhichis
transferredthroughionisation,displacementdamageandexcitationandisthe
sumoftheionisingdoseandnonionisingdose
NOTE1 It is normally represented by D, and in
accordance with the definition, it can be
calculated as the quotient of the energy
imparted due to radiation in the matter in a
volume element and the mass of the matter in
thatvolumeelement.Itismeasuredinunitsof
gray,Gy(1Gy=1Jkg1(=100rad)).
NOTE2 The absorbed dose is the basic physical
quantitythatmeasuresradiationexposure.
3.2.2
air kerma
energyofchargedparticlesreleasedbyphotonsperunitmassofdryair
NOTE
3.2.3
ItisnormallyrepresentedbyK.
ambient dose equivalent, H*(d)
doseatapointequivalenttotheoneproducedbythecorrespondingexpanded
andalignedradiationfieldintheICRUsphereataspecificdepthontheradius
opposingthedirectionofthealignedfield
NOTE1 ItisnormallyrepresentedbyH*(d),wheredis
thespecificdepthusedinitsdefinition,inmm.
NOTE2 H*(d) is relevant to strongly penetrating
radiation. The value normally used is 10mm,
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butdoseequivalentatotherdepthscanbeused
whenthedoseequivalentat10mmprovidesan
unacceptable underestimate of the effective
dose.
3.2.4
bremsstrahlung
high energy electromagnetic radiation in the Xray energy range emitted by

chargedparticlesslowingdownbyscatteringoffatomicnuclei
NOTE
3.2.5
The primary particle is ultimately absorbed

while the bremsstrahlung can be highly
penetrating. In space the most common source
ofbremsstrahlungiselectronscattering.
component
device that performs a function and consists of one or more elements joined
togetherandwhichcannotbedisassembledwithoutdestruction
3.2.6
continuous slowing down approximation range (CSDA)
integral pathlength travelled by charged particles in a material assuming no

stochastic variations between different particles of the same energy, and no
angulardeflectionsoftheparticles
3.2.7
COTS
commercial electronic component readily available offtheshelf, and not

manufactured, inspected or tested in accordance with military or space
standards
3.2.8
critical charge
minimum amount of charge collected at a sensitive node due to a charged

particlestrikethatresultsinaSEE
3.2.9
cross-section
<singleeventphenomena>probabilityofasingleeventeffectoccurringperunit
incidentparticlefluence
NOTE
3.2.10
Thisisexperimentallymeasuredasthenumber
ofeventsrecordedperunitfluence.
cross-section
<nuclear or electromagnetic physics> probability of a particle interaction per

unitincidentparticlefluence
NOTE
It is sometimes referred to as the microscopic

crosssection. Other related definition is the
macroscopic cross section, defines as the
probability of an interaction per unit path
lengthoftheparticleinamaterial.
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3.2.11
directional dose equivalent
doseatapointequivalenttotheoneproducedbythecorrespondingexpanded
radiation field in the ICRU sphere at a specific depth d on a radius on a
specifieddirection
NOTE1 ItisnormallyexpressedasH(d,),wheredis
thespecificdepthusedinitsdefinition,inmm,
andisthedirection.
NOTE2 H(d,), is relevant to weaklypenetrating
radiation where a reference depth of 0,07mm
is usually used and the quantity denoted
H(0,07,).
3.2.12
displacement damage
crystal structure damage caused when particles lose energy by elastic or

inelasticcollisionsinamaterial
3.2.13
dose
quantityofradiationdeliveredataposition
NOTE1 Initsbroadestsensethiscanincludethefluxof
particles, but in the context of space energetic
particleradiationeffects,itusuallyreferstothe
energy absorbed locally per unit mass as a
resultofradiationexposure.
NOTE2 If dose is used unqualified, it refers to both
ionising and nonionising dose. Nonionising
dose can be quantified either through energy
deposition via displacement damage or
damageequivalentfluence(seeClause8).
3.2.14
dose equivalent
absorbed dose at a point in tissue which is weighted by quality factors which

arerelatedtotheLETdistributionoftheradiationatthatpoint
3.2.15
dose rate
rateatwhichradiationisdeliveredperunittime
3.2.16
effective dose
sumoftheequivalentdosesforallirradiatedtissuesororgans,eachweighted
byitsownvalueoftissueweightingfactor
NOTE1 It is normally represented by E, and in
accordance with the definition it is calculated
withtheequationbelow,andthewTisspecified
intheICRP92standard[RDH.22]:
E = wT H T
(1)
ForfurtherdiscussiononE,seeECSSEHB10
12Section10.2.2.
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NOTE2 Effective dose, like organ equivalent dose, is
measured in units of sievert, Sv. Occasionally
thisuseofthesameunitfordifferentquantities
cangiverisetoconfusion.
3.2.17
energetic particle
particle which, in the context of space systems radiation effects, can penetrate
outersurfacesofspacecraft
3.2.18
equivalent dose
See3.2.41(organequivalentdose)
3.2.19
equivalent fluence
quantitywhichrepresentsthedamageatdifferentenergiesandfromdifferent
speciesbyafluenceofmonoenergeticparticlesofasinglespecies
NOTE1 Theseareusuallyderivedthroughtesting.
NOTE2 Damagecoefficientsareusedtoscaletheeffect
caused by particles to the damage caused by a
standardparticleandenergy.
3.2.20
extrapolated range
range determined by extrapolating the line of maximum gradient in the

intensitycurveuntilitreacheszerointensity
3.2.21
Firsov scattering
thereflectionoffastionsfromadensemediumatglancingangles
NOTE
3.2.22
Seereferences[2].
fluence
timeintegrationofflux
NOTE
3.2.23
Itisnormallyrepresentedby.
flux
<unidirectional incident particles> number of particles crossing a surface at

rightanglestotheparticledirection,perunitareaperunittime
3.2.24
flux
<arbitraryangulardistributions>numberofparticlescrossingasphereofunit
crosssectionalarea(i.e.ofradius1/ )perunittime
NOTE1 For arbitrary angular distributions, it is
normallyknownasomnidirectionalflux.
NOTE2 Flux is often expressed in integral form as
particles per unit time (e.g. electrons cm2 s1)
aboveacertainenergythreshold.
NOTE3 The directional flux is the differential with
respect to solid angle (e.g. particlescm
2steradian1s1) while the differential flux is
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differential with respect to energy (e.g.
particlescm2MeV1s1).Insomecasesfluxesare
treated as a differential with respect to linear
energytransferratherthanenergy.
3.2.25
ICRU sphere
sphereof30cmdiametermadeofICRUsofttissue
NOTE
3.2.26
ThisdefinitionisprovidedbytheInternational
Commission of Radiation Units and
MeasurementsReport33[12].
ICRU Soft Tissue
tissueequivalentmaterialwithadensityof1g/cm3andamasscompositionof
76,2%oxygen,11,1%carbon,10,1%hydrogenand2,6%nitrogen.
NOTE
3.2.27
ThisdefinitionisprovidedintheICRUReport
33[12].
ionising dose
amountofenergyperunitmasstransferredbyparticlestoatargetmaterialin
theformofionisationandexcitation
3.2.28
ionising radiation
transferofenergybymeansofparticleswheretheparticlehassufficientenergy
to remove electrons, or undergo elastic or inelastic interactions with nuclei
(includingdisplacementofatoms),andinthecontextofthisstandardincludes
photonsintheXrayenergybandandabove
3.2.29
isotropic
property of a distribution of particles where the flux is constant over all

directions
3.2.30
L or L-shell
parameter of the geomagnetic field often used to describe positions in near

Earthspace
NOTE
3.2.31
LorLshellhasacomplicatedderivationbased
on an invariant of the motion of charged
particles in the terrestrial magnetic field.
Howeveritisusefulindefiningplasmaregimes
withinthemagnetospherebecause,foradipole
magnetic field, it is equal to the geocentric
altitude in Earthradii of the local magnetic
fieldlinewhereitcrossestheequator.
linear energy transfer (LET)
rate of energy deposited through ionisation from a slowing energetic particle

withdistancetravelledinmatter,theenergybeingimpartedtothematerial
NOTE1 LETisnormallyusedtodescribetheionisation
trackcausedduetothepassageofanion.LET
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is material dependent and is also a function of
particleenergyandcharge.Forionsinvolvedin
space radiation effects, it increases with
decreasing energy (it also increases at high
energies, beyond the minimum ionising
energy). LET allows different ions to be
consideredtogetherbysimplyrepresentingthe
ionenvironmentasthesummationofthefluxes
of all ions as functions of their LETs. This
simplifies singleevent upset calculation. The
rate of energy loss of a particle, which also
includes emitted secondary radiations, is the
stoppingpower.
NOTE2 LET is not equal to (but is often approximated
to)particleelectronicstoppingpower,whichis
theenergylossduetoionisationandexcitation
perunitpathlength.
3.2.32
LET Threshold
minimum LET that a particle should have to cause a SEE in a circuit when
goingthroughadevicesensitivevolume
3.2.33
margin
factor or difference between the design environment specification for a device

orproductandtheenvironmentatwhichunacceptablebehaviouroccurs
3.2.34
mean organ absorbed dose
energyabsorbedbyanorganduetoionisingradiationdividedbyitsmass
NOTE
3.2.35
It is normally represented by DT, and in

accordance with the definition, it is calculated
with the equation (35) in ECSSEHB1012
Section 10.2.2. The unit is the gray (Gy), being
1Gy=1joule/kg.
mean range
integralpathlengthtravelledbyparticlesinamaterialafterwhichtheintensity
isreducedbyafactorofe2,7183
NOTE
3.2.36
In accordance with the above definition, it is

nottherangeatwhichallparticlesarestopped.
multiple bit upset (MBU)
set of bits corrupted in a digital element that have been caused by direct
ionisation from a single traversing particle or by recoiling nuclei and/or
secondaryproductsfromanuclearinteraction
NOTE
MCUandSMUarespecialcasesofMBU.
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3.2.37
multiple cell upset (MCU)
set of physically adjacent bits corrupted in a digital element that have been
caused by direct ionisation from a single traversing particle or by recoiling
nucleifromanuclearinteraction
3.2.38
(total) non-ionising dose, (T)NID, or non-ionising energy

loss (NIEL) dose
energy absorption per unit mass of material which results in damage to the
latticestructureofsolidsthroughdisplacementofatoms
NOTE
3.2.39
Although the SI unit of TNID or NIEL dose is

the gray (see definition 3.2.34), for spacecraft
radiation effects, MeV/g(material) is more
commonly used in order to avoid confusion
with ionising energydeposition, e.g.MeV/g(Si)
forTNIDinsilicon.
NIEL or NIEL rate or NIEL coefficient
rateofenergylossinamaterialbyaparticleduetodisplacementdamageper
unitpathlength
3.2.40
omnidirectional flux
scalarintegralofthefluxoveralldirections
NOTE
3.2.41
This implies that no consideration is taken of

the directional distribution of the particles
whichcanbenonisotropic.Thefluxatapoint
is the number of particles crossing a sphere of
unit crosssectional surface area (i.e. of radius
1/ )perunittime.Anomnidirectionalfluxis
nottobeconfusedwithanisotropicflux.
organ equivalent dose
sumofeachcontributionoftheabsorbeddosebyatissueoranorganexposed
toseveralradiationtypes,weightedbytheeachradiationweightingfactorfor
theradiationsimpingingonthebody
NOTE1 The organ equivalent dose, an ICRP60 [11]
defined quantity, is normally represented by
HT, and usually shortened to equivalent dose.
In accordance with the definition, it is
calculatedwiththeequationbelow(forfurther
discussion, see ECSSEHB1012 Section
10.2.2):
H T = wR DT ; R
(2)
NOTE2 Theorganequivalentdoseismeasuredinunits
ofsievert,Sv,where1Sv=1J/kg.Theunitrem
(roentgen equivalent man) is still used, where
1Sv=100rem.
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3.2.42
personal dose equivalent (individual dose equivalent)
doseequivalentinICRUsofttissueatadepthinthebody
NOTE1 The personal dose equivalent, and ICRU
quantity, is normally represented by HP(d) for
strongly penetrating radiation at a depth d in
millimetres that is appropriate for strongly
penetrating radiation. A reference depth of 10
mmisusuallyused.Itvariesbothasafunction
of individuals and location and is appropriate
for organs and tissues deeply situated in the
body.
NOTE2 It is normally represented by Hs(d) for weakly
penetrating radiation (superficial) at a depth d
in millimetres that is appropriate for weakly
penetratingradiation.Areferencedepthof0,07
mmisusuallyused.Itvariesbothasafunction
of individuals and location and is appropriate
for superficial organs and tissues which are
going to be irradiated by both weakly and
stronglypenetratingradiation.
3.2.43
plasma
partly or wholly ionised gas whose particles exhibit collective response to

magneticorelectricfields
NOTE
3.2.44
The collective motion is brought about by the

electrostatic Coulomb force between charged
particles. This causes the particles to rearrange
themselvestocounteractelectricfieldswithina
distance of the order of the Debye length. On
spatial scales larger than the Debye length
plasmasareelectricallyneutral.
projected range
averagedepthofpenetrationofaparticlemeasuredalongtheinitialdirectionof
theparticle
3.2.45
quality factor
factor accounting for the different biological efficiencies of ionising radiation

with different LET, and used to convert the absorbed dose to operational
parameters(ambientdoseequivalent,directionaldoseequivalentandpersonal
doseequivalent)
NOTE1 Quality factor, normally represented by Q, are
used(ratherthanradiationortissueweighting
factors) to convert the absorbed dose to dose
equivalentquantitiesdescribedabove(ambient
dose equivalent, directional dose equivalent
andpersonaldoseequivalent).Itsactualvalues
aregivenbyICRP60[11](see11.2.3.2).
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NOTE2 Prior to ICRP60 [11], quality factors were
synonymoustoradiationweightingfactors.
3.2.46
radiation
transferofenergybymeansofaparticle(includingphotons)
NOTE
3.2.47
InthecontextofthisStandard,electromagnetic
radiation below the Xray band is excluded.
This therefore excludes UV, visible, thermal,
microwaveandradiowaveradiation.
radiation design margin (RDM)
<cumulative process> ratio of the radiation tolerance or capability of the

component,systemorprotectionlimitforastronaut,tothepredictedradiation
environmentforthemissionorphaseofthemission
NOTE
3.2.48
The component tolerance or capability, above

whichitsperformancebecomesnoncompliant,
isprojectdefined.
<nondestructivesingleevent>ratioofthedesignSEEtolerancetothepredicted
SEEratefortheenvironment
NOTE
3.2.49
The designSSE toleranceis theacceptable SEE

rate which the equipment or mission can
experience while still meeting the equipment
reliabilityandavailabilityrequirements.
<destructive single event> ratio of the acceptable probability of component

failurebytheSEEmechanismtothecalculatedprobabilityoffailure
NOTE
3.2.50
theacceptableprobabilityofcomponentfailure
is based on the equipment reliability and
availabilityspecifications.
<biological effect> ratio of the protection limits defined by the project for the
missiontothepredictedexposureforthecrew
3.2.51
radiation weighting factor
factor accounting for the different levels of radiation effects in biological

materialfordifferentradiationsatthesameabsorbeddose
NOTE
3.2.52
It is normally represented by wR. Its value is

definedbyICRP(seeclause11.2.2.2).
relative biological effectiveness (RBE)
inverseratiooftheabsorbeddosefromoneradiationtypetothatofareference
radiationthatproducesthesameradiationeffect
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NOTE1 The radiation type is usually
250keVXrays.
Co or 200
60
NOTE2 In contrast to the weighting or quality factors,

RBE is an empirically founded measurable
quantity. For additional information on RBE,
seeECSSEHB1012Section10.2.2.
3.2.53
sensitive volume (SV)
chargecollectionregionofadevice
3.2.54
single event burnout (SEB)
destructivetriggeringofaverticalnchanneltransistororpowerNPNtransistor
accompaniedbyregenerativefeedback
3.2.55
single event dielectric rupture (SEDR)
formationofaconductingpathtriggeredbyasingleionisingparticleinahigh
fieldregionofadielectric
NOTE
3.2.56
Forexample,inlineardevices,orinFPGAs.
single event disturb (SED)
momentaryvoltageexcursion(voltagespike)atanodeinanintegratedcircuit,
originallyformedbytheelectricfieldseparationofthechargegeneratedbyan
ionpassingthroughornearajunction
NOTE
3.2.57
SEDissimilartoSET,butusedtorefertosuch
eventsindigitalmicroelectronics.
single event effect (SEE)
effectcaused either by direct ionisation from a single traversingparticle or by

recoilingnucleiemittedfromanuclearinteraction
3.2.58
single event functional interrupt (SEFI)
interrupt caused by a single particle strike which leads to a temporary non

functionality(orinterruptionofnormaloperation)oftheaffecteddevice
3.2.59
single event gate rupture (SEGR)
formationofaconductingpathtriggeredbyasingleionisingparticleinahigh
fieldregionofagateoxide
3.2.60
single event hard error (SEHE)
unalterable change of state associated with semipermanent damage to a

memorycellfromasingleiontrack
3.2.61
single event latch-up (SEL)
potentially destructive triggering of a parasitic PNPN thyristor structure in a

device
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15November2008
3.2.62
single event snapback (SESB)
event that occurs when the parasitic bipolar transistor that exists between the
drain and source of a MOS transistor amplifies the avalanche current that
resultsfromaheavyion
3.2.63
single event transient (SET)
momentaryvoltageexcursion(voltagespike)atanodeinanintegratedcircuit,
originallyformedbytheelectricfieldseparationofthechargegeneratedbyan
ionpassingthroughornearajunction
3.2.64
single event upset (SEU)
single bit flip in a digital element that has been caused either by direct
ionisation from a traversing particle or by recoiling nuclei emitted from a
nuclearinteraction
3.2.65
single word multiple bit upset (SMU)
set of logically adjacent bits corrupted in a digital element caused by direct

ionisationfromasingletraversingparticleorbyrecoilingnucleifromanuclear
interaction
NOTE
3.2.66
SMU are multiple bit upsets within a single

dataword.
solar energetic particle event (SEPE)
emission of energetic protons or heavier nuclei from the Sun within a short
spaceoftime(hourstodays)leadingtoparticlefluxenhancement
NOTE
3.2.67
SEPE are usually associated with solar flares

(with accompanying photon emission in
optical, UV and XRay) or coronal mass
ejections.
stopping power
average rate of energyloss by a given particle per unit pathlength traversed

throughagivenmaterial
NOTE
The following are consequence of the above

definition:
collision stopping power: (electrons and
positrons) average energy loss per unit
pathlength due to inelastic Coulomb
collisions with bound atomic electrons
resultinginionisationandexcitation.
radiative stopping power: (electrons and
positrons) average energy loss power unit
pathlength
due
to
emission
of
bremsstrahlung in the electric field of the
atomicnucleusandoftheatomicelectrons.
electronic stopping power: (particles
heavier than electrons) average energy loss
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ECSSEST1012C
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per unit pathlength due to inelastic
Coulomb collisions with atomic electrons
resultinginionisationandexcitation.
nuclear stopping power: (particles heavier
thanelectrons)averageenergylossperunit
pathlength due to inelastic and elastic
Coulombcollisionswithatomicnucleiinthe
material.
3.2.68
tissue weighting factor
factorthataccountsforthedifferentsensitivityoforgansortissueinexpressing
radiationeffectstothesameequivalentdose
NOTE
3.2.69
ItisnormallyrepresentedbywT,anditsactual
valuesaredefinedbyICRP(seeclause11.2.2.3).
total ionising dose
energydepositedperunitmassofmaterialasaresultofionisation
NOTE
3.3
The SI unit is the gray (see definition 3.2.34).

However, the deprecated unit rad (radiation
absorbed dose) is still used frequently (1rad =
1cGy).
Abbreviated terms
ForthepurposeofthisStandard,theabbreviatedtermsfromECSSSST0001
andthefollowingapply:
Abbreviation
Meaning
ADC
analoguetodigitalconverter
ALARA
aslowasreasonablyachievable
APS
activepixelsensor
ASIC
applicationspecificintegratedcircuit
BFO
bloodformingorgan
BiCMOS
bipolarcomplementarymetaloxidesemiconductor
BJT
bipolarjunctiontransistor
BRYNTRN
Baryontransportmodel
BTE
Boltzmanntransportequation
CAM/CAF
computerizedanatomicalman/male/computerized
anatomicalfemale
CCD
chargecoupleddevice
CCE
chargecollectionefficiency
CDR
criticaldesignreview
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CEPXS/ONELD
OnedimensionalCoupledElectronPhoton
MultigroupDiscreteCoordinatesCodeSystem
CERN
EuropeanOrganisationforNuclearResearch
CGRO
ComptonGammaRayObservatory
CID
chargeinjectiondevice
CMOS
complementarymetaloxidesemiconductor
COMPTEL
CGROComptonTelescope
COTS
commercialofftheshelf
CREAM
CosmicRadiationEffectsandActivationMonitor
(SpaceShuttleexperiment)
CEASE
compactenvironmentalanomalysensor
CREME
cosmicrayeffectsonmicroelectronics
CSA
CanadianSpaceAgency
CSDA
continuousslowingdownapproximationrange
CTE
chargetransferefficiency
CTI
chargetransferinefficiency
CTR
currenttransferratio
CZT
cadmiumzinctelluride(semiconductormaterial)
DAC
digitaltoanalogueconverter
DD
displacementdamage
DDEF
displacementdamageequivalentfluence
DDREF
doseanddoserateeffectivenessfactor
DNA
deoxyribonucleicacid
DOSRAD
softwaretopredictspaceradiationdoseatsystem
andequipmentlevel
DRAM
dynamicrandomaccessmemory
DSP
digitalsignalprocessing
DUT
deviceundertest
EEE
electricalandelectronicengineering
EEPROM
electricallyerasableprogrammablereadonly
memory
EGS
ElectronGammaShowerMonteCarloradiation
transportcode
ELDRS
enhancedlowdoseratesensitivity
EM
engineeringmodel
EPIC
EuropeanPhotonImagingCameraontheESAXray
MultiMirror(XMM)mission
EPROM
erasableprogrammablereadonlymemory
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ESA
EuropeanSpaceAgency
ESABASE
engineeringtooltosupportspacecraftmissionand
spacecraftplatformdesign
ESD
electrostaticdischarge
EVA
extravehicularactivity
FASTRAD
sectoringanalysissoftwareforspaceradiationeffects
FLUKA
FluktuierendeKaskade(FluctuatingCascade)Monte
Carloradiationtransportcode
FPGA
fieldprogrammablegatearray
FM
flightmodel
GEANT
GeometryandTrackingMonteCarloradiation
transportcode
GEO
geostationaryEarthorbit
GOES
GeostationaryOperationalEnvironmentSatellite
GRAS
Geant4RadiationAnalysisforSpace
HERMES
3DMonteCarloradiationtransportsimulationcode
developedbyInstitutfrKernphysik
ForschungszentrumJlichGmbH
HETC
HighEnergyTransportCode
hFE
currentgainofabipolartransistorincommon
emitterconfiguration
HPGe
highpuritygermanium
HZE
particleofhighatomicmassandhighenergy
IBIS
ImageronBoardtheINTEGRALSatellite
IC
integratedcircuit
ICRP
InternationalCommissiononRadiobiological
Protection
ICRU
InternationalCommissiononRadiationUnitsand
Measurements
IGBT
insulatedgatebipolartransistor
IML1
InternationalMicrogravityLaboratory1
INTEGRAL
InternationalGammaRayAstrophysicalLaboratory
IR
infrared
IRPP
integratedrectangularparallelepiped
IRTS
IntegratedRadiationTransportSuite
ISO
InfraredSpaceObservatory
ISOCAM
ISOinfraredCamera
ISS
InternationalSpaceStation
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ISSP
InternationalSpaceStationProgram
ITS
IntegratedTigerSeriescoupledelectronphoton
radiationtransportcodes
JAXA
JapanAerospaceExplorationAgency
JFET
junctionfieldeffecttransistor
LDEF
LongDurationExposureFacility
LEO
lowEarthorbit
LED
lightemittingdiode
LET
linearenergytransfer
LHI
LightHeavyIonTransportcode
LISA
LaserInterferometerSpaceAntenna
LNT
linearnothreshold
LOCOS
localoxidationofsilicon
LWIR
longwavelengthinfrared
MCP
microchannelplate
MCNP
MonteCarloNParticleTransportCode
MCNPX
MonteCarloNParticleExtendedTransportCode
MCT
mercurycadmiumtelluride
MCU
multiplecellupset
MEMS
microelectromechanicalstructure
MEO
medium(altitude)Earthorbit
MICAP
MonteCarloIonizationChamberAnalysisPackage
MMOP
MultilateralMedicalOperationsPanel
MORSE
MultigroupOakRidgeStochasticExperiment
coupledneutronrayMonteCarloradiation
transportcode
MOS
metaloxidesemiconductor
MOSFET
metaloxidesemiconductorfieldeffecttransistor
MRHWG
MultilateralRadiationHealthWorkingGroup
MULASSIS
MultiLayeredShieldingSimulationSoftware
MWIR
mediumwavelengthinfrared
NASA
NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration
NCRP
NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionand
Measurements
NID
nonionisingdose(identicaltoTNID)
NIEL
nonionisingenergyloss
NMOS
Nchannelmetaloxidesemiconductor
NOVICE
3DRadiationtransportsimulationcodedeveloped
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15November2008
byExperimentalandMathematicalPhysics
Consultants,Gaithersburg,USA
NPN
bipolarjunctiontransistorwithPtypebase
NUREG
NuclearRegulatoryCommissionRegulation
OMERE
Radiationenvironmentandeffectscodedeveloped
byTRADwiththesupportofCNES
OSSE
CGROOrientedScintillatorSpectrometerExperiment
PCB
printedcircuitboard
PCC
partcategorizationcriterion
PDR
preliminarydesignreview
PIXIE
particleinduceXrayemission
PLL
phaselockedloop
PMOS
Pchannelmetaloxidesemiconductor
PMT
photomultipliertube
PNP
bipolarjunctiontransistorwithNtypebase
PNPN
deliberateorparasiticthyristorlikesemiconductor
structure(containingfour,alternatingPtypeandN
typeregions)
PPAC
parallelplateavalanchecounter
PSR
PacificSierraResearchCorporation
PSTAR
stoppingpowerandrangetablesforprotons
PWM
pulsewidthmodulator
RBE
relativebiologicaleffectiveness
RC
resistorcapacitor
RDM
radiationdesignmargin
RGS
reflectiongratingspectrometer
RHA
radiationhardnessassurance
RPP
rectangularparallelepiped
RSA
RussianSpaceAgency
RTG
radioisotopethermoelectricgenerator
RTS
randomtelegraphsignal
SBD
surfacebarrierdetector
SDRAM
synchronousdynamicrandomaccessmemory
SHIELDOSE
spaceshieldingradiationdosecalculations
SEB
singleeventburnout
SED
singleeventdisturb
SEDR
singleeventdielectricrupture
SEE
singleeventeffect
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SEFI
singleeventfunctionalinterrupt
SEGR
singleeventgaterupture
SEHE
singleeventharderror
SEL
singleeventlatchup
SEPE
solarenergeticparticleevent
SESB
singleeventsnapback
SET
singleeventtransient
SEU
singleeventupset
SMART1
SmallMissionforAdvancedResearchand
Technology
SMU
singlewordmultiplebitupset
SOHO
SolarandHeliosphericObservatory
SOI
silicononinsulator
SOS
silicononsapphire
SPE
solarparticleevent
SPENVIS
SpaceEnvironmentInformationSystem
SPI
SpectrometeronINTEGRAL
SRAM
staticrandomaccessmemory
SREM
StandardRadiationEnvironmentMonitor
SSAT
SectorShieldingAnalysisTool
STRV
SpaceTechnologyResearchVehicle
SV
sensitivevolume
SWIR
shortwavelengthinfrared
TID
totalionisingdose
TNID
totalnonionisingdose
UNSCEAR
UnitedNationsScientificCommitteeontheEffects
ofAtomicRadiation
USAF
UnitedStatesAirForce
UV
ultraviolet
VLSI
verylargescaleintegration
WCA
worstcaseanalysis
XMM
XrayMultiMirrorMission(alsoknownasNewton)
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4
Principles
4.1
Radiation effects
This standard is applicable to all space systems. There is no space system in
whichradiationeffectscanbeneglected.
In this clause the word component refers not only to electronic components
but also to other fundamental constituents of space hardware units and sub
systemssuchassolarcells,opticalmaterials,adhesives,andpolymers.
Survival and successful operation of space systems in the space radiation
environment, or the surface of other solar system bodies cannot be ensured
without careful consideration of the effects of radiation. A comprehensive
compendiumofradiationeffectsisprovidedinECSSEHB1012Section3.The
correspondingengineeringprocess,includingdesignofunitsandsubsystems,
involves several tradeoffs, one of which is radiation susceptibility. Some
radiation effects can be mission limiting where they lead to a prompt or
accumulated degradation which results in subsystem or system failure, or
catastrophicsystemanomalies.Examplesaredamageofelectroniccomponents
due to total ionising dose, or damaging interaction of a single heavy ion
(thermal failure following latchup). Others effects can be a source of
interference, degrading the efficiency of the mission. Examples are radiation
backgroundinsensorsorcorruptionofelectronicmemories.Biologicaleffects
are also important for manned and some other missions where biological
samplesareflown.
The correct evaluation of radiation effects occurs as early as possible in the
design of systems, and is repeated throughout the development phase. A
radiation environment specification is established and maintained as a
mandatoryelementofanyprocurementactionsfromthestartofaproject(Pre
PhaseAorotherorbittradeoffprestudies).Thespecificationisspecifictothe
mission and takes account of the timing and duration of the mission, the
nominal andtransfer trajectories,andactivities on nonterrestrialsolar system
bodies,employingthemethodsdefinedinECSSEST1004.Uponanyupdate
to the radiation environment specification (e.g. as a result of orbit changes), a
complete reevaluation of the radiation effects calculations arising from this
standardisperformed.
In order to make a radiation effects evaluation, test data are used, both to
confirmthecompatibilityofthecomponentwiththeenvironmentitisintended
to operate in, and to provide data for quantitative analysis of the radiation
effect.Ingeneralthereisoneeffectsparameterforeachradiationeffect.Severe
engineering, schedule and cost problems can result from inadequate
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ECSSEST1012C
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anticipation of space radiation effects and preparation of the engineering
optionsandsolutions.
Insomecases,knowledgeabouttheradiationeffectsonaparticularcomponent
type can be found in the published literature or in databases on radiation
effects. It is important to use these data with extreme caution since verifying
that data are relevant to the actual component being employed is often very
difficult. For example in evaluating electronic components, consideration is
givento:
variationsinsensitivitybetweenmanufacturersbatches;
variations in sensitivity within a nominally identical manufacturing

batch;
changesinmanufacturing,processes,packaging;
correlation of measurements made on the ground and inflight

experienceisfarfromcomplete.
As a consequence, and to account for accumulated uncertainties in testing

procedures, componenttocomponent variations and environmental
uncertainties, margins are usually applied to the radiation effects parameters
fortheparticularmission.Thisdocumentalsoseekstoprovidespecificationfor
whenandhowtoapplysuchmargins.
Applicationofmarginscanhaveimportanteffectsontheengineering.Toohigh
a level, implying a severe environment, can imply change of components
(leading to increased cost or degradation of performance), application of
additionalshieldingorevenorbitchanges.Ontheotherhand,toolowamargin
canresultincompromisedmissionperformanceorprematurefailure.
4.2
Radiation effects evaluation activities

Table41summarisestheactivitiestobeundertakenduringaproject.Effectson
electricalandelectronicsystems,andmaterialsareconsideredintermsoftotal
ionising dose (TID), displacement damage, and single event effects (SEE). For
spacecraft sensors, whether as part of the platform or payload, radiation
enhanced background levels are also considered. The user can find a general
description of these radiation effects in ECSSEHB1012 Section 3. Table 42
provides a summary, identifying the parameters used to quantify radiation
effects, units and space radiation sources which induce those effects, whilst
Table43identifiestheeffectsasafunctionofcomponenttechnology.
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Table41:Stagesofaprojectandradiationeffectsanalysesperformed
Phase
PrephaseA
Activity
Environmentspecificationforeachmissionoption;
Preliminaryassessmentofsensitivitiesandavailabilityofcomponents
Environmentspecificationforbaselinemissionandoptionswheretheyareretainedfor
consideration
Preliminaryassessmentofsensitivitiesandavailabilityofcomponents
Environmentspecificationupdate;Spaceradiationhardnessassurancerequirements
includingdetailedanalysisofcomponentrequirementsandidentificationofavailabilityof
susceptibilitydata;
Establishmentandexecutionofcomponenttestplan
C&D
Accurateshieldingandradiationeffectsanalysis(includingcomponentspecificanalysis)a
Consolidationoftestresults;augmentedtesting
Investigationofradiationeffects;considerationofradiationeffectsinanomaly
investigation;feedbacktoengineeringgroupsoflessonslearnedincludinge.g.radiation
relatedanomalies.
Ifmissionassumptionschangeinthisphase,suchastheproposedorbit,acompletereevaluationoftheradiation
environmentspecificationisperformed.
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Table42:Summaryofradiationeffectsparameters,unitsandexamples
Effect
Totalionising
dose(TID)
Parameter
Typicalunits
Ionisingdosein
material
grays(material)
(Gy(material))or
rad(material)
1Gy=100rad
Examples
Particles
Thresholdvoltageshift Electrons,
protons,
andleakagecurrents
bremsstrahlung
inCMOS,linear
bipolar(notedoserate
sensitivity)
Displacement
damageequivalent
dose(totalnon
ionisingdose)
MeV/g
Protons,
Allphotonics,e.g.
electrons,
CCDtransfer
efficiency,optocoupler neutrons,ions
transferratio
Equivalentfluence
of10MeVprotons
or1MeVelectrons
cm2
Reductioninsolarcell
efficiency
Eventsperunit
fluencefromlinear
energytransfer
(LET)spectra&
crosssectionversus
LET
cm2versus
MeVcm2/mg
Memories,
microprocessors.Soft
errors,latchup,burn
out,gaterupture,
transientsinopamps,
comparators.
IonsZ>1
Singleevent
effectsfrom
nuclearreactions
Eventsperunit
fluencefromenergy
spectra&cross
sectionversus
particleenergy
cm2versusMeV
Asabove
Protons,
neutrons,
Payloadspecific
radiationeffects
Energylossspectra,
chargedeposition
spectra
countss1MeV1
Displacement
damage
Singleevent
effects
fromdirect
ionisation
Biological
damage
ions
Falsecountratesin
detectors,falseimages
inCCDs
charging
Gravityproofmasses
Doseequivalent=
Dose(tissue)x
QualityFactor;
sieverts(Sv)or
rems
DNArupture,
mutation,celldeath
1Sv=100rem
Protons,
electrons,
neutrons,ions,
induced
radioactivity
(,,)
Ions,neutrons,
protons,
electrons,
rays,Xrays
equivalentdose=
Dose(tissue)x
radiationweighting
factor;
Effectivedose
Charging
Charge
coulombs(C)
Phantomcommands
fromESD
Electrons
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ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
Table43:Summaryofradiationeffectsandcrossreferencestootherchapters
(Part1of2)
Subsystemor
component
Integrated
circuits
Technology
PowerMOS
CMOS
Bipolar
BiCMOS
SOI
Optoelectronics MEMSa
andsensors(1) CCD
CMOSAPS
Photodiodes
LEDs
laserLEDs
Optocouplers
Effect
ECSSEST1012
mainclause
crossreference
ECSSEHB1012
Section
crossreference
TID
SEGR
9.4.1.6
8.6.2
SEB
9.4.1.6
8.6.3
TID
SEE(generally)
TNID
7.4.2
SEU
9.4.1.2,9.4.1.3
8.7.1
SET
9.4.1.7
8.7.5
TID
TID
TNID
7.4.2
SEE(generally)
TID
SEE(generallyexc.
SEL)
TID
TNID
7.4.3
TID
Enhancedbackground
(SEE)
10.4.2,10.4.3,10.4.5
9.2,9.4
TNID
7.4.4
TID
SEE(generally)
Enhancedbackground 10.4.2,10.4.3,10.4.5
9.2,9.4
TNID
7.4.5
TID
SET
9.4.1.7
8.7.5
TNID
7.4.7
TID
TNID
7.4.7
TID
TNID
7.4.8
TID
SET
9.4.1.7
8.7.5
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Table43:Summaryofradiationeffectsandcrossreferencestootherchapters
(Part2of2)
Subsystemor
component
Technology
ECSSEST1012
mainclause
Crossreference
ECSSEHB1012
Crossreference
TNID(alkalihalides)
7.4.11
Enhancedbackground
10.4.2,10.4.3,10.4.4
9.5
ray
semiconductorb
TNID
7.4.10
Enhancedbackground
10.4.2,10.4.3,10.4.4
9.5
chargedparticle
detectors
TNID(scintillatorc&
semiconductor)
9.5
Enhancedbackground
10.4.2,10.4.3
9.3
TID(scintillatorc&
semiconductors)
microchannel
plates
Enhancedbackground
10.4.6
9.6
photomultiplier
tubes
Enhancedbackground
10.4.6
9.6
Otherimaging
sensors
TNID
Enhancedbackground
10.4.2,10.4.3
9.3
Enhancedbackground
10.4.7
9.7
Coverglass&
TID
bondingmaterials
Cell
7.4.9
Optoelectronics rayorXray
andsensors(2) scintillator
Effect
(e.g.InSb,InGaAs,
HgCdTe,GaAs
andGaAlAs)
Gravitywave
sensors
Solarcells
TNID
Nonoptical
materials
Crystaloscillators TID
polymers
TID(radiolysis)
Optical
materials
silicaglasses
TID
alkalihalides
TID
TNID
7.4.11
Earlyeffects
11
10.3.3,10.4.4
Stochasticeffects
11
10.3.4,10.4.4
Deterministiclateeffects 11
10.3.4,10.4.4
Radiobiologicaleffects
MEMSreferstotheeffectsonthemicroelectromechanicalstructureonly.Anysurroundingmicroelectronicsarealso
subjecttootherradiationeffectsidentifiedinIntegratedcircuitsrow
b
SeeTable81,RadiationDetectorsforexamplesofsemiconductormaterialsthataresusceptibletorays.
C Theeffectonscintillatorsrefersprimarilytothedetectormaterialregisteringtheradiation.Theelectronicsneededfor
readoutcanneedadditionalradiationassessment.
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4.3
Relationship with other standards

ThereareimportantrelationshipsbetweenthisstandardandothersintheECSS
system and elsewhere. While these are referred to in the relevant parts of the
standard, and referenced as mandatory references, some of the important
complementaryresourcesarebrieflydescribedhere:
ECSSEST1004SpaceengineeringSpaceenvironment
Thisstandarddescribestheenvironmentandspecifiesthemethodsand
modelstobeemployedinanalysingandspecifyingthemodel.
ECSSQST60 Space product assurance Electrical, electronic and

electromagnetic(EEE)components
This standard identifies the requirements related to procurement and
testingofelectroniccomponents,excludingsolarcells.
ECSSEST20SpaceengineeringElectricalandelectronic
This standard describes and sets up rules and regulations on generic
systemtesting.
ECSSEST1011SpaceengineeringHumanfactorsengineering
This standard addresses all aspects relevant to assure a safe and
comfortableenvironmentforhumanbeingsundertakingaspacemission.
Whenotherformsoflifeareaccommodatedonboard,thisstandardalso
ensures the appropriate environmental conditions to those living
organisms.
ECSSEST34 Space engineering Environmental control and life

support
ECSSEST3208SpaceengineeringMaterials
This standard defines the mechanical engineering requirements for
materials. It also encompasses the effects of the natural and induced
environments to which materials used for space applications can be
subjected.
ECSSQST3011 Space product assurance Derating EEE

components
This standard specifies derating requirements applicable to electronic,
electricalandelectromechanicalcomponents.
ECSSEST2008 Space engineering Photovoltaic assemblies and

components
This standard outlines the requirements for the qualification,
procurement, storage and delivery of the main assemblies and
components of the space solar array electrical layout: photovoltaic
assemblies, solar cell assemblies, bare solar cells and coverglasses. It
doesnotoutlinerequirementsforthequalification,procurement,storage
anddeliveryofthesolararraystructureandmechanism.
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5
Radiation design margin
5.1
Overview
5.1.1
Radiation environment specification
The radiation environment specification forms part of the product

requirements.Qualificationmargins(therequiredminimumRDM)arepartof
the specification, since the objective of the qualification process is to
demonstrate whether an entity is capable of fulfilling the specified
requirements, including the qualification margin in ECSSSST0001. As a
result of this qualification process, the achieved RDM is established, to be
comparedwiththerequiredRDM.
This Clause specifies requirements for addressing and establishing RDMs.
Margins are closely related to hardness assurance as well as to environment
uncertainties. Hardness assurance is covered in ECSSQST60, and
environmentuncertaintiesandworstcasescenariosarespecifiedinECSSEST
1004.
5.1.2
Radiation margin in a general case
RDMcanbespecifiedatsystemleveldowntosubsystem,boardorcomponent
level,dependinguponthelocalradiationenvironmentspecificationatdifferent
components,andtheeffectsanalysismethodologyadoptedfortheequipment.
RequiringtheRDMtoexceedaminimumvalueensuresthatallowanceismade
fortheuncertaintiesinthepredictionoftheradiationenvironmentanddamage
effects,thesearisingfrom:
Uncertaintiesinthemodelsanddatausedtopredicttheenvironment;
Thepotentialforstochasticenhancementsovertheaverageenvironment
(suchasenhancementsoftheouterelectronradiationbelt);
Systematicandstatisticalerrorsinmodelsusedtoassesstheinfluenceof
shielding, and determine radiation parameters (e.g. TID, TNID, particle
fluence)atcomponentslocations;
Uncertainties in the radiation tolerance of components, established by

irradiationtests,duetosystematictestingerrors;
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ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
Uncertaintiesasaresultofrelatingtestdatatotheactualpartsprocured,
andvariabilityofmeasuredradiationtolerancewithinthepopulationof
parts.
Anappropriateselectionoftheradiationdesignmargintakesintoaccount:
thecriticalityofthecomponent,subsystemorsystemtothesuccessofthe
mission, imposed through equipment reliability and availability
requirements,and
the type of mission (e.g. scientific, commercial, lowcost, an optional

missionextension).
Margins are also achieved by application of worstcase analyses. The

quantificationofthemarginsachievedisagoodengineeringpractice.However,
itisrecognizedthatsuchaquantificationissometimesdifficultorimpossible.
5.1.3
Radiation margin in the case of single

events
RDMsareusuallyrelatedtocumulativedegradationprocessesalthoughwithin
thisdocumenttheyarealsousedinthecontextofsingleeventeffects(SEE).In
suchcontext,thedefinitionofRDMisadapteddifferentlyforthetwoseparate
casesofdestructiveornondestructivesingleevents(seedefinitions3.2.48and
3.2.49).
SinceinthecaseofSEEtheRDMdefinitioncanbelinkedtotheSEErateorrisk,
theRDMcanchangedependinguponthephaseofthemission(e.g.whethera
payload system is intended to be operational at particular times) and local
environment or space weather conditions (e.g. if the spacecraft is passing
throughtheSouthAtlanticanomalyorduringasolarparticleevent).SinceSEE
rateorriskpredictionisbasedonuseoftestdataandsimplifyingassumptions
on the geometry and interactions, it is important to take into account the
potential for large errors in predicting SEE rates when establishing the
reliability requirements for equipment, and especially for critical equipment.
DeratingcanalsobeusedtoreduceorremovesusceptibilitytoSEE.
5.2
Margin approach
a.
The customer shall specify minimum RDMs (MRDMs) for the various
radiationeffects.
NOTE1 The customer and supplier can agree to other
margins to reflect conducted testing (e.g.
supplierperformed lot acceptance tests,
published tests on similar components) in
specific cases and in accordance with the
hardness assurance programme defined
according to ECSSQST60. These minimum
RDMs can be established directly by the
customer, or based on a proposal made by the
supplierandapprovedbythecustomer.
35
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
NOTE2 The margins for SEE are based on the
consideration of acceptable risksand rates and
are
therefore
involve
system
level
considerations.
b.
The achieved RDM shall be established by analysis and a justification

provided in the applicable radiation hardness assurance programme
requiredbyECSSQST60forClass1,2and3components.
NOTE
c.
ForRDM,seeClause5.1.1.
The analysis specified in requirement 5.2b shall include the following

elements,andtheassociateduncertaintiesandmargins,eitherhiddenor
explicit:
1.
Spaceradiationenvironment,evaluatedasspecifiedinclause5.3.
2.
Deposited dose, calculated as specified in clause 5.4, and

including:
(a)
Shieldingand
(b)
Calculationofeffectsparameters
NOTE
3.
Forexample,ionisingdose,displacementdose,
SEE rate, instrumental background, and
biologicaleffects.
Radiation effect behaviour of entities (including components,

payloads,andhumans),evaluatedasspecifiedinclause5.5.
NOTE
Hiddenmarginsappearinmanyaspectsofthe
hardnessassuranceprocess(seealsotheclauses
of ECSSQST60 relevant to Radiation
hardness) and they can compensate for
uncertainties in other elements of the
assessment process. The hardness assurance
plancanconsider:
Parttypesensitivityevaluation.
Lottolotvariation.
Worstcaseanalysis
Minimum considered radiation level (since
dosedepthcurvesareoftenasymptotictoa
dose value for thick shielding due to
bremsstahlung or high energy protons, a
minimum qualification dose can be
specified)
d.
For those elements in the design margin analysis, as specified in

requirement5.2c,thatassumethefollowingworstcaseconditions,their
contributiontothedesignmarginneednotbeapplied:
1.
Forenvironment,thosespecifiedasworstcaseinECSSEST1004,
Clause9.
2.
Forotherthanenvironment,thosespecifiedinclauses5.4and5.5.
36
ECSSEST1012C
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e.
It shall be ensured that the qualification process demonstrates that the

RDMsmeettheMRDMsforthedesignadopted.
NOTE
5.3
With this objective, the minimum radiation

designmarginsspecifiedfortheequipmentare
established based on the reliability and
availability requirements, and on the
methodologies adopted for calculating the
radiationenvironmentandeffects.
Space radiation environment

a.
WhenusingtheAE8modelforelectronsattheworstcaselongitudeon
geostationary orbit for longterm exposure (greater than 11years), no
additionalmarginshallbeapplied.
b.
When using the AE8 model under conditions other than specified in
requirement 5.3a, or using standard models of the particle environment
other than AE8, it shall be demonstrated that the achieved RDM
includesthemodeluncertainties.
NOTE
The model uncertainties are reported in the

radiationenvironmentspecificationasspecified
inECSSEST1004,clause9.3.
c.
Wheretheradiationenvironmentmodelsareworstcaseintheradiation
environment specification, as specified in ECSSEST1009 clause 9, no
additionalmarginshallbeapplied.
d.
Where models are of a probabilistic nature, the level of risk to be used

shall be agreed between customer and supplier and reported alongside
theachievedRDM.
NOTE
e.
Examples of models of a probabilistic nature

arestatisticalsolarprotonmodels.Examplesof
an acceptable level of risk are worst case and
specificpercentiles.
Where models are of a probabilistic nature further margin need not be

applied if it is demonstrated that the intrinsic uncertainties in the
instrument data underlying the model are included in the models
probabilisticformulation.
NOTE
Any margin associated with the environment

prediction is strongly dependent on the
available knowledge and is used to mitigate
against the uncertainties in the environment.
Experience with certain types of Earth orbit is
extensive, giving rise to smaller margins, but
uncertainties for others, and for example other
planets, necessitate careful consideration of
uncertainties.
37
ECSSEST1012C
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5.4
Deposited dose calculations

a.
One of the three following methods shall be used to evaluate the

depositeddose:
abstract simple shielding such as planar or spherical shell

geometry,asspecifiedinclause6.2.2.1;
3Dsectorshielding,asspecifiedinclause6.2.3;
3D physicsbased MonteCarlo analysis, as specified in clause

6.2.4.
NOTE
b.
They are ordered in increasing accuracy and

rigour.
In establishing the shielding contribution to a components RDM, and

whenthesimulationmodelslessthan70%oftheequipmentmass,then
themodelisconservative,andadditionalmarginshallnotbeappliedto
doses computed in geometries with the 3D sector shielding method
specifiedinclause6.2.3.
NOTE1 This is true when approximate geometry
models are used which are demonstrably
conservative (e.g. lacking modelling of some
units,harness,massandfuel).
NOTE2 3D sector analysis methods (slant/solid or
Norm/shell) for electron dose calculations are
notalwaysworstcase.Inonestudyacorrective
factorofabout2wasneededfortheSlant/Solid
methodand3.4fortheNorm/Shell.
c.
In establishing the shielding contribution to a components RDM, and

when3DphysicsbasedMonteCarloanalysisspecifiedinclause6.2.4is
used for electronbremsstrahlung dominated environments, it shall be
demonstrated that the achieved RDM includes the uncertainties
(including the level of conservatism in the shielding and the systematic
andstatisticalerrorsinthecalculation).
NOTE1 Examples
of
electronbremsstrahlung
dominatedenvironmentsaregeostationaryand
MEOorbits.
NOTE2 When3DMonteCarloanalysisisusedforion
nucleonshieldinginheavilyshieldedsituations
(e.g. ISS and other manned missions) greater
marginsareused.
5.5
Radiation effect behaviour

5.5.1
a.
Uncertainties associated with EEE

component radiation susceptibility data
It shall be demonstrated that the achieved RDM includes the

uncertainties that arise in component susceptibility data from the
38
ECSSEST1012C
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radiation hardness assurance programme specified in ECSSQST60 for
Class1,2and3components,including:
1.
uncertainties in the results from irradiation: the beam

characterization and dosimetry, and the subsequent statistical
errors in the measured or derived results such as SEE cross
sections;
2.
differencesbetweenthetestcircuitandtheapplicationcircuit,such
asbiasconditions,opportunitiesforannealingorELDRS;
3.
differences in the radiation susceptibility of different components

withinthesamebatch,orwithinthecollectionofbatchesselected
fortesting;
4.
differences between part batches or collection of batches, where

errorsarisefrom relating the results from component irradiations
todevicesemployedinthefinalapplication;
5.
the possible effects of packaging on lowenergy proton beams

(<30MeV);
NOTE
6.
Thereasonisthatthispackagingcanaffectthe
penetrationandenergy(LET)oftheparticles.
thestatedaccuracyofthefacilitytogetherwiththeuncertaintiesin
requirement5.5.1a.1,takingintoaccountposition,attenuation;
NOTE1 In the absence of contemporaneous beam
characterisation, quoted particle accelerator
characteristicsareassumedtobenobetterthan
30%accurateinbeamintensity.
NOTE2 For ray sources such as 60Co, uncertainties in
the total ionising dose delivered are typically
betterthan10%.
7.
the variations in performance within a device population, be

determined by employing one or more of the following and in
accordance with the radiation hardness assurance programme
defined according to ECSSQST60 for Class 1, 2 and 3
components:
(a)
statisticaltechniquesappliedtotestdata;
(b)
datafromheritageinformationconcerningthepart;
(c)
datafrompreviousworstcaseanalyses.
NOTE
5.5.2
a.
Such techniques are defined in the clauses of

ECSSQST60
relevant
to
Radiation
Hardness.
Component dose effects
In assessment of a parts total dose behaviour (ionizing and non

ionizing),theachievedRDMshallincludethefollowingitemsaspartof
theradiationhardnessassuranceprocess:
1.
testconditionsleadingtoworstcase,
39
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
2.
lottolotvariability,
3.
intralotvariability,
4.
worstcaseanalysisasspecifiedinECSSQST30,
5.
consistencyoftestresultswithrespecttoprevioustesting.
NOTE
b.
The main margin in radiation dose assessment

is provided through the radiation hardness
assuranceplan.AsspecifiedinECSSQST60,a
radiation hardness assurance plan is prepared,
agreedandreviewedatallmissionphases.
If a device is sensitive to TNID, then this shall be included in the

establishmentoftheachievedRDM.
5.5.3
Single event effects
5.5.3.1
General single event
a.
It shall be demonstrated that the equipment reliability requirements

includethepotentialforlargeuncertaintiesinpredictingSEE.
NOTE1 Forarationale,seeclause5.1.3.
NOTE2 It is common practicein SEE evaluation to use
worstcase environmental assumptions and
performworstcaseanalysisofsystemimpacts.
As indicated in clause 5.2, when such worst
case analysis is performed, additional margins
arenotapplied.
NOTE3 Prediction errors of a factor 10 are possible in
somecircumstances.
b.
WheretheSEEcalculationisbasedonanenvironmentpredictionwhich
includestheconfidencelevelfortheenvironmentnotbeingexceeded,the
confidence level shall be reported along with the statement of the
achievedRDMforSEEs.
NOTE
c.
Margin shall be guaranteed through application of the hardness

assuranceprogrammeasspecifiedinECSSQST60.
5.5.3.2
a.
Some environmental models are statistical in

nature, indicating the probability of conditions
being exceeded. Such models are specified in
ECSSEST1004.
Destructive single event
Inthecaseofdestructivesingleeventeffect,theacceptableprobabilityof
componentfailurebytheSEEmechanism,andthecalculatedprobability
of failure used to determine the achieved RDM, shall relate to
performance of the component for the environment over the specified
period of operation, rather than simply the worstcase environment
condition.
40
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
NOTE1 Worstcaseconditionscancorrespondornotto
actualoperatingenvironment.
NOTE2 In many cases it can be demonstrated that
environment contributions from nonworst
case conditions are negligible compared with
theworstcaseenvironment.
b.
RDManalysisneednotbeperformedforcomponentdestructiveSEEif:
1.
the threshold energy (for protons or neutrons) or threshold LET

(forions)fordestructiveSEEisgreaterthanthatidentifiedasthe
immunity threshold in the radiation hardness assurance
programme,or
2.
the electrical operational conditions for a component have been

deratedtolevelswherethedeviceisshownbytestingnottosuffer
thatparticularSEEmechanism.
5.5.4
Radiation-induced sensor background
a.
The radiation metric used in the radiation design margin for sensor
backgroundcalculationsshallbeagreedwiththecustomer.
b.
The radiation metric used in the achieved RDM shall be chosen as

representativeofthesensorbandwidthcriticaltothemissionobjectives.
NOTE1 It is highly dependent upon the sensor design
and application. It can be provided by the
customerintheequipmentrequirements.
NOTE2 As with single event effects, the MRDM
required can be dependent upon the phase of
themission,andlocalenvironment.
c.
Where the background has been simulated, a comparison between

simulationsandirradiationresultsforthesensor(orarepresentationof
thesensor)shallbeperformedinordertogaugetheleveloferrorinthe
modellingprocess.
NOTE
5.5.5
a.
The uncertainties associated with the

calculation of the background are very much
dependent upon the sensor or instrument
design and method for calculating detector
background, including, where appropriate, the
useofexperimentaldata.
Biological effects
The protection limits and predicted exposure used to determine the

achieved RDM for biological effects shall be defined in terms of one or
moreofthefollowingvariables:
1.
effectivedose;
2.
organequivalentdose;
3.
ambientdoseequivalent;
41
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
4.
directionaldoseequivalent;
5.
personaldoseequivalent.
NOTE1 For requirements on radiation effects in
biological material, see Clause 11. For
background on limit exposure policies of the
different Space Agencies, see ECSSEHB1012
Section10.4.4.
NOTE2 Forinterplanetarymissions,exposurelimitsare
notcurrentlydefined.
5.6
Establishment of margins at project phases

5.6.1
Mission margin requirement
The customer specifies the minimum radiation design margins (MRDMs)

dependingonmissionspecificconstraintsasspecifiedinrequirement5.2a.
NOTE
5.6.2
a.
For example, mission specific constraints:

reliability,cost,andlifetime.
Up to and including PDR
BeforePDR,aworstcaseassessmentofunitshieldingshallbemade(i.e.
minimumshieldingthickness)
NOTE
BeforePDRanaccurategeometricalmodelofa
satellite is not generally available. As a
consequence it is not possible to estimate the
dose level expected at a part and so the final
achievedRDMcannotbeaccuratelyassessed.
b.
Other than the environmental margin, additional margin shall not be

appliedtothedosecalculationatthisstage.
c.
For parts whose achieved RDM determined from the worstcase

assessmentspecifiedinrequirement5.6.2aandbfallsbelowtheMRDM
specified in requirement 5.2a and where information is available, the
worst case assessment shall be augmented by geometrical (sector
shielding)analysis.
d.
The shielding analysis specified in requirement 5.6.2c may be iterated,

improvingthegeometricalfidelityateachstagesoastoconvergeonan
RDMthatmeetsorexceedstheMRDM.
NOTE
Theshieldinganalysisisbasedonevaluationof
the basic spacecraft and unit geometries, with
sufficient detail of major local spacecraft
elementswhichcanimproveshielding.Monte
Carlo techniques can also be attempted at this
stage. The achieved RDM is evaluated
considering the environmental and shielding
uncertainties
and
possible
systematic
conservatism.
42
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
e.
For parts whose achieved RDM, as determined from the assessment in

requirements 5.6.2a, b and c, falls below the MRDM specified in
requirement5.2ashallbe:
1.
declaredbythesuppliertohavefailedtomeetthespecification,
2.
reportedtothecustomer,and
3.
either replaced with a part that meets the MRDM or subjected to

detailedtestingandanalysisprocedures.
NOTE1 Thetestsandanalysisproceduresarespecified
in the clauses of ECSSQST60 relevant to
RadiationHardness.
NOTE2 ThisanalysiscanbeperformedafterPDRwhen
moredetailofthesystemgeometryisavailable
formoreaccurateshieldinganalyses.
5.6.3
a.
Between PDR and CDR
Before CDR, it shall be verified that the final radiation values,

considering the uncertainties and conservatism in the environment,
shieldingandpartsevaluation,arecompatiblewiththespecifiedproject
specificoverallandcomponentspecificMRDM.
NOTE1 The RHA process defines the reporting
expected at this stage (normally radiation
analysis,includingshielding).
NOTE2 For components that are noncompliant with
theMRDMatthisstage,detailed3Dshielding
calculations can be employed to improve the
fidelityofthecalculationoftheradiationlevel,
orasthebasisofasupplierRequestforWaiver
on the MRDM. The methods employed can be
full and detailed sectoring or full MonteCarlo
radiation transport analysis as specified in
clause6.2.4,includingageometricalanalysisof
the unit, its surroundings and the spacecraft
structure.
5.6.4
a.
Hardness assurance post-CDR
ForradiationmarginissuesstillopenoridentifiedafterCDR,ananalysis
shallbeperformedtoevaluate:
1.
Potentialsolutions.
2.
Thefunctioningofthepartinthecontextofaworstcaseanalysis.
3.
Theimplicationsatsubsystemandsystemlevel.
NOTE1 Problems identified or remaining close to or
afterCDRcanbeexpensivetorectify.
NOTE2 Thepass/failcriteriaintestingcanbeunrelated,
or not closely related, to functionalfailure. Ifa
43
ECSSEST1012C
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parts parameter is out of spec after testing, it
can be that the parameter is not important in
theequipmentworstcaseanalysis.
5.6.5
Test methods
The test method, including frequency and sample sizes, is addressed in the
clausesofECSSQST60relevanttoRadiationhardness.Thetestfrequencyis
a direct function of the knowledge gained from previous testing and
applicationofhardnessassuranceprocesses.
44
ECSSEST1012C
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6
Radiation shielding
6.1
Overview
The assessment of the amount, type and energy of radiation arriving at any
componentlocationcannotbeperformedwithoutanaccurateknowledgeofthe
externalenvironmentandalsoanunderstandingoftheattenuatingeffectofany
materialbetweenthelocationandtheexternalenvironment.Thisattenuationis
commonlyknownasshielding.
Shielding occurs in two ways; builtin shielding, that is the fortuitous
shielding afforded by materials already included in the design, and addon
shielding,whichisaddedspecificallyforthepurposesofattenuatingradiation.
Thisclauseidentifiesthestandardapproachestobeusedwhencalculatingthe
effectsofshieldingontheradiationenvironmentexperiencedbyacomponent,
systemorastronaut.
6.2
Shielding calculation approach

6.2.1
General
6.2.1.1
Process
a.
A firstorder estimate of the influence of shielding shall be made by

determining the dose or particle fluence corresponding to the most
lightly shielded part of the subsystem under evaluation using the
simplifiedapproachesspecifiedinclause6.2.2.
b.
Iftheparticleenvironment(includingsecondaryasaresultofadditional
shielding)behindthatshieldingistolerable,furtheranalysisneednotbe
performed.
NOTE1 Example
of
secondary
bremsstrahlung.
radiation
is
NOTE2 In some special circumstances (e.g. for galactic

cosmic rays in highZ materials) enhancement
inradiationlevelsfromsecondaryparticlesasa
resultofadditionalshieldingcantakeplace.
45
ECSSEST1012C
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c.
Incasesotherthanrequirement6.2.1.1b,oneofthefollowinganalysesof
theshieldingshallbeperformed:
asectoranalysis,asspecifiedinclauses6.2.2and6.2.3,or
adetailedradiationtransportsimulationofthewholeorapartof
thespacecraft,asspecifiedinclause6.2.4.
shieldinganalysisaspartofasimultaneouscompleteanalysiswith
all sensitive locations defined, irrespective of whether problems
areapparentornot.
6.2.1.2
a.
Secondary radiation
Theshieldinganalysisspecifiedinclause6.2.1.1shallinclude
1.
the secondary radiation effects in accordance with the mission

typesidentifiedinTable61.
2.
forspecialisedinstrumentationagreedwiththecustomer(suchas
astrophysics radiation detectors), all prompt and delayed
radioactive emissions which have the potential to produce
backgroundsignals.
NOTE
This can be done either by including them in

the calculations, or by demonstrating that the
effectisnegligible.
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ECSSEST1012C
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Table61:Summarytableofrelevantprimaryandsecondaryradiationstobe
quantifiedbyshieldingmodelasafunctionofradiationeffectandmissiontype
(Part1of2)
Radiation
effect
Totalionising
dose
Missiontype
LEO
Importantprimary
radiations
trappedprotons
Importantsecondary
radiations
Xraysfromelectrons
trappedelectrons
solarprotons
highMEO(e.g.
navigationconstellation)
trappedelectrons
Xraysfromelectrons
solarprotons
lowMEO(e.g.low
altitudecommunications
constellationssuchasICO)
trappedprotons
Xraysfromelectrons
GEO
lowenergytrapped
protons
trappedelectrons
solarprotons
Xraysfromelectrons
trappedelectrons
solarprotons
Interplanetaryspace
cosmicrays
solarenergeticparticles
Xraysfromelectrons
(Jovian)
otherplanetarytrapped
belts(e.g.Jovian)
Planetarylander
MissionsinvolvingRTGsor rays
strongradioactivesources
Neutrons
electrons
Displacement
damage
LEO
trappedprotons
trappedelectrons
solarprotons
trappedprotons(lowMEO)
trappedelectrons
solarprotons
secondaryneutronsare
notusuallyaconcernin
thesecases.
MEO
GEO
trappedprotons(verylow
energy)
secondaryprotonsand
neutrons
trappedelectrons
solarprotons
Interplanetaryspace
cosmicrays
belts(e.g.Jovian)
Planetarylander
cosmicrays
MissionsinvolvingRTGsor Neutrons
secondaryprotonsand
neutrons
47
ECSSEST1012C
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Table61:Summarytableofrelevantprimaryandsecondaryradiationstobe
quantifiedbyshieldingmodelasafunctionofradiationeffectandmissiontype
(Part2of2)
Radiationeffect
Missiontype
LEO
Singleevent
effects
MEO
Importantprimary
radiations
trappedprotons
cosmicrays
secondaryneutrons
(specialsusceptibilities
orheavilyshielded
situations;nottypically
aconcernfor
commercialmissions)
trappedprotons (low
MEO)
cosmicrays
GEO
Importantsecondary
radiations
cosmicrays
Interplanetaryspace
cosmicrays
belts(e.g.Jovian)
Planetarylander
cosmicrays
secondaryprotonsand
heavierions,secondary
neutrons
MissionsinvolvingRTGsor neutrons
Radiation
induced
backgrounds
(SeetablesinClause10)
Radiobiological
effects
LEO
trappedprotons
Xraysfromelectrons
trappedelectrons
Secondaryprotonsand
neutrons
solarprotons
cosmicrays
Interplanetaryspace
cosmicrays
belts(e.g.Jovian)
secondaryprotonsand
neutrons
solarXrays
Planetarylander
cosmicrays
MissionsinvolvingRTGsor raysandneutrons
secondaryprotonsand
neutrons
neutrons
48
ECSSEST1012C
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Table62:Descriptionofdifferentdosedepthmethodsandtheirapplications
Shielding
Geometry
Finiteslab
shielding
DescriptionofSource
Application
Isotropically
incidentover2
steradians
Usedtoquantifyeffects
ofspotshieldingon
componentsandself
shieldinginactive
antennaarrays.
Semiinfinite
slabshielding
Isotropically
incidentover2
steradians
Usedtoquantify
radiationdoseto
componentsneartothe
surfaceofaspacecraft
(themajorityofthe
spacecraftprovides
effectivelyaninfinite
shieldover2
steradians).
Solidspherical
shielding
Isotropically
incidentover4
steradians
Sphericalshell
shieldinga
Isotropically
incidentover4
steradiansof
shellofuser
specified
thicknessand
innerradius
Usedforconditions
wherecomponentsare
shieldedtoafinitelevel
overallsolidangles.
Mostcommongeometry
usedforthedosedepth
curveofsectorshielding
analyses.
Usedforcomponents
shieldedtoafinitelevel
overallsolidanglesand
sometimesinsector
shieldinganalysis.
Whenusingthesphericalshellshieldingmethod,theinnerradiusoftheshellcanbedifficulttoquantify
precisely.
6.2.2
Simplified approaches
6.2.2.1
Planar and spherical geometries
a.
Forthefirstorderestimateoftheinfluenceofshielding,theanalysisshall
beperformedasfollows:
1.
Assume that the influence of material type is negligible, and the

differentmaterialscanbeapproximatedtotheequivalentmassof
49
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
a single material type (such as aluminium) by a proportional
changeindensity.
2.
approximate the shielding geometry to one of the geometries

showninTable62,asfollows:
(a)
Approximate a configuration with two opposing lightly

shieldeddirectionstothe summedeffectsoftwofiniteslab
showninTable62.
(b)
Approximate a configuration with a light shielding in one

direction with heavy rearside shielding to a semiinfinite
planargeometry.
(c)
Approximate a configuration with uniform shielding in all

directionstothesolidsphere.
(d)
Approximate a configuration with a large cavity and

uniform shielding in all directions (thickness < 0,5 cavity
diameter)andnosignificantmateriallocaltothedosepoint
tothesphericalshellgeometry.
3.
Obtain the effectversusdepth information (the so called dose

depth curve and/or comparable information for particle fluence
orotherradiationeffectsparametersasafunctionofshielding).
4.
Assesstheminimumshieldingquantityprovidedbythespacecraft
tobeusedinconjunctionwiththeeffectversusdepth.
5.
Iftheshieldingconditionsdorepresentaworstcaseanalysis,and
the component, subsystem or system performs to within the
specified RDM for those shielding conditions, consider the result
oftheanalysisasacceptable.
6.
In case other than requirement 6.2.2.1a.5, apply the detailed

shieldingcalculationmethodspecifiedinclause6.2.2.2or6.2.3.
NOTE
6.2.2.2
a.
The first order approximation of the influence

of shielding can result in an overestimation of
the radiation effects, and a more detailed
analysis can indeed show that the component,
subsystem or system performs to within the
specified RDM. This can be a worstcase
estimation and so can indicate a requirement
formoredetailedanalysis.
Simple sectoring based on solid angles
For the secondorder estimate of the influence of shielding, the analysis

shallbeperformedbyusingthemethodinclause6.2.2.1andaccounting
for heterogeneous shielding by estimating the percentage of the overall
solid angle (4) subtended by the major elements of the configuration
viewedfromtheshieldedpoint.
NOTE
The reason is that the sectoring method based

on solid angles takes account of the fact that
generallyshieldingaroundapointofinterestis
heterogeneous.
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ECSSEST1012C
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6.2.3
a.
Detailed sector shielding calculations
Fordetailedsectorshieldingcalculations,thefollowingshallbedone:
1.
Assume that the influence of material type is negligible, and the

differentmaterialscanbeapproximatedtotheequivalentmassof
a single material type (such as aluminium) by a proportional
changeindensity.
2.
Agree with the customer the specific sector shielding calculation

methodtouse.
NOTE
3.
A summary of possible methods to use is

presentedinECSSEHB1012Section5.
If sectoring calculation is applied, assess if one of the following

casesispresent:
(a)
Performance of graded shields, dose enhancement in a

semiconductor die close to materials with highZ elements,
or highZ packaging materials, or Xray bremsstrahlung
doseinalocationshieldedbytantalum.
NOTE1 Examples of these elements are gold, hafnium,

tungsten.
NOTE2 The reason is that sector shielding approach
doesnotconsiderthephysicsinvolvedinthese
phenomena. For graded shields see ECSSE
HB1012Section5.
(b)
The calculation includes assessment of secondary hadron

levels from materials with significantly different (atomic)
massnumberfromtheoriginaltargetmaterial.
NOTE1 For example: Neutrons generated by high

energyprotoninteractionsinlead.
NOTE2 Thisisparticularlyimportantforneutronfluxes
or cosmicray fragments in heavily shielded
manned missions or in sensitive scientific
instruments.
4.
5.
Iftheassessmentspecifiedinrequirement6.2.3a.3ispositivethen
either:
(a)
analyse the case ensuring conservatism in the sector

shieldingevaluation,or
(b)
perform the shielding calculation based on a radiation

transport model in accordance with clause 6.2.4, which use
thecharacteristicsoftheactualmaterialsemployed.
Useoneofthefollowingapproachesforthecalculation:
(a)
Agreewiththecustomerthemethodfortheparticularsector
shieldingevaluation,or
(b)
use the SLANT approach for calculating the amount of

material along a path, and the solid sphere geometry for
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ECSSEST1012C
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productionofthedosedepthorfluenceversusdepthcurve,
or
(c)
use the NORM technique for estimating the amount of

material along a path, and the spherical shell geometry for
productionofthedosedepthorfluenceversusdepthcurve.
NOTE
6.
7.
Providetothecustomeradescriptionofthecalculationtechniques
used,includingthe:
(a)
descriptionofthesectorshieldingsimulationmethodused.
(b)
numberofdirectionalrayssampled
(c)
dosedepthgeometrytype.
(d)
resultsofthecalculations
For protons and heavier ions, use the projected particle range for
thecalculationoftheattenuationoftheparticleflux.
NOTE
8.
a.
In ground based monoenergetic irradiation,

particle straggling can result in an
underestimation
of
particle
effects.
Extrapolatedrangedcanbemoreappropriate.
For sector shielding calculations, use a minimum of 1800 rays

evenlydistributedover4steradians.
NOTE
6.2.4
The transport model specified in clause 6.2.4

considers the actual materials employed. Such
calculations can be performed using, for
example, a finitedifference coupled electron
photonsimulationoraMonteCarlosimulation
fornuclearandelectronphotoninteractions.
Sector shielding can be used to compute a

shield distribution, rather than direct
computation of radiation effects parameters.
This can be a useful way of using shielding
information for a number of subsequent
analyses. Therefore it is important to ensure
sufficient resolution of the shielding
distribution (which is dependent upon the
geometryandthespecifiedprecision).Insucha
situation, the considerations outlined above
applyalsoforthesubsequentanalyses.
Detailed 1-D, 2-D or full 3-D radiation

transport calculations
Fordetailedradiationtransportcalculations,thefollowingshallbedone:
1.
Use for the calculation the characteristics of the actual materials

usedinthefinalstructureorsubsystem,orbyagreementwiththe
customer alternative materials that have similar electromagnetic
(electronphoton)andnuclearcrosssections.
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NOTE
2.
If undertaken, agree with the customer the level of physics

simulationtouse.
NOTE
3.
The objective is to ensure that geometries are

well represented and the analysis is
conservative.
Use a number of primary particle simulations such that the

statistical errors for the results used to infer component response
arewithintheprojectsdesignmarginsfortheradiationshielding
model.
NOTE
6.3
Theobjectiveistoensureaccuratetreatmentof
the production of secondary particles which
canaffectthecomponent,systemorhuman,as
well as the attenuation and scattering of the
primary radiation (see ECSSEHB1012
Section5.6).
Agree with the customer the number of dimensions (1D. 2D or

3D)touseinthesimulation.
NOTE
4.
Detailed radiation transport calculations

provide a more accurate treatment of the
radiation interaction processes in which the
particlenumbers,species,energy,anddirection
of propagation can change in a complex
manner according to the Boltzmann transport
equation. This type of calculation approach is
used where aspects of the equipment or
component performance and the influence of
shieldingcannotbeadequatelytreatedwithina
sectorshieldinganalysis.
Radiation simulations employing Monte Carlo

models carry both statistical and systematic
errors, the latter as a result of uncertainties in
the
physics
models
and
geometry
approximations.
Geometry considerations for radiation shielding

model
6.3.1
a.
General
In implementing the different approaches in clause 6.2 the radiation

shieldingmodelshallincludeinthecalculationsthefollowinggeometry
elements:
1.
Partspackaging,asspecifiedinclause6.3.2.1.
NOTE
Since it is the one that is the closest to the

sensitive portion of the part (the die), the
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influence of packaging on the radiation
received by the component can be important,
especially for electrons or lowenergy (up to a
few10sMeV)protons.
2.
Equipment,asspecifiedinclause6.3.2.2.
3.
Spacecraft,asspecifiedinclause6.3.2.3.
4.
Interfaces between spacecraft and (sub)system, as specified in

clause6.3.2.4.
NOTE
Omission from the calculation of geometry

elements normally leads to conservative
calculations
(higher
radiation
effect
predictions), although some packaging and
other materials near the die can enhance
radiationlevelsinthedie.
6.3.2
Geometry elements
6.3.2.1
Parts packaging
a.
Theeffectofthepartspackagingintheradiationshieldingmodelshallbe
assessedasfollows:
1.
Placethetargetpointinsidethepackage,locatedontoporinside
theactiveregionofthevolume
NOTE
2.
Forhybriddevicescontainingseveralsensitivedies,useonetarget
pointperdie.
NOTE
3.
a.
Thereasonisthatthecalculateddoselevelcan
vary significantly depending on the die
location.
For situations where the total ionising dose from Xray or ray
fieldsisthelargestcontribution,assesstheinfluenceoflocalhigh
Zmaterialsandincludeitinthecalculations.
NOTE
6.3.2.2
Theobjectiveistogetthebestpossibleestimate
of the deposited dose at die level, the target
point. The active region is typically a silicon
chip.
Example of highZ materials are gold contacts

ortungstensilicidelayersandvias.
Equipment
The effect of the equipment in the radiation shielding model shall be

assessedasfollows:
1.
Includeintheequipmentmodel(atleast)thesubsystemenclosure
andprintedcircuitboards(PCBs),unless
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2.
(a)
worstcasecalculationsinwhichtheyareexcludedshowthe
componentcantoleratetheenvironmenttowithintheRDM,
and
(b)
it is demonstrated that the enclosure and PCB materials do

notleadtoradiationenhancement.
Either surround the target points by the actual parts package

model,oruseaworstcasepartspackage.
NOTE
3.
In order to get a better estimate of the radiation level, include in

the model any passive element providing shielding to active
elements.
NOTE
6.3.2.3
a.
Example of worst case parts package is an

aluminiumspherewithathicknessof0,6mm.
Example of passive elements that can provide

shielding are transformers, capacitors, and
connectors.
Spacecraft
The effect of the spacecraft in the radiation shielding model shall be

assessedasfollows:
1.
Include in the spacecraft radiation model a representation of the

structureandtheboxesforequipments.
2.
Includeinthemodelthematerial,asfollows:
(a)
Where the dominant material used in the spacecraft is

aluminium,ormaterialofsimilarZ,modelthespacecraftas
aluminium boxes of the thickness having the size of actual
enclosures, containing a reduced density of aluminium to
providetheequivalentmassoftheactualcontents.
(b)
Otherwise, model the spacecraft with the precise material

andcontentsasfortheactualsubsystem.
3.
Approximate the walls of the satellite to those of an aluminium

boxprovidingtheequivalentarealmass.
4.
Assess the shielding afforded by the satellite structure for an

internalsubsystemeitherby:
5.
(a)
Using a worstcase calculation, and assuming normal

incidence of radiation on each of the faces of the satellite
box,or
(b)
Perform a sector shielding analysis for each subsystem

locationtobetterdeterminetheshieldingdistribution.
Ifthespacecraftsurfaceincludeshoneycombpanels,forworstcase
calculations,either:
(a)
Incorporate in the radiation model only the facepanels of

thehoneycomb,or
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(b)
6.3.2.4
a.
Agree with the customer the model to use to include the

actualgeometryandmaterials.
Interfaces between spacecraft and (sub)system
If the internal arrangement of (sub)systems are not be available when

sectoringismadeofthespacecraftgeometry,
1.
Specify the environment at (sub)system level in a way that the

analysis of the (sub)system shielding and radiation effects can be
made.
2.
Ifthe(sub)systemhasaboxshape,either:
(a)
Providethedoseorfluxestoeachsurface,or
(b)
Mesh the surfaces and provide the values for each mesh
element.
NOTE
b.
In any case other than requirement 6.3.2.4a, the actual internal

arrangements of (sub)systems shall be provided by the customer and
usedbythesupplier.
NOTE
6.4
While useful for engineering purposes, it is

important to recognise the uncertainties in this
method. It can happen that the propagation
directionsoftheradiationandpossiblythetype
and energy of the radiation are not retained.
Nevertheless, this is generally a conservative
approach.
Thesatellitegeometryandsubsystemgeometry
can be exchanged between contractors and
customers using available geometry exchange
formatsortools.
Uncertainties
Theuseofsimplifiedapproachesforshieldinganalysisgeometriesgivesriseto
uncertainties. As described above, shielding material effects, scattering and
secondaryradiationproductionareonlyapproximatelyhandledinsectoring
typesofcalculation.Investigationsofresultinguncertaintiesareinprogressbut
resultsarenotyetavailable.
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7
Total ionising dose
7.1
Overview
Ionisationinducedinsemiconductormaterialsorassociatedinsulators,suchas
silicondioxidelayers,canleadtochargetrappingortheformationofinterface
statesatthesemiconductorinsulatorboundary,affectingcomponentbehaviour
ormaterialproperties.InMOSdevices,thetrappedchargecanleadtoashiftin
the gate threshold voltage, and for semiconductors in general, interface states
can significantly increase device leakage currents. Materials such as polymers
and glasses are also susceptible to total ionising dose (TID) effects and can
sufferdegradationinmechanical,electricalandopticalproperties.
The purpose of this clause is to give an overview of total ionising dose (TID)
effectsandspecifytherequirementsforcalculatingtheTIDthreattospacecraft
systems in terms of the technologies which are susceptible, and standard
methodsofcalculation.
Radiationdoseistheamountofenergyperunitmasstransferredbyparticlesto
a target material,in this casefrom ionisationand excitation. TheInternational
Systemunitisthegray:1Gy=1J/kg,butadeprecatedunit,therad(radiation
absorbeddose),isstillwidelyused:1rad=1cGy.
Totalionisingdoseisincludedintheoverallradiationassessmentprocess.
7.2
General
a.
ThetargetmaterialshallbereportedwiththeTIDunits.
NOTE1 For expressing TID effects in silicon, the units
ofdosecommonlyusedareGy(Si)orrad(Si).
NOTE2 The reason of this requirement is that dose is
dependentalsoonthetargetmaterial.
7.3
Relevant environments
a.
Totalionisingdoseeffectsshallbeanalysedforspacecraftandplanetary
mission systems to be operated within any of the following radiation
environments:
1.
Trappedprotonandelectronbelts
NOTE
For example, terrestrial and other planetary

belts,suchasJovian.
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2.
Solarprotons
3.
Secondaryparticles,exceptsecondaryneutrons
NOTE
4.
Localsourcesofradiation.
NOTE
7.4
This includes bremsstrahlung from electrons,

andprotonsgeneratedinatmosphericshowers
in the planetary environment or within large
spacecraftorplanetarylanderstructure.
For example, in close proximity to radioactive

ornuclearenergysources,e.g.RTGsgenerating
radiation.
Technologies sensitive to total ionising dose

a.
IfoneofthetechnologiesidentifiedinTable71isusedinspacecraftand
planetarymission systems, the potential TID level and effects shall be
analysed.
NOTE1 Technologies in Table 71 are susceptible to
TID. This is not exhaustive and other
parameters can be important and result from
worstcaseanalysis.
NOTE2 AsspecifiedinClauses8,9and10,calculation
of cumulative damage due to nonionising
energy loss and single event effects and
detector background is also mandatory for
manyofthesecomponents,suchasthosebased
on
bipolar
junction
transistors
or
optoelectronics.
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Table71:Technologiessusceptibletototalionisingdoseeffects
Technologycategory
Subcategories
Effects
NMOS
Thresholdvoltageshift
PMOS
Decreaseindrivecurrent
CMOS
Decreaseinswitchingspeed
CMOS/SOS/SOI
Increasedleakagecurrent
BJT
hFEdegradation,particularlyforlowcurrent
conditions
JFET
Enhancedsourcedrainleakagecurrents
Analoguemicroelectronics
(general)
Changesinoffsetvoltageandoffsetcurrent
MOS
Changesinbiascurrent
Gaindegradation
Digitalmicroelectronics
(general)
CCDs
Enhancedtransistorleakage
Logicfailurefrom
(1)reducedgain(BJT),or
(2)thresholdvoltageshiftandreduced
switchingspeeds(CMOS)
Increaseddarkcurrents
EffectsonMOStransistorelements(described
above)
SomeeffectsonCTE
APS
ChangestoMOSbasedcircuitryofimager(as
describedabove)includingchangesinpixel
amplifiergain
MEMS
Shiftinresponseduetochargebuildupin
dielectriclayersneartomovingparts
Quartzresonantcrystals
Frequencyshifts
Opticalmaterials
Coverglasses
Increasedabsorption
Fibreoptics
Variationinabsorptionspectrum(coloration)
Opticalcomponents,
coatings,instruments
andscintillators
Polymericsurfaces
(generallyonlyimportant
formaterialsexteriorto
spacecraft)
Mechanicaldegradation
Changestodielectricproperties
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7.5
Radiation damage assessment

7.5.1
Calculation of radiation damage parameters
a.
Theradiationdamageassessmentshallusethetotalionisingdosedueto
chargedparticlesandXrays,calculatedasspecifiedinclause7.5.2.
b.
The influence of shielding in attenuating the primary particle

environmentandmodificationtoitsspectrumatthecomponentlocation
shall be analysed, including the effects of the component packaging, as
specifiedinClause6.
c.
TheinfluenceofsecondaryparticlesonTIDshallbeanalysed.
NOTE
d.
For items in unshielded or lightly shielded locations, the energy

spectrumatlowenergyshallbeasspecifiedintheradiationenvironment
specificationfromECSSEST1004clause9.3.
7.5.2
a.
Calculation of the ionizing dose
The calculation of the ionising dose in the target shall use the particle
fluxes at the surface of the TIDsensitive elements of the component or
material.
NOTE
b.
The analysis can conclude that their

contribution is negligible compared with the
residual primary radiation components. This
secondary radiation is typically electron
induced bremsstrahlung but in some
circumstancessecondaryprotons,electronsand
neutrons can also have an important
contribution.
Methods for the related shielding calculation

arespecifiedinclause6.2.
Atapointorinafinitevolume,thedoseshallbecalculatedasfollows:
1.
Calculateparticleionizationenergyasfollows:
(a)
Calculate charged particle ionisation restricted stopping

power (or LET) in the material, or in the case of photons,
massenergyabsorptioncoefficients,or
(b)
Calculateparticleionisationenergydepositioninavolume
wheretheradiationfieldsuffersnegligiblechange(eitherby
attenuationormultiplescattering,traversingthevolume)or
extendedvolumes.
NOTE
2.
MonteCarlo methods can be used for this

purpose.
Usetabulationsofdoseversusfluxandshieldinginformation.
NOTE
This is the case of SHIELDOSE and

SHIELDOSE2, based on MonteCarlo
calculationandenergylossfunctions.
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c.
Analyse dose enhancement effects due to changes in material

compositioninthevicinityof,orwithinatarget,asaresultofusinghigh
Zmaterials.
NOTE
7.6
For more details on dose enhancement

phenomena,seeECSSEHB1012,section5.f.
Experimental data used to predict component

degradation
a.
The use of component test data used in conjunction with total ionising
doseresultstopredictdegradationshallbeagreedwiththecustomer.
NOTE
The objective is that these data are produced

from irradiations performed using particles
withsufficientenergiestotraversethesensitive
part of the device and doses defined through
application of the methods defined in the
clausesofECSSQST60relevanttoRadiation
hardness. It is important that the testing
conditions are appropriate to the final
operatingconditions,forexample:
That the electrical and environmental test
conditions (e.g. voltage bias, temperature)
are equivalent to the expected operating
environmentforthedevice,orbesuchasto
giverisetomoresevereTIDeffects.
That the time period over which the
radiation dose is delivered is considered
when comparing the dose received in the
operational environment and under test
conditions. Some bipolar devices (e.g.
bipolar linear integrated circuits) exhibit
greater radiation sensitivity when exposed
to ionising radiation at lower TID rates,
whilst others such as MOSbased devices
suffer lower radiation effects if exposure
takesplaceoveralongertime.
That the irradiation by different radiation
types is equivalent. For example, dose
enhancement effects can be experienced in
the shielded bremsstrahlung field in
electronrichorbitsduetopresenceofhigh
Z materials close to sensitive volumes,
whereas these are not represented in a
protonor60Coirradiation.
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7.7
Experimental data used to predict material

degradation
a.
Thedosedepositionfromthesourceusedtoassessmaterialdegradation
shallbecalculatedthroughapplicationofthemethodsspecifiedinclause
7.5.2.
NOTE
7.8
Refer to ECSSQST7006 and ISO/DIS 15856

forfurtherdetails.
Uncertainties
RefertoClause5.
NOTE
Further discussion of uncertainties can also be

foundinECSSEHB1012Sections4and5.8.
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8
Displacement damage
8.1
Overview
This chapter explains the displacement damage (DD) effect, identifies
technologiesandcomponentssusceptibletoDD,andspecifiestherequirements
for calculating the DD threat to spacecraft systems, and standard methods of
calculation.
Displacement damage (also referred to as nonionising dose damage) is a
cumulative damage process induced by energetic particles and which affect
components such as optoelectronics, bipolar devices, and solar cells. The
damagemechanismisasaresultofcollisionswithatomstodisplacethemfrom
lattice positions creating interstitials and vacancies. These interstitials and
vacancies are mobile and can cluster together or react with impurities in the
latticestructurecreatingstabledefectcentres.Theoveralleffectofdisplacement
damage (DD) is a change in the minority carrier lifetimes of semiconductors,
andincreasedlightabsorptionandcolourationincrystallineopticalmaterials.
Displacement damage is sometimes quantified in terms of component
degradation as a function of particle fluence for a specific particle spectrum
(with units, for example, or protons/cm2 or electrons/cm2). However, since the
level of degradation varies with spectrum shape as well as intensity, such a
definition has limited applications, and for general applications, in this
StandardDDisexpressedasspecifiedinclause8.2.
Totalnonionisingdoseisincludedintheoverallradiationassessment.
8.2
Displacement damage expression

a.
Thedisplacementdamageshallbeexpressedeitherby:
Displacement damage equivalent particle fluence (DDEF) for

monoenergeticspectra,
NOTE
For example, damage induced as a function of

fluence from 10MeV protons, 1MeV neutrons
or
1MeV
electrons,
identified
by
DDEF(particle,energy,material).
The nonionising energy loss (NIEL) dose or (total) nonionising

dose ((T)NID), i.e. the energy deposition in a material per unit
massbyradiationthroughdisplacements.
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NOTE1 This is distinctly different to TID for which
energyisdepositedasionisationandexcitation.
NOTE2 Units of TNID are Gy(material) or
rad(material), but for space radiation effects
analysis, MeV/g is more commonly used to
avoidconfusionwithTIDrelatedquantities.
8.3
a.
Displacement damage effects shall be analysed for spacecraft and

planetary mission systems to be operated within any of the following
radiationenvironments:
1.
Trappedprotonbelts
NOTE
2.
Solarprotons
3.
Secondaryprotonsandneutrons
NOTE
4.
5.
For example, RTGs generating thermal or

fissionspectrumneutrons.
Trapped electrons (when considering solar cell degradations and

optoelectronicdevices).
Displacementdamagefromcosmicrayprimaryandsecondaryradiation
shallbetreatedasagreedwiththecustomer.
NOTE
8.4
Theycanbegeneratedinatmosphericshowers
in the planetary environment or within the
spacecraftorplanetarylanderstructure.
Incloseproximitytoradioactiveornuclearenergysources
NOTE
b.
For example, terrestrial and other planetary

belts,suchasJovian.
It is normally neglected for effects in

microelectronics, but it can be important for
special or novel scientific instruments and
sensors. While NIEL increases with atomic
number of the projectile, the reducing fluence
ofionswithZmeansthatcosmicrayheavyion
contribution to TNID is not normally
significant.
Technologies susceptible to displacement damage

a.
planetarymission systems, the potential TNID leveland effects shall be
analysed.
NOTE
AsspecifiedinClauses7,9and10,calculation
of total ionising dose effects and single event
effects or detector background, including
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ECSSEST1012C
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potential synergistic effects of DD and other
effects,isalsoarequirementformanyofthese
components.
8.5

8.5.1
Calculation of radiation damage parameters
a.
The radiation damage assessment shall use either the DDEF of mono
energeticprotons,electrons,orneutronscalculatedasspecifiedinclause
8.5.2.1,ortheTNID,calculatedasspecifiedinclause8.5.2.2.
b.

environmentandmodifyingitsspectrumshallbeanalysed.
NOTE
c.
Methods for the related shielding calculation

arespecifiedinclause6.2.
The influence of secondary protons, electrons and neutrons on

displacementdamageshallbeanalysed.
NOTE
In many cases the analysis can conclude that

their contribution is negligible, but in some
circumstancessecondaryprotons,electronsand
neutronscanhaveanimportantcontribution.
8.5.2
Calculation of the DD dose
8.5.2.1
Calculation of the DDEF
a.
DDEF shall be calculated from the environmental proton, electron or

neutron spectra and the conversion factors for the device type being
assessedasfollows:
1.
Divide the TNID from clause 8.5.2.2 by the NIEL value for the
consideredmaterialandparticlespeciesattheenergyrequired.
NOTE
The reason is that the level of displacement

damage observed per unit fluence is highly
dependent upon the material and the particle
energyandspecies.
2.
CalculatetheDDEFasafunctionofequivalentshieldingthickness
and for each particle (trapped protons and electrons, and solar
protons)spectrumestimatedforaspecifiedmission.
3.
Predict the decrease in performance of a component from tests

performedonthecomponentatthosemonoenergeticenergies.
NOTE
Typically 10 MeV proton fluences or 1 MeV

electron equivalent fluence is used, these are
defined based on NIEL values for the
consideredmaterialandradiationenvironment
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ECSSEST1012C
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specification. If no valid NIEL values are
available in the open literature, they are
determinedfollowingmethodologiespresented
in[4]or[5].
b.
The decrease in the component performance shall be calculated from

experimentalperformancetestdatacollectedonthecomponentatthese
monoenergeticenergies.
8.5.2.2
a.
Calculation of the TNID
TNIDshallbecalculatedbyoneofthefollowingprocedures:
1.
If the NIEL as a function of energy, particle type and target

materialisknown,calculatetheTNIDthroughtheintegrationover
energy of the NIEL function (multiplied by fluence) for each
particlespeciesonthetargetmaterial.
2.
Otherwise, calculate the NIEL as a function of energy for the

material and particle type following a methodology agreed with
thecustomerandcalculatetheTNIDthroughtheintegrationover
energy of the NIEL function (multiplied by fluence) for each
particlespeciesonthetargetmaterial.
NOTE
Methodologies described by Jun et al or

Messenger et al [4] [5] can be used for this
purpose.
b.
Conversion from TNID to component parameter degradation shall be

obtainedbytestingthecomponenttodifferentTNIDlevels.
c.
The same NIEL function shall be used in converting the test particle
fluence to the test TNID in requirements 8.5.2.2a and 8.5.2.2b, and the
calculationandapproachshallbespecified.
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Table81:Summaryofdisplacementdamageeffectsobservedin
componentsasafunctionofcomponenttechnology
Technology
category
Subcategory
Effects
Generalbipolar
BJT
Integratedcircuits
hFEdegradationinBJTs,particularlyforlow
currentconditions(PNPdevicesmoresensitiveto
DDthanNPN)
diodes
Increasedleakagecurrent
increasedforwardvoltagedrop
Electrooptic
sensors
CCDs
CTEdegradation
Increaseddarkcurrent
Increasedhotspots
Increasedbrightcolumns
Randomtelegraphsignals
APS
Increaseddarkcurrent
Increasedhotspots
Randomtelegraphsignals
Reducedresponsivity
Photodiodes
Reducedphotocurrents
Phototransistors
hFEdegradation
Reducedresponsivity
Lightemitting
diodes
LEDs(general)
Reducedlightpoweroutput
Laserdiodes
Reducedlightpoweroutput
Increasedthresholdcurrent
Optocouplers
Reducedcurrenttransferratio
Solarcells
Silicon
Reducedshortcircuitcurrent
GaAs,InP,etc.
Reducedopencircuitvoltage
Reducedmaximumpower
Opticalmaterials
Alkalihalides
Reducedtransmission
Silica
Radiationdetectors Semiconductorray&
Xraydetectors:
Si,HPGe,CdTe,CZT
Reducedchargecollectionefficiency(calibration
shifts,reducedresolution)
Poorertimingcharacteristics
HPGeshowcomplexvariationwithtemperature
Semiconductor
chargedparticle
detectors
Reducedchargecollectionefficiency(calibration
shifts,reducedresolution)
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Table82:Definitionofdisplacementdamageeffects
Parameter
Phenomenologyandobservation
Technologies
affected
Chargetransfer
efficiency(CTE)
CreationoftrapsinactivevolumeofCCDreduced
chargecollectionfromeachpixel,alsostreaking
observedduetothedelayedreleaseoftrappedcharge.
CCD
Darkcurrent
Excesschargefromelectroopticsensorduetocharge
collectionfromradiationinduceddefects.
CCD
APS
photodiodes
phototransistors
Defectinducedchargegenerationinspecificpixels
whichbecomebrighterthantheaveragedarkcurrent.
Theseareusuallydefinedinthecontextofthe
applicationandidentifiedbytheimageprocessing
softwareasbadpixels.Verybrightspotscanresult
fromfieldenhancedemissionmechanisms.
CCD
Randomtelegraph
signals(RTS)
Twoormoremultileveldarkcurrentstateswith
randomswitchingbetweenthedarkcurrentstatesfrom
seconds(forimageratroomtemperature)tohours(if
operatedatreducedtemperatures)
CCD
Brightcolumns
Defectinduceddarkcurrentcansaturateapixelwitha
timeconstantcomparabletoorlongerthandeviceread
outtimes.Informationfromoneormorepixelsafterthe
damagedpixelarethusrenderedunreadable.
CCD
Reducedphoto
current/Pixel
responsivity
Reducedchargecollectionasaresultofdecreased
minoritycarrierlifetimes
APS
Thresholdcurrent
Lightoutput
Increaseinchargetrapsresultingreaternonradiative
recombinationofelectronholepairsandhencereduced
radiationpowerefficiency
LED
hFE
ReducedminoritycarrierlifetimesinBJTbaseresultin
lowercurrentsbetweenthecollectorandemitter,and
hencereducedtransistorgain.
BJT
Opencircuitvoltage
Theopencircuitvoltageisreducedbyintroductionof
recombinationcentresinthedepletionregionwhich
increasethedarkcurrent.
Solarcell
Shortcircuitcurrent
Recombinationcentresreduceminoritycarrierlifetime
intheneutralregionsofthedeviceresultinginreduced
quantumefficiency(i.e.reducedchargecollection).
Solarcell
Poweroutput
Seeopencircuitvoltageandshortcircuitcurrent.
Solarcell
Energycalibration
Semiconductor
Reducedchargecollectionefficiency(CCE)resultsin
lesssignalfromdetectorperunitenergydeposition,and radiation
detectors
greaterstatisticalerrorsinthesignal(hencereduced
resolution).Forcryogenicdetectors,theseparameters
showcomplexbehaviourwithchangesintemperature.
Hotspots
Detectorresolution
APS
APS
photodiodes
phototransistors
laserdiodes
68
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
8.6
Prediction of component degradation

a.
Prediction of component degradation as a function of NIEL shall be

performedbyoneofthefollowingapproaches:
1.
Calculate the degradation from the total TNID damage predicted

consideringbothelasticandinelasticprocesses,or
2.
By using experimental degradation data for high energy protons,

acceptedbythecustomer.
NOTE1 It is important that the testing conditions are
appropriate to the final operating conditions,
forexample:
That the component test data used in
conjunction with radiation damage
parameterstopredictdegradationarebased
ontestsperformedwithparticlespeciesand
energy that are representative of the
environment, taking account of the
appropriateNIELconversiondata.
ThatcontaminationoftheTNIDeffectsdata
by TID effects are be minimised and taken
intoaccount.
That the particle energies for the tests are
sufficient to allow particles to traverse the
sensitivepartofthedevice.
For solar cells, that normal incidence data
are converted to represent the expected in
flight distribution (normally assumed
isotropic see ECSSEST1004) and cover
glassshieldingeffects.
That monoenergetic particle tests are
permittedprovidedthereisaconsistentone
toone correspondence between the device
degradation and TNID, or if the particle
energychosenfortestingleadstoworstcase
degradationofthedevice.
NOTE2 For guidelines on predicting component
degradationasafunctionofNIEL,seeECSSE
HB1012Section7.3.
8.7
Uncertainties
RefertoClause5.
NOTE
Further discussion of uncertainties can also be

foundinECSSEHB1012,Sections4,5.8and7.
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9
Single event effects
9.1
Overview
This Clause provides an explanation of single event effects, identifies
technologies and components susceptible to the SEEs, and specifies the
methodstobeusedtocalculatesingleeventratesforspacecraftsystems.
Singleeventeffectsareacollectionofphenomenawherebymicroelectronicscan
bedisruptedorpermanentlydamagedbysingleincidentparticles(asopposed
toeffectsliketotalionisingdosewherecumulativedamageoccursfrommany
particles).Protonsandheavierions,andneutronscaninducesucheffects:inthe
case of heavy ions, this occurs by direct ionisation of sensitive regions of the
semiconductor,andforprotonsandneutrons,theirnuclearinteractionswithin
or very near to the active semiconductor can produce localised charge
generation.
SEEphenomenacanbedividedintotwosubgroups:
destructive effects, where highcurrent conditions are induced which

have the potential to destroy the device. SEE examples include single
event latchup (SEL), single event gate rupture (SEGR), single event
burnout(SEB),andsingleeventsnapback(SESB)(seeECSSEHB1012
Section8.6).
nondestructive effects, in which data are corrupted or the device is

placedin a different operational state (e.g.a diagnostic mode) orpower
cycling is employed to return the state of the device to its normal
condition. Examples of such effects include single event upset (SEU),
multiplebit upset (MBU), multiplecell upset (MCU), singleword
multiplebitupsets(SMU),singleeventfunctionalinterrupt(SEFI),single
event hard error (SEHE), single event disturb (SED), and single event
transient(SET)(seeECSSEHB1012Section8.7).
NOTE
Here, the term multiplecellupset (MCU) refer

to events in which several memory cells are
corrupted,whethertheyformpartofthesame
word(asinSMU)ornot.
Radiation susceptibility of a device is expressed as a crosssectional area,

usuallyinunitsofcm2/deviceorcm2/bit(thelatterbeingusedforsingleevent
upset analysis). The crosssection is a function of incident particle species and
energy. However, for ions heavier than protons, the crosssection can be
expressed as a function of linear energy transfer (LET), which is the energy
depositionperunitpathlengthoftheion,oftenexpressedinunitsofMeVcm2/g
orMeVcm2/mg.
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9.2
a.
b.
Single event effects shall be analysed for spacecraft and planetary

mission systems to be operated within any of the following radiation
environments:
1.
trappedprotonbelts(terrestrialandotherplanetarybelts,suchas
Jovian);
2.
solarprotonsandheavierions;
3.
galacticcosmicrayprotonsandheavierions;
The mission environmental specifications shall define all the relevant

environmentstobeanalysed.
NOTE
In some special circumstances, the following

environments can also make an important
contributiontoSEE:
secondary protons and neutrons, which are
generated in atmospheric showers in the
planetary environment or within massive
spacecraftorplanetarylanderstructures.
neutron environment in close proximity to
radioactive or nuclearenergy sources, e.g.
RTGs generating thermal or fission
spectrumneutrons.
9.3
Technologies susceptible to single event effects

a.
planetarymission systems, the SEE probability and effects shall be
analysed.
NOTE1 As specified in Clauses 7, 8 and 10, the
susceptibility of many of these components is
alsoanalysedforotherradiationeffects(suchas
totalionisingdoseanddisplacementdamage).
NOTE2 As technologies evolve and new phenomena
are identified, it can be the case that this table
does not fully represent the technologies and
effects.
NOTE3 Derating is employed in the RHA programme
to ensure that the device operates in a manner
soastobeinsensitivetoSEEeffects.
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DRAM/
SDRAM
FPGA
SED
SET
SEFI
SEHE
SRAM
SEDR
ICs
CMOSor
BiCMOSor Digital
SOI
MCU/SMU
SEU
PowerMOS
SEB
Transistors
SEGR
Function
SESB
Component
Technology Family
type
SEL
Table91:Possiblesingleeventeffectsasafunctionofcomponenttechnologyand
family.
X*
X*
X*
X*
EEPROM/
P/
controller
Mixed
ADC
X*
Signal
DAC
X*
Linear
X*
Bipolar
Digital
Linear
Opto
electronics
Opto
couplers
CCD
APS(CMOS) X
Flash
EEPROM
*exceptSOI
9.4

9.4.1
Prediction of radiation damage parameters
9.4.1.1
General
a.
WhenpredictingcomponentSEErates,thefollowingshallbeassessed:
1.
The probability of SEE occurrence for the environments as

specifiedinclause9.2,usingthemethodsspecifiedinclause9.4.1.2
to9.4.1.8.
NOTE1 Moreinformationonthismethodisavailablein
ECSSEHB1012Section8.2.
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NOTE2 Total ionising dose induced in semiconductors
can increase sensitivity to single event effects.
Therefore, potential SEE/TID synergy can be
important in special cases, both in estimating
singleeventratefortheoperatingenvironment,
as well as assessing the suitability of data
collected from proton and ion beam
irradiations.
NOTE3 In some special cases, single event effect rates
have been shown to vary significantly
depending upon the angle of incidence of the
incident particle, even for protons and
neutrons.
2.

environment and modification to its spectrum, as specified in
Clause6.
NOTE
9.4.1.2
a.
b.
The effects of the component packaging (as

describedinClause6.3)canbeconsidered.
Heavy ion-induced SEU, MCU (including SMU), and

SEFI
The probability of single event transients, upsets, functional interrupts

and multiplecell upsets due to ions heavier than protons shall be
determinedasfollows:
1.
If the variation of the ion crosssection with LET is known, by

using the Integrated RPP (IRPP) approach described in
requirements9.5.2a.1and9.5.2a.3.
2.
Otherwise,usingeitherofthefollowingRPPmethods:
(a)
The incident particle differential LET spectrum, integrated

over the integral chordlength distribution in the sensitive
volume for which the energy deposition is above that
corresponding to the experimentallydetermined LET
threshold of the device, and using the formulation of
Bradfordspecifiedinrequirement9.5.2a.2(b).
(b)
The differential chordlength distribution integrated over

the incident particle integral LET spectrum, for which the
LET corresponds to energy deposition above the
experimentallydetermined threshold of the device, and
using the formulation of: Bradford or of Pickel or of
BlandfordandAdamsspecifiedinrequirement9.5.2a.2(b).
SEFIanalysisshall
1.
assesstherangeofinternaloperatingmodesemployedincomplex
digitaldevicesusedbytheintendedapplication,and
2.
useonlytestdatawhichcoverthesemodes.
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9.4.1.3
a.
Proton- and neutron-induced SEU, MCU (including

SMU), and SEFI
The probability of single event transients, upsets, functional interrupts

andmultiplecellupsetsduetoprotonsorneutronsshallbedetermined
asfollows:
1.
Ifthevariationofthecrosssectionwithparticleenergyisknown,
(a)
Calculate the probability by integration of the incident

differential proton or neutron spectrum over the
experimentally determined crosssection of the device as
(b)
Ifexperimentaldatafromionbeamirradiationsdemonstrate
thatthethresholdforSEU,MCUorSEFIforionsislessthan
15MeVcm2/mg,agreewiththecustomerifthedevicecanbe
consideredimmunetoprotonandneutronSEEeffects.
NOTE
2.
Otherwise,performthefollowing:
(a)
determine the SEE rate from calculation of the energy

deposition spectrum from protonnuclear or neutron
nuclear interactions within the representation of the
sensitivevolume,and
(b)
integrate this spectrum with crosssection data from ion

beamirradiationsasspecifiedinclause9.5.3,and
(c)
analyse potential problems arising from use of the device,

alongwithappropriatemargins.
NOTE
b.
The immunity to proton/neutron SEE for

devices with an LET threshold forionSEE>15
MeV cm2/mg is an approximation. This
assumption becomes inaccurate with the
increasing inclusion of highZ materials that
give rise to nuclear reactions. The radiation
hardness assurance programme resulting from
application of ECSSQST60 specifies the
approachtobetakeninspecialcases.
Thereasonisthatthismethodisnotasaccurate
asdirectcalculationbasedonprotondata.
SEFIanalysisshall
1.
assesstherangeofinternaloperatingmodesemployedincomplex
digitaldevicesusedbytheintendedapplication,and
2.
useonlytestdatawhichcoverthesemodes.
9.4.1.4
Heavy ion-induced SEL and SESB
a.
ForSELandSESBexperimentaldatashallbeusedtodeterminetheLET
thresholdforsusceptibilitytoSELorSESB.
b.
Where experimental data indicate that the normal incidence LET

threshold for susceptibility to single event latchup or single event
snapbackforionsis60MeVcm2/mg,itshallbeassumedthatthedevice
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has negligible probability of SEL or SESB respectively to heavy ions,
whensubjectedtotheelectricalandtemperatureconditionsunderwhich
thedeviceisoperatedinthetestandintendedapplication,asspecifiedin
clause9.4.2.
c.
For devices with lower thresholds than those specified in requirement

9.4.1.4a,oneofthefollowingtwomethodsshallbeused:
1.
Determine the probabilities for SEL and SESB due to heavy ions
fromtheintegrationoftheincidentdifferentialionLETspectrum
overtheexperimentallydeterminedcrosssectionofthedevice,as
2.
worstcaseanalysisbasedonexperimentaldata.
NOTE
d.
Alternative testing methods (laser or proton

irradiation), combined with a crosssection
equivalent to the device surface can be used
withworstcaseanalysis.
If a worstcase analysis is performed in accordance with requirement

9.4.1.4c.2,andtheprobabilityisunacceptabletothecustomer,thecross
sectionshallbedeterminedexperimentally.
9.4.1.5
Proton- and neutron-induced SEL and SESB
a.
ForSELandSESBexperimentaldatashallbeusedtodeterminetheLET
thresholdforsusceptibilitytoSELorSESB.
b.
Where experimental data indicate that the LET threshold for

susceptibilitytosingleeventlatchuporsingleeventsnapbackforionsis
15MeVcm2/mg, or proton or neutron data indicate that the energy
threshold for proton/neutron SEE is 150MeV, it shall be assumed that
the device has negligible probability of SEL or SESB respectively for
protonsandneutrons.Whensubjectedtotheelectricalandtemperature
conditions under which the device is operated in the test and intended
application,asspecifiedinclause9.4.2.
NOTE1 It is an assumption that devices with an LET
thresholdforions>15MeVcm2/mgareimmune
to SEL and SESB. This assumption becomes
inaccurate with the increasing inclusion of
highZ materials that give rise to nuclear
reactions. The radiation hardness assurance
programmeresultingfromapplicationofECSS
QST60 specifies the approach to be taken in
specialcases.
NOTE2 SEL cross sections can increase by a factor of
fourbetween100and200MeVandbyafurther
factorof1,5to500MeV.
c.
Fordeviceswithlowerthresholdsthattheonesspecifiedinrequirement
9.4.1.5a, the probabilities for SEL and SESB due to protons or neutrons
shallbedeterminedbyoneofthefollowingmethods:
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1.
by integration of the incident differential proton or neutron

spectrum over the experimentally determined crosssection of the
device,asspecifiedinclause9.5.3.
2.
byworstcaseanalysis.
NOTE
9.4.1.6
a.
Alternative testing methods (laser irradiation),

combinedwithacrosssectionequivalenttothe
device surface can be used with worst case
analyses.
Heavy ion-, proton- and neutron-induced SEGR,

SEDR and SEB
For single event gate/dielectric rupture and single event burnout,

experimental data shall be used to determine the electrical operational
conditionsofthedeviceunderwhichneitherSEGRnorSEBoccurs
NOTE
ECSSEHB1012 Section 8.5.8 describes

deratingandmitigationtechniquesfordefining
electricaloperationalconditions.
b.
Where experimental data show that the threshold for single event
gate/dielectric rupture or single event burnout in a device for ions is
60MeVcm2/mg, it shall be assumed that the device has negligible
probability of SEGR, SEDR or SEB respectively for operation in heavy
ion,protonandneutronfields,whenitissubjectedtotheelectricaland
temperature conditions under which the device is operated in the test
andintendedapplicationinaccordancewithclause9.4.2.
c.
WhereexperimentaldatashowthatthethresholdforSEGR,SEDRorSEB
for ions is 15MeVcm2/mg, or proton or neutron data indicate that the
energythresholdforproton/neutronSEGR,SEDRorSEBis150MeV,it
shall be assumed that the device has negligible probability of SEGR,
SEDR or SEB respectively when operated in either a proton or neutron
field when it is subjected to the operating conditions or the test and
application.
d.
Inthecasespecifiedinrequirement9.4.1.6c,thedevicessusceptibilityto
heavyioninducedSEGR,SEDRandSEBshallbeanalysed.
9.4.1.7
a.
Heavy ion-, proton- and neutron-induced SET and

SED
If SET is mitigated by circuit design, the effects ofspurious pulses shall

beminimizedasfollows:
1.
Test the equipment performance under different filter conditions

for SET and SED effects by propagating a perturbation signal in
the final electrical design of the hardware itself to study its
influenceatthesystemlevel.
NOTE
2.
This approach is used when there is sufficient

accesstoinjecttestpulsestotherangeofcircuit
nodes,orusingacircuitsimulationmode.
Use a circuit simulation model, and verify the accuracy of the

different components in the circuit model for propagating large
76
ECSSEST1012C
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amplitude signals, up to the maximum amplitude expected from
theSET/SED.
NOTE
b.
Typical applied amplitudes and signal

durations are provided in ECSSEHB1012
Section 8.5.9 (Table 9) as a function of
semiconductorfamilytype.Note,however,that
these are not the only devices to be tested for
SET/SED.
In case other than requirement 9.4.1.7a, the SET/SED rate shall be

predicted using the same methods as for SEU, as specified in clause
9.4.1.2and9.4.1.3,includingionorprotontest.
9.4.1.8
Heavy ion-, proton- and neutron-induced SEHE
a.
Theprobabilityofsingleharderrorsduetoionsshallbedeterminedby
integration of the incident particle differential LET spectrum over the
experimentally determined crosssection of the device, as a function of
LETandangleofincidence.
b.
Theprobabilityofsingleharderrorsduetoprotonsandneutronsshallbe
determined by integration of the incident particle differential energy
spectrumovertheexperimentallydeterminedcrosssectionofthedevice,
asafunctionofparticleenergyandangleofincidence.
NOTE
9.4.2
a.
ECSSEHB1012 Section 8.7.4 provides a

description of SEHE and considerations that
canbesignificantforthetestprocedure.
Experimental data and prediction of

component degradation
ExperimentaldatausedtocalculatesingleeventratesshallcoveraLET
range (for heavyion induced SEEs) or energy range (for proton and
neutroninducedeffects)capabletoensurethat:
1.
ThelowerLETorenergyislessthanthethresholdfortheonsetof
thesingleeventeffect.
NOTE1 ThelowerLETorenergythresholdcanrequire
extensivetestingtodetermine.Forprotonsitis
influenced by packaging, while for neutrons it
can be in the region of thermal energies if
Boron10ispresent.
NOTE2 Lower LET or energy threshold for the testing
isspecifiedintheradiationhardnessassurance
programmeunderECSSQST60.
2.
Forheavyions,theupperLETthresholdcorrespondseitherto:
(a)
themaximumLETexpectedfortheenvironment,
(b)
thedeviceLETsaturationcrosssection,
NOTE
(c)
Saturationisdefinedaccordingtotheradiation
hardness assurance programme established
underECSSQST60.
60MeVcm2/mg.
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3.
Fornucleons,themaximumenergycorrespondseitherto:
(a)
themaximumenergyforthepredictedenvironment,or
(b)
thedevicesaturationcrosssectionisintherange.
NOTE
(c)
b.
150MeVforallSEEphenomena.
Crosssectiondatashallbefromtestswherethetestparticlesrangeinthe
materialensuresitisabletopenetratetheentiresensitivevolumeofthe
device.
NOTE
c.
d.
Saturationisdefinedaccordingtotheradiation
hardness assurance programme established
underECSSQST60.
The reason is that many modern devices

(including power semiconductors) have
significant vertical structure and very thick
epitaxial layers and sufficient range of the
incident test particle is required to adequately
penetrate through the entire sensitive volume
ofthedevice.
The experimental data used for device conditions shall be either those
expectedforoperationalconditions,orsuchthattheexperimentprovide
worseSEEsusceptibilitydata,asfollows:
1.
ForSRAMsandDRAMs,SEUdependentelectricalconditionsare
voltage,clockfrequencyandrefreshrate.
2.
For SEL, tests are for the maximum power and maximum
temperatureconditionsexpectedforspaceapplication.
3.
For SEB, tests correspond to the minimum operating temperature

for the application, as this corresponds to maximum SEB
susceptibilityofthedevice.
For SEL, SEGR, and SEB, the potential inaccuracy of LET crosssection
data obtained using obliquely incident heavyion beams shall be
analysed and the results reported in accordance with the RHA
programmeestablishedunderECSSQST60.
NOTE1 The reason is that the concepts of sensitive
volume and effective LET are not strictly valid
(seeECSSEHB1012Section8.6.1to8.6.3).
NOTE2 SEHEcrosssectioncanbeafunctionofparticle
speciesandenergy(i.e.notjustLET)andangle
of incidence (see ECSSEHB1012 Section
8.7.4).
NOTE3 It is important that the ion track width of the
particlesusedintheirradiationsissufficientto
coverasignificantfractionofthegateregion.
NOTE4 There are synergies between SEHE rates and
cumulative dose (TID) as well as microdose
effects.
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9.5
Hardness assurance
9.5.1
a.
Theassessment ofsingleeventeffectsandthesuitabilityof theproposed

hardwareandmissiondesignshallbeperformedasspecifiedinFigure91.
9.5.2
a.
Calculation procedure flowchart
Predictions of SEE rates for ions
Calculation of the ion contribution to SEE rates shall be performed as

follows:
1.
ByusingtheLETspectraforcosmicraysandheavyionsfromsolar
particleeventsgivenbytheradiationenvironmentalspecification,
obtain the cross section experimental curve giving at least LET
thresholdandsaturationcrosssection,ortheWeibullparameters.
2.
IfusingRPPapproach:
(a)
Assumethatthesensitivevolumeisaparallelepipedofthe
samevolumeasthesensitiveone.
(b)
Calculatetheerrorrateusingoneofthefollowingformulae:
Bradfordformula:
A LETMax d
N=
( LET ) PCL (> D( LET )) d ( LET )
4 LETMin d ( LET )
with A = 2 (lw + lh + hw)
Pickelformula:
D
dP
A Max
N=
(> LET ( D)) CL ( D) dD
4 DMin
dD
BlandfordandAdamsformula:
dPCL
A E C LETMax 1
N=
(> LET )
D( LET ) d ( LET )
2
LET
Min LET
4
d ( D( LET ))
where:
A
= totalsurfaceareaoftheSV;
l,wandh
= length,widthandheightoftheSV;
d/d(LET)
= differentialionfluxspectrumexpressedas
a function of LET (shortened to
differentialLETspectrum);
PCL(>D(LET)) = integral chord length distribution, i.e. the

probability of particles travelling through
the sensitive region with a pathlength
greaterthanD;
LETMin
= minimum LET to upset the cell (also

referredtoastheLETthreshold);
LETMax
= maximumLEToftheincidentdistribution
(~105MeVcm2/g).
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System
requirements
Y
Hardware Design
Process
Apply for
waiver
Parts
packaging
Mission Design
Process
Shielding
and
equipment
layout
Equipment
design
Operational
parameters
(e.g. duty
cycle)
Repeat for
other
components
Revise design /
derate to mitigate
effect or revise
requirements
Is threshold >
2
60MeVcm /mg &
ion environment
Radiation
effects data
sources
Radiation
environment
specification
Reliability &
availability
specification
Radiation
Design Margin
Specification
N
Is threshold >
15 MeVcm2/mg
or 150 MeV & p+
or n environment
Repeat for
same
component
N
Radiation
shielding
model
Improve fidelity
of radiation
model or
component data
Y
N
Mission
parameters
(orbit,
attitude)
Radiation
effects data
sources
SEE rate /
probability
specification
Is this a worstcase or
pessimistic
calculation?
RDMs
Is ratio
RDM?
Y
Other
components
to assess?
N
Generate report
for board, subsystem or
system
Figure91:Procedureflowchartforhardnessassuranceforsingleeventeffects.
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15November2008
3.
N=
A
4S
LETi , Max
LETi , Min
IfusingIRPPapproach:
(a)
Usetherealsensitivevolumefortheintegration.
(b)
Calculatetheerrorrateusingthefollowingformula:
d ion
( LETi )
d ( LET )
LETMax
h
DMax
LETi
d
( LET ) PCL (> D( LET ))d ( LET )d ( LETi )
d ( LET )
with S = l w
where:
d/d(LET)
= differentialLETspectrum;
PCL(>D(LET)) = integralchordlengthdistribution;
dion/d(LET) = differentialupsetcrosssection;
A
= totalsurfaceareaofthesensitivevolume;
= surfaceareaofthesensitivevolumeinthe
planeofthesemiconductordie;
l,wandh
= length, width and height of the sensitive

volume;
DMax
= maximum length that can be encountered

intheSV;
LETMax
= maximumLEToftheLETspectrum;
LETi,Min
= lower bin limit in the differential upset

crosssectiondion/d(LET);
LETi,Max
= upper bin limit in the differential upset

crosssectiondion/d(LET).
NOTE
9.5.3
a.
For a detailed discussion of the RPP and IRPP

approaches,seeECSSEHB1012Sections8.5.2
to8.5.4.Referencescanbefoundin[6],[7],[8],
[9]and[10].
Prediction of SEE rates of protons and

neutrons
Exceptinthecasespecifiedinrequirement9.5.3b,theprotonorneutron
contributiontoerrorrateshallbecalculatedasfollows:
1.
Using the integral or differential energy spectra for protons or

neutrons specified in the radiation environment specification,
obtain:
(a)
thecrosssectionexperimentalcurvegivingsaturation,and
(b)
two other cross section/energy points in the following

ranges:
Forprotons,intheenergyrange10MeV200MeV.
Forneutrons,fromthermalenergiesto200MeV.
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2.
UseoneofthefollowingformulastocalculatetheSEErates:
o
FromtheenvironmentprotonorneutronfluxesandSEE
crosssections:
E Max d
N =
( E ) nucleon ( E )dE
E Min dE
Byconsideringthedependenceoftheangleofincidence,but
assumingnotazimuthangledependence:
E Max
N =
( E , ) nucleon ( E , ) sin d dE
0
E Min
E
Bysimplifyingthepreviousformula,by
definingmax(E)asthevalueof(E,)attheangle
wherethecrosssectionmaximisesforthatenergy,and
Iftheincidentprotonorneutronfluxisanisotropic(and
thereforecannotbeapproximatedtoanisotropicflux),
approximated/dEtotheangleaveragedincidentfluxif
usedinconjunctionwiththemaximumcrosssection
data,max(E).
where:
d/dE
= differentialprotonorneutronfluxspectrumas
afunctionofenergy;
EMin
= minimum energy of the differential energy

neutronspectrum;
EMax
= maximum energy of the differential energy

spectrum;
nucleon(E)= proton or neutron SEE cross section as a

functionofenergy.
b.
If the heavy ion crosssection experimental curve exist, the proton or

neutroncontributiontoerrorratemaybecalculatedasfollows:
1.
Obtain the proton crosssection curve by simulation and

correlationwithexperimentaldata,usingasimulationtoolagreed
withthecustomer.
2.
Using the integral or differential energy spectra for protons or

neutrons specified in the radiation environment specification,
obtain two other cross section/energy points in the following
ranges:
3.
Forprotons,intheenergyrange10MeV200MeV.
Forneutrons,fromthermalenergiesto200MeV.
Calculate the SSE rate, from ionbeam irradiations, by using the

followingformula:
N=
s sample
S
E Max
E Min
Max
dP
d
( E ) ion
( E , )d dE
dE
C
h d
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15November2008
where:
d/dE, : EMin, EMax, and nucleon(E) have the same meaning as in
9.5.3a2,and:
dP/d(E,) = differential energy deposition spectrum for
protons/neutrons of energy E depositing energy
withinthesensitivevolume;
C
Max
= critical or threshold energy deposition for inducing

SEE;
= maximum energy deposition defined for energy
depositionspectrum;
ion(LET) = SEE cross section for ions as a function of LET for

normallyincidentions;
h
= heightofsensitivevolume;
= massdensityofsemiconductor;
ssample
= area of cell sampled by proton/neutron simulation to

obtainenergydepositionspectrum.
NOTE
Rational and discussion on the calculation of

SEEratesofprotonsandneutronscanbefound
inSection8.5.5to8.5.7.
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10
Radiation-induced sensor backgrounds
10.1 Overview
This clause providesanexplanation ofradiationinduced sensorbackgrounds,
identifies technologies and components susceptible to this phenomenon, and
specifies the general approaches for assessing background rates in susceptible
sensors.
Radiationinduced sensor backgrounds described in this clause refer to
enhancednoiselevelsindetectorssuchas:
IR, optical, UV, Xray and ray photon detectors, including those
comprisingsingledetectorelements,aswellasimagingarrays;
detectorsforotherparticleradiations;
gravitywavedetectors;
asaresultoftheincidentradiationenvironmentotherthanthosecomponents
of the environment the sensor is attempting to detect. As well as signal
productioninthesesensorsfromdirectionisationbychargedprimaryparticles
and secondaries, delayed effects can result such as from the buildup of
radioactivityinmaterialsofthespacecraftandinstrument.Theeffectsobserved
(and therefore the approach for calculating background rates) are highly
dependentupontheinstrumentdesignandoperatingconditions.
10.2 Relevant environments

a.
Radiationinduced backgrounds shall be analysed for spacecraft and

planetarymissions where there is the potential for energy deposition
events within the bandwidth of the sensor from the radiation
environment,whetherfromasingleeventoraccumulationofinteraction
ofevents.
NOTE
b.
Example of accumulation is from pileup of

pulses within the detector timeresolution, the
cumulative effect of which exceeds the event
detectionthresholdandresultsinafalseevent.
Theanalysisspecifiedinrequirement10.2ashallincludeallcomponents
of the environment that have the potential to affect the instrument,
including secondary particles from the spacecraft structure and local
planetarybodies,andmanmaderadiationsources
NOTE
Example of manmade radiation sources are

radioactive calibration sources, and radio
isotopethermoelectricgenerators.
84
Semiconductor/scintillator
withanticoincidence(veto
shield)
withactivecollimation
Noanticoincidence(veto)
shield
raydetection
Instrument/
technologytype
Application
CGRO/OSSE,
INTEGRAL/SPI
Example
System
Asabove+
inducedradioactivityfrom
eventsinactivecollimator
whicharetoolowtotrigger
collimatorbutdoaffect
primarydetector
Gammarayleakagethrough
collimator
Directionisationevents
belowthevetothreshold
Ionisationfromneutron
nuclearelasticandinelastic
interactions
Inducedradioactivity
Directionisation
Ionisationfromneutron
nuclearelasticandinelastic
interactions
Effect
(Part1of3)
Secondarygamma
emissionfromspacecraft/
nearbyplanetary
atmosphere
Protons&heaviernuclei
Electrons
Gammas
Secondaryneutron
nearbyplanetary
atmosphere
Electrons
Gammas
Secondaryneutron
nearbyplanetary
atmosphere
Radiationsources
remainsimportantafter
exitingintenseproton
regimesorfollowingsolar
particleevents
Comments
Table101:Summaryofpossibleradiationinducedbackgroundeffectsasafunctionofinstrumenttechnology
ECSSEST1012C
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85
UV,opticaland SiliconCCDandAPS,InSb,
IRimaging
InGaAs,GaAs/GaAlAs,
detectors
HgCdTe,PtSi
Charged
particle
detectors
CREAM,SREM,
CEASE
XMM,Chandra
Grazingincidencemirrors
Example
System
XMM,Chandra
Instrument/
technologytype
Xraydetection
Application
Particletracksfromdirect
ionisationandnuclear
interactions
Directionisation
Firsovscatteringofprotons
offmirrorsintodetector
Directionisation
Elastic&inelastic
interactions
InducedXrayemission
Effect
(Part2of3)
Comments
Discretelineemission
Electrons
Electrons
Typicallylowenergy,high
fluxprotons
Electrons
Protonsandneutrons
Chargedparticleinduced
Xrayemission(PIXE)
Protons,heaviernuclei
producingsecondary
electromagneticcascades,
andgammasfromnuclear
interactions
Electronbremsstrahlung
Radiationsources
ECSSEST1012C
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86
LISA
Freefloatingtestmass
interferometer
gravitywave
detectors
Example
System
Instrument/
technologytype
UV,opticaland Photomultipliersandmicro
IRdetectors
channelplates
Application
Radiationsources
Protons&heaviernuclei,
Chargingoftestmassby
ionisingparticles,including includingsecondary
secondaryelectronemission nucleons
Energydepositionleadingto
thermalchangestotestmass
orsuperconducting
materials
Directionisationofthe
cathodeordynodebya
Electrons
particleproducing
secondaryelectrons
Scintillationinoptical
componentsofthePMT
Cerenkovradiationinduced
inopticalcomponents,or
aboveCerenkovthresholdof
othermaterials
Effect
(Part3of3)
Electronsusuallyignored
duetohighshielding
conditions
Discretelineemission
Comments
ECSSEST1012C
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10.3 Instrument technologies susceptible to radiationinduced backgrounds

a.
IfoneofthetechnologiesorinstrumentsidentifiedinTable101isused
in spacecraft or planetarymission systems, the potential radiation
inducedbackgroundeffectsshallanalysed.
b.
The mechanisms shall be analysed by which the energetic radiation

environment can deposit energy in the instrument so as to register as a
sensorevent.
NOTE
c.
Thereasonisthatspacecraftscientificpayloads
areoftenunique.
Theanalysisspecifiedinrequirement10.3bshallinclude:
1.
Eventsfrompromptionisationbyprimaryparticlesandallprompt
secondaries
NOTE
Forexample,Xrayfluorescence.
2.
The potential pileup of such ionising events, within the

temporalresolution of the sensor, which results in higherthan
expectedenergydeposition.
3.
Delayedionisationeffectsfrominducedradioactivity.
NOTE
AsspecifiedinClauses7,8and9,calculationof
susceptibility to other radiation effects (total
ionisingdose,displacementdamage,andsingle
eventeffects)isalsonormative.
10.4 Radiation background assessment

10.4.1
General
a.
Radiation shielding calculations shall be performed to determine the

radiation environment at the instrument after passing through the
spacecraftstructure.
b.
Backgroundeffectsininstrumentsshallbeanalysedusing:
c.
1.
calculations or simulations of the energydeposition processes in

sensitivevolumes,or
2.
results from particle accelerator irradiations of the instrument or

itssensitivecomponents,or
3.
acombinationofbothoftherequirements10.4.1b.1and10.4.1b.2.
Where experimental results from component tests are used, or

simulationsbasedoncomponentsoftheinstrument,oneofthefollowing
shallbeperformed:
1.
shieldingcalculationsfortheinstrument,todeterminetheincident
particlespectrumonthesensitivevolume(s)oftheinstrument,or
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2.
d.
an analysis demonstrating that instrument structure has a

negligibleperturbingeffectontheradiationfield.
Where grazingincidence mirrors are used, the calculation of the

radiation environment at the sensitive volumes of the instrument shall
include the effects of Firsov scattering and shallow angle multiple
scatteringofprotonsinthegrazingincidencemirrors.
NOTE
10.4.2
a.
Prediction of effects from direct ionisation

by charged particles
The energy deposition spectrum by direct ionisation shall be calculated

byoneofthefollowingmethods:
1.
2.
By using the formula of Clause 10.4.9.1, if both of the following

conditionsaremet:
(a)
the sensitive volume of the sensor is so small that the

incident particle spectrum changes by less than 10% in
eitherintensityorenergyafterpassingthroughthevolume;
(b)
the pathlength distribution changes by less than 10% as a

resultofmultiplescattering.
Byaradiationtransportsimulationagreedwiththecustomer.
NOTE
b.
Forguidelines,seeECSSEHB1012Section5.7.
If method specified in requirement 10.4.2a.1 is used, the following shall

beperformed:
1.
Anestimationofthecombinedeffectsofthemaximumchangein
energy,intensityandpathlengthontheenergydeposition,and
2.
A demonstration that the error produced is within the accepted

marginsdefinedfortheproject.
10.4.3
a.
See ECSSEHB1012 Section 9.4, for the

reasons for including Firsov scattering in the
simulation.
Prediction of effects from ionisation by

nuclear interactions
Prediction of energy deposition spectra initiated by nuclear interaction

eventsshallbeperformedbyamethodagreedwiththecustomer.
NOTE
Prediction of energy deposition spectra

initiated by nuclear interactions event are
usually performed using detailed radiation
transport simulations (see ECSSEHB1012
Section5.7).However,wheresimplificationsin
the interactions and energy deposition
processespermit,simplifiedanalyticalsolutions
are applied, provided the combined effects of
theapproximationsproduceanerrorwithinthe
acceptedmarginsdefinedfortheproject.
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10.4.4
a.
Prediction of effects from induced

radioactive decay
Nuclear interaction rates in the sensitive volume and surrounding

materials (the radioactive decay products from which can affect the
sensitivevolume)shallbecalculatedbyoneofthefollowingmethods:
1.
2.
By using the formula of Clause 10.4.9.2 if all of the following

conditionsaremet:
(a)
thesensitivevolumeofthesensorandsurroundingmaterial
producing background in the sensor are so small that the
incident particle spectrum changes by less than 10% in
eitherintensityofenergyafterpassingthroughthevolume;
(b)
the pathlength distribution in the sensitive volume and

surroundingmaterialchangesbylessthan10%asaresultof
multiplescattering;
(c)
theprobabilityofsecondarynuclearinteractionsis10times
lowerthantheprimaryinteractionrate.
Byaradiationtransportsimulationagreedwiththecustomer.
NOTE
b.
c.
If method specified in requirement 10.4.4a.1 is used, the following shall

beperformed:
1.
Anestimationofthecombinedeffectsofthemaximumchangein
energy,intensityandpathlength,andtheinfluenceofsecondaries
ontheenergydeposition,and
2.
A demonstration that the error produced is within the accepted

marginsdefinedfortheproject.
The nuclear interaction rate shall be convolved with relevant response

function spectra to radioactive decay in the sensitive volume and
surrounding materials, to determine the background count rate in the
sensor.
10.4.5
a.
Forguidelines,seeECSSEHB1012Section5.7.
Prediction of fluorescent X-ray interactions
The analysis for the prediction of fluorescent Xray interactions shall

include the induced continuum and discrete Xray emission spectrum
frommaterialssurroundingtheXraydetector.
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10.4.6
a.
b.
The method used for predicting the fluorescence or Cerenkov radiation

productionshalleither:
use a radiation transport calculation that includes Cerenkov and

fluorescence physics models and the instrument shielding
geometry,or
use a simplified method capable to demonstrate that the level of

error in the predictioniswithin the accepted margins definedfor
theproject.
Thepredictionshallassesstheeffectsof:
1.
DirectionisationofthecathodeordynodeofaPMTbyaparticle,
ordirectionisationofthewallsofaMCP,ineithercaseproducing
secondaryelectrons.
2.
ScintillationofopticalcomponentsofthePMT/MCP.
3.
Cerenkov radiation induced in any optical components of the

instrumentfromparticlesabovetheCerenkovthreshold.
10.4.7
a.
Prediction of effects from induced

scintillation or Cerenkov radiation in PMTs
and MCPs
Prediction of radiation-induced noise in

gravity-wave detectors
The method adopted for predicting the influence of the radiation

environment on gravitywave interferometric experiments shall be
agreedwiththecustomer.
NOTE
b.
The method adopted for predicting the

influence of the radiation environment on
gravitywave interferometric experiments is
normally based on a detailed radiation
transport calculation, or if a simplified
approach is used, the level of error in the
prediction is be estimated in order to ensure
that it is within the accepted margins defined
fortheproject.
The prediction shall be used to assess the noise introduced into the
instrumentasaresultoftheincidentradiation:
1.
changingthechargeofthefreefloatingtestmass;
2.
actingasasourceofenergytochangethethermalconditionsofthe
cryogenicallycooledtestmass;
3.
changingthecriticaltemperatureofsuperconductingmaterials.
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10.4.8
Use of experimental data from irradiations
a.
Experimentaldatafromirradiationsshallbeusedtovalidateprediction
techniques.
b.
If experimental data are used in place of elements of the prediction

process,theparameterspacecoveredbyexperimentshallensurethatthe
data can be interpolated to operational environment conditions within
theerrorlimitsspecifiedbytheproject.
NOTE1 This is especially important in assessing the
responseoftheinstrumenttothelocalradiation
environment.
NOTE2 Examples of parameter space covered by the
experiment are incident particle species and
energy, angle of incidence, flux (to allow for
effectsofpulsepileup).
10.4.9
Radiation background calculations
10.4.9.1
Energy deposition spectrum from direct ionization
a.
Under the conditions specified in requirement 10.4.2a.1, the energy

deposition spectrum from direct ionization shall be calculated by using
oneofthefollowingformulas:
1.
Fromdirectionization,byoneofthefollowingformulas:
o
Detailedcalculation:
dP
d
A Emax d
( ) =
( E ) CL
E
d
dD
4 min dE
Approximatedcalculation:
d
A
( ) =
d
4
Emax
E min
dP
d
( E ) CL
dE
dD

dE
LET ( E ) LET ( E )
1
1
dE
( E ) dE ( E ) dE
dx
dx
where:
d/d()
=energydepositionratespectrum;
=totalsurfaceareaoftheSVordetector;
d/dE(E)
= differential incident particle flux spectrum

expressedasafunctionofenergy,E;
dPCL/dD(D) =differentialchordlengthdistributionthrough
the sensitive volume for an isotropic
distribution;
dE/dx(E)
=stoppingpowerforparticlesofenergyE;
Emin
= minimum energy for the incident particle

spectrum;
Emax
= maximum energy of the incident particle

spectrum.
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NOTE
2.
This expression assumes the incident particle

spectrum on the detector is or can be
approximated to a isotropic angular
distribution. Furthermore, it is assumed that
thechangeinthestoppingpoweroftheparticle
throughthesensitivevolumeandanymultiple
scatteringcanbeneglected.
For nucleonnuclear collisioninduced energy, by one of the

followingmethods:
(a)
If the dimensions of the detector volume are 10 times (or

more) smaller than the ranges and meanfree paths of the
incidentparticles,byusingthefollowingformula:
E
d
MN A max d
dP
( ) =
(E) (E)
( E , )dE
d
W Emin dE
d
where:
d/d(), A, d/dE(E), dPCL/dD(D), dE/dx(E), Emin, and Emax
havethesamemeaningasinClause10.4.9.11,and:
M
= massofsensitivevolume;
NA
= Avogadrosconstant;
= atomic or molecular mass of the material

makingupthedetector;
(E)
= nuclearinteraction crosssection for the

materialasawholeduetoincidentparticlesof
energyE;
dP/d(E,)
(b)
= energydepositionratespectrum(orresponse
function)forincidentparticlesofenergyE,and
energydeposition,.
Otherwise, by applying radiation simulation tools agreed

withthecustomer.
NOTE1 Examples of such tools are Geant4, MCNPX,

and FLUKA. More examples can be found in
Table2ofECSSEHB1012.
NOTE2 For a rational and detailed discussion on
energy deposition spectrum from direct
ionization calculation and nucleonnuclear
interactions,seeECSSEHB1012,Section9.2.
10.4.9.2
a.
Nuclear interaction rates
Under the conditions specified in requirement 10.4.4a.1, the nuclear

interactionrates in the sensitive volume and surrounding material shall
becalculatedbythefollowingformula:
Ri (t ) =
E j ,max d j
MN A
( E , t ) j i ( E )dE
W j E j ,min dE
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where:
Ri(t)
=productionratefornuclidespeciesiattimet;
=massofdetector;
NA
=Avogadrosconstant;
= atomic or molecular mass of the material making up the

detector;
dj/dE(E,t)=differentialincidentfluxspectrumexpressedasafunctionof
energy, E and time, t for particle species j (these are both
primaryandsecondaryparticles);
ji(E)
= nuclearinteraction crosssection for the production of

nuclide i in the detector material due to incident particle
speciesjofenergyE;
Ej,min
=minimumenergyfortheincidentparticlespectrum,j;
Ej,max
=maximumenergyoftheincidentparticlespectrumj.
NOTE
For a rational and detailed description, see

ECSSEHB1012,Section9.5.
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11
Effects in biological material
11.1 Overview
Theeffectsthationisingradiationproducesinlivingmatterresultfromenergy
transferred from radiation into ionisation (and excitation) of the molecules of
which a cell is made. The primary effects start with physical interactions and
energy transfer, after which changed molecules interact by chemical reactions
andinterferewiththeregulatoryprocesseswithinthecell.
The resulting radiobiological effects in man can be divided into two different
types:
stochasticeffects,wheretheprobabilityofmanifestationisafunctionof
doseratherthanthemagnitudeoftheradiobiologicaleffect,and
deterministiceffects,wheretheseverityoftheeffectdependsdirectlyon
dose,withalowerthresholddosebelowwhichnoresponseoccurs.
Symptoms of radiation exposure are classified as either early or late effects,

withearlyeffectsrelatingtosymptomsthatoccurwithin60daysofexposure,
andlateeffectsusuallybecomingmanifestmanymonthsoryearslater.
This chapter summarises the radiation quantities used to define the
environment relevant to radiation effects in biological materials, and specifies
therequirementsforquantifyingradiobiologicaleffectsforspacemissions.
Notethatthediscussionsinthischapterareaimedatradiationeffectsonman.
Effectsonotherbiologicalmaterials(e.g.animalsorplantsflownastestsubjects
forexperiment)onunmannedormannedmissionscanalsobeassessed,based
ontheprinciplesdiscussedhere.
11.2 Parameters used to measure radiation

11.2.1
a.
Basic physical parameters
The following basic parameters shall be used to measure the radiation

environment:
1.
Theabsorbeddose,D
2.
Theairkerma,K,
3.
Thefluence,,and
4.
Thelinearenergytransfer,LET.
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11.2.2
Protection quantities
11.2.2.1
General
a.
Thefollowingprotectionquantitiesshallbeusedwhenrelatingthebasic
physicalparameterstobiologicalsystems:
1.
Themeanorganabsorbeddose,DT
2.
Therelativebiologicaleffectiveness,RBE
3.
Theradiationweightingfactor,wR
4.
Theorganequivalentdose,HT
5.
Thetissueweightingfactor,wT,and
6.
Theeffectivedose,E.
NOTE1 Protection quantities are defined by the
International Commission on Radiobiological
Protection(ICRP).
NOTE2 The mean organ dose, organ equivalent dose,
and effective dose are not directly measurable,
but are essential for assessing risk due to a
radiationenvironment.
11.2.2.2
Value of the radiation weighting factor, wR
a.
The values of the radiation weighting factor shall be as specified in

Table111.
b.
Values for the radiation weighting factor of particles not specified in

Table11shallbederivedbydividingtheambientdoseequivalentforthe
particleH*(10)bythedoseat10mmdepthintheICRUsphere[12].
NOTE1 The radiation weighting factor, wR, accounts
for the different levels of biological effects
resulting from different particle types,
although they can produce the same mean
organ dose. For further discussion on wR see
ECSSEHB1012Section10.2.2.
NOTE2 ThevaluesinTable111arefromICRP60[11],
and are defined and maintained by the ICRP.
The users are encouraged to consult the ICRP
forthemorerecentupdates.
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Table111:Radiationweightingfactors
Typeandenergyrange
Radiationweighting
factor,wR
Photons,allenergies
Electronsandmuons,allenergies
Neutrons,energy
<10keV
10keVto100keV
10
100keVto2MeV
20
2MeVto20MeV
10
>20MeV
Protons,otherthanrecoilprotons,energy>2MeV
Alphaparticles,fissionfragments,heavynuclei
20
11.2.2.3
a.
Value of the tissue weighting factor, wT
ThevaluesofthetissueweightingfactorshallbeasspecifiedinTable112.
NOTE1 The tissue weighting factor takes into account
the variability in sensitivity of different organs
andtissuesubjecttothesameequivalentdose.
NOTE2 The values in Table 112 are from ICRP
Publication 60 Table A3 [11] and are defined
and maintained by the ICRP. The users are
encouraged to consult the ICRP for the more
recentupdates.
Table112:Tissueweightingfactorsforvariousorgansandtissue
(maleandfemale)
Organortissue
Tissueweightingfactor,wT
Gonads
0,20
Bonemarrow(red)
0,12
Colon
0,12
Lung
0,12
Stomach
0,12
Bladder
0,05
Breast
0,05
Liver
0,05
Oesophagus
0,05
Thyroid
0,05
Skin
0,01
Bonesurface
0,01
Othertissuesandorgans
0,05
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11.2.3
Operational quantities
11.2.3.1
General
a.
Thefollowingoperationalquantitiesshallbeusedfortheassessmentof
radiationexposure:
1.
theambientdoseequivalent,H*(d)
2.
thedirectionaldoseequivalent,H(d,)
3.
thepersonaldoseequivalent,HP
4.
thequalityfactor,Q
NOTE
11.2.3.2
a.
Operational quantities are measurable. They

aredefinedbytheInternationalCommissionon
Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU)
with the aim of never underestimating the
relevant protection quantities, in particular the
effectivedose,E,underconventionalnormally
occurringexposureconditions.
Value of the quality factor, Q
ThevaluesofthequalityfactorsgiveninEquation(3)shallbeused.
1
: L 10keV / m
Q( L) = 0.32 L 2.2 : 10 keV / m L 100 keV / m (3)

300
: L > 100 keV / m
L
NOTE
Thesevalues,relatedtotheunrestrictedLETin
water, correspond to the ones given by
equation below, which is established by ICRP
60[11].
11.3 Relevant environments

a.
Radiobiological effects resulting from the following environments shall

beanalysedforallmannedmissions:
1.
trapped proton and electron belts (terrestrial and other planetary

belts);
2.
solarprotonsandions;
3.
cosmicrayprotonsandheaviernuclei;
4.
bremsstrahlungproducedassecondariesfromelectrons;
5.
secondary protons, neutrons and other nuclear fragments which

can be generated in atmospheric showers in the planetary
environment or within the spacecraft or planetaryhabitat
structure,includingthebodyitself.
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NOTE
6.
This contribution is particularly important for

cosmicrayinducedsecondaries.
emmisions from radioactive or nuclearenergy sources on the

spacecraft.
NOTE
For example, RTGs generating ray and

neutronradiation.
11.4 Establishment of radiation protection limits

a.
Theprojectshallestablishtheradiationprotectionlimitstobeappliedto
themission.
NOTE
b.
Theradiationprotectionlimitsshallbedefinedintermsoftheprotection
quantitiesinClause11.2.2andtheoperationalquantitiesinClause11.2.3.
NOTE
c.
These limits are established based on the

policies and standards defined by the space
agency for manned space flight (see ECSSE
HB1012 Section 10.4, and ECSSEST1011).
Where there is more than one space agency
involved, the radiation protection limits to be
adopted by the project are normally agreed
through consensus (e.g. through a working
group of radiation effects experts from the
differentpartneragencies).
These limits can vary between different space

agencies.
Synergistic effects between radiobiological damage and other

environmental stressors and the radiation protection limits specified in
11.4ashallbeanalysed.
NOTE1 Example of such environmental stressors are
microgravity, vibration, acceleration, and
hypoxia
NOTE2 For guidelines on the influence of spaceflight
environment, see ECSSEHB1012 Section
10.5.7.
d.
The quality factors, radiation weighting factors and tissue weighting

factorsidentifiedinTable111,Table112andequation(3),shallbeused
todeterminedoseequivalent,organequivalentdoseandeffectivedose.
NOTE
Itistheresponsibilityoftheprojectmanagerto
perform the tradeoff between spacecraft and
missiondesignandoperation,andtheireffects
onpredictedcrewexposure,inorderto:
achievethedefinedprotectionlimits,and
ensure radiation protection is managed
according to the ALARA (as low as
reasonablyachievable)principle.
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11.5 Radiobiological risk assessment

a.
A radiobiological risk assessment shall be performed by comparing the

protection and operational quantities calculated according to the
definitions in Clause 11.2 with the protection limits defined for the
projectinaccordancewithrequirement11.4a.
b.
Whencalculatingtheprotectionandoperationalquantitiesasspecifiedin
requirement11.5a, the influence of shielding in attenuating the primary
particle environment andmodificationto its spectrum at the location of
theastronautshallbeevaluatedasfollows:
1.
PerforminitialcalculationsasspecifiedinClause6.2.2toassessthe
influence of shielding for worstcase shielding, environment and
secondaryproduction.
2.
If these indicate that the protection limits are exceeded, perform

more detailed calculations using a detailed sector shielding
calculation or MonteCarlo analysis, calculation, as specified in
Clauses6.2.3and6.2.4,respectively.
c.
Theevaluationspecifiedinrequirement11.5bshallincludethepotential
variations in radiation exposure as a function of shielding material and
itsconfiguration.
d.
Scaling to the equivalent areal mass shall not be performed, unless an

analysis is performed that demonstrates that the scaling provides an
overestimateoftheseverityoftheenvironment.
e.
Theminimumshieldingrequirementsshallbespecifiedforeachmission
phase.
NOTE
f.
Thecrewexposureshallbeassessedforallthefollowing:
1.
thenominalenvironment,
2.
energeticsolarparticleevents,
3.
radiationbeltpassages,and
4.
conditions where the 30day radiation environment exceeds the

nominalenvironmentbyafactorof5.
NOTE
g.
The reason is that the shielding issues depend

on the mission phase scenario and the
associated crew activities within the spacecraft
habitats, lunar or planetary habitats, or extra
vehicularactivities.
Thisistoaccountforanomalousenvironmental
changesthatcanaffectthe30daydoselimits.
Thelinear,nothreshold(LNT)hypothesisshallbeappliedextrapolating
highdoseratedatainordertoquantifytheriskofradiobiologicaleffects.
NOTE
For longterm missions the doses are likely to

attain values where extrapolation can be
replaced by a look up into epidemiological
data.
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h.
If shielding simulations are performed which include selfshielding, the

simulation shall include the variations in a buildup of high LET
particles, including the nuclear interactions (star events) of these
particles.
i.
Selfshielding shall be included for simulations where the shielding

affordedislessthanprovidedbytheselfshielding.
NOTE
j.
Forexample,astronautsduringanEVA.
For simulation of the effects of selfshielding, secondary radiation

generatedwithinanorganshallnotbeincludedinthecalculationofthe
equivalentdosetothatorgan.
NOTE1 The reason is that radiation weighting factors
alreadyincludesecondaryparticlecontribution.
NOTE2 For extremely densely ionising radiation like
HZE (high mass and energy) particles and
nuclear disintegration stars the concept of
absorbed dose can break down and has
therefore become inapplicable, but not having
better concepts it is the only one used to
calculateeffectivedoseordoseequivalent.
11.6 Uncertainties
a.
Analysisoftheuncertaintiesintheexposurecalculationshallincorporate
the uncertainties in the source data identified in Table 113 (from the
atomicbombdata)andTable114(fromthespaceradiationfield).
NOTE1 The uncertainties in risk estimates have been
evaluatedindetailinNCRP1997[14].Therisk
estimates are presented in a distribution that
ranges from 1,15 to 8,1x102Sv1 for the 90%
confidenceintervalforthenominalvalueof4%
perSvforanadultUSpopulation.
NOTE2 Uncertainties also arise from systematic errors
(and potentially statistical errors in the case of
Monte Carlo simulation) in the radiation
shielding calculation see ECSSEHB1012,
Section5.8.
101
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
Table113:Sourcesofuncertaintiesforriskestimationfromatomicbombdata
Approximate
contribution
Uncertainties
Supportinghigher
riskestimates
Supportinglowerrisk
estimates
Dosimetrybiaserrors
+10%
Underreporting
+13%
Projectiondirectlyfromcurrentdata
+?%
Dosimetry:moreneutronsatHiroshima
22%
Projection,i.e.,byusingattainedage(?)
50%
?2550%
Transferbetweenpopulations
Eitherway
?50%
Doseresponseandextrapolation
NOTE: Source:[15]
Table114:Uncertaintiesofriskestimationfromthespaceradiationfield
Source
Biological
DDREF,extrapolationacross
nationalities,riskprojectiontoendof
life,dosimetry,etc.
Radiationqualitydependenceof
humancancerrisk
R
200300%
(mult.)
Q(L)
200500%
(mult.)
NOTE1 DDREFistheDoseandDoseRateEffectivenessFactor.(NCRPdeliberately
describedonlyaDREFalowdoseratereductionfactorwithoutincludinga
lowdosefactor)
NOTE2 Source:[16]
102
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
Annex A (informative)
References
[1]
GHKinchin,andRSPease,Thedisplacementofatomsinsolidsby
radiation,ReportsonProgressinPhysics,18,pp151,1955.
[2]
O.B.Firsov,Reflectionoffastionsfromadensemediumatglancing
angles,Sov.Phys.Docklady,vol11,no.8,pp.732733,1967.
[3]
JRSrourDisplacementDamageeffectsinElectronicMaterials,Devices,
andIntegratedCircuits,TutorialShortCourseNotespresentedat1988
IEEENuclearandSpaceRadiationEffectsConference,11July1988.
[4]
InsooJun,MichaelAXapsos,ScottRMessenger,EdwardABurke,
RobertJWalters,GeoffPSummers,andThomasJordan,Proton
nonionisingenergyloss(NIEL)fordeviceapplications,IEEETransNucl
Sci,50,No6,pp19241928,2003.
[5]
ScottRMessenger,EdwardABurke,MichaelAXapsos,GeoffreyP
Summers,RobertJWalters,InsooJun,andThomasJordan,NIELfor
heavyions:ananalyticalapproach,IEEETransNuclSci,50,No6,
pp19191923,2003.
[6]
EPetersen,Singleeventanalysisandprediction,IEEENuclearand
SpaceRadiationEffectsConference,ShortCoursesectionIII,1997.
[7]
JNBradfordGeometricalanalysisofsofterrorsandoxidedamage
producedbyheavycosmicraysandalphaparticles,IEEETransNuclSci,
27,pp942,Feb1980.
[8]
CInguimbert,etal,StudyonSEErateprediction:analysisofexisting
models,Rapporttechniquedesynthse,RTS2/06224DESP,June2002.
[9]
JCPickelandJTBlandford,CosmicrayinducederrorsinMOS
devices,IEEETransNuclSci,27,No2,pp1006,1980.
[10]
JHAdams,Cosmicrayeffectsonmicroelectronics,PartIV,NRL
memorandumreport5901,1986.
[11]
ICRP,InternationalCommisiononRadiologicalProtection,1990
RecommendationsoftheInternationalCommisiononRadiological
Protection,ICRPPublication60,Vol.21No.13,Nov.1990,ISSN0146
6453.
[12]
ICRU,InternationalCommisiononRadiationUnitsandMeasurements,
RadiationQuantitiesandUnits,1980,ICRUReport33.
[13]
ICRU,InternationalCommisiononRadiationUnitsandMeasurements,
TissueSubstitutesinRadiationDosimetryandMeasurement,1989,
ICRUReport44.
103
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
[14]
NCRP,NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionandMeasurements,
UncertaintiesinFatalCancerriskestimatedUsedinRadiation
Protection,NCRPReport126,Bethesda,Maryland,1997.
[15]
WKSinclair,Science,RadiationProtectionandtheNCRP,Lauriston
TaylorLecture,Proceedingsofthe29thAnnualMeeting,April78,1993,
NCRP,ProceedingsNo15,pp209239,1994.
[16]
TCYang,LMCraise,BiologicalResponsetoheavyionexposures,
ShieldingStrategiesforHumanSpaceExploration,JWWilson,JMiller,
AKonradi,FACucinotto,(Eds.),pp91107,NASACP3360,National
AeronauticsandSpaceAdministration,Washington,DC,1997.
104
ECSSEST1012C
15November2008
Bibliography
ECSSSST00
ECSS system Description, implementation and general

requirements
ECSSEST1011
SpaceengineeringHumanfactorsengineering
ECSSEST20
SpaceengineeringElectricalandelectronic
ECSSEST2008
SpaceengineeringPhotovoltaicassembliesandcomponents
ECSSEST3208
SpaceengineeringMaterials
ECSSEST34
Space engineering Environmental control and life support

(ECLS)
ECSSQST3011
SpaceproductassuranceDeratingEEEcomponents
ECSSQST7006
Space product assurance Particle and UV radiation testing

forspacematerials
ECSSEHB1012
Calculation of radiation and its effects and margin policy

handbook
ISO/DIS15856
SpacesystemsSpaceenvironment
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Terms from other standards .....................................................................................10

Terms specific to the present standard ....................................................................10

Abbreviated terms .................................................................................................... 21

Radiation effects evaluation activities ......................................................................28

Relationship with other standards ............................................................................ 33

5 Radiation design margin......................................................................................34

Radiation environment specification........................................................... 34

Radiation margin in a general case ............................................................ 34

Radiation margin in the case of single events ............................................ 35

Margin approach ......................................................................................................35

Space radiation environment....................................................................................37

Deposited dose calculations..................................................................................... 38

Radiation effect behaviour........................................................................................ 38

Uncertainties associated with EEE component radiation susceptibility

Component dose effects............................................................................. 39

Single event effects ....................................................................................40

Radiation-induced sensor background ....................................................... 41

Establishment of margins at project phases............................................................. 42

Mission margin requirement ....................................................................... 42

Up to and including PDR ............................................................................ 42

Between PDR and CDR ............................................................................. 43

Hardness assurance post-CDR.................................................................. 43

6 Radiation shielding ..............................................................................................45

Shielding calculation approach................................................................................. 45

Simplified approaches ................................................................................ 49

Detailed sector shielding calculations......................................................... 51

Detailed 1-D, 2-D or full 3-D radiation transport calculations ..................... 52

Geometry considerations for radiation shielding model............................................ 53

Geometry elements ....................................................................................54

7 Total ionising dose ...............................................................................................57

Technologies sensitive to total ionising dose ........................................................... 58

Radiation damage assessment ................................................................................60

Calculation of radiation damage parameters.............................................. 60

Calculation of the ionizing dose.................................................................. 60

Experimental data used to predict component degradation ..................................... 61

Experimental data used to predict material degradation .......................................... 62

Displacement damage expression ........................................................................... 63

Technologies susceptible to displacement damage ................................................. 64

Radiation damage assessment ................................................................................65

Calculation of radiation damage parameters.............................................. 65

Calculation of the DD dose......................................................................... 65

Prediction of component degradation.......................................................................69

9 Single event effects ..............................................................................................70

Technologies susceptible to single event effects ..................................................... 71

Radiation damage assessment ................................................................................72

Prediction of radiation damage parameters................................................ 72

Experimental data and prediction of component degradation .................... 77

Hardness assurance ................................................................................................79

Calculation procedure flowchart ................................................................. 79

Predictions of SEE rates for ions................................................................ 79

Prediction of SEE rates of protons and neutrons ....................................... 81

10 Radiation-induced sensor backgrounds ..........................................................84

Prediction of effects from direct ionisation by charged particles................. 89

Prediction of effects from ionisation by nuclear interactions....................... 89

Prediction of effects from induced radioactive decay ................................. 90

Prediction of fluorescent X-ray interactions ................................................ 90

Prediction of effects from induced scintillation or Cerenkov radiation in

Prediction of radiation-induced noise in gravity-wave detectors................. 91

Use of experimental data from irradiations................................................. 92

Radiation background calculations............................................................. 92

11 Effects in biological material .............................................................................95

Basic physical parameters..........................................................................95