ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into
energy and basic nutrients to feed the
entire body. Food passes through a
long tube inside the body known as
the

alimentary

canal

or

the

gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). The

alimentary canal is made up of the
oral

cavity,

pharynx,

esophagus,

stomach, small intestines, and large

intestines.

In

addition

to

the

alimentary canal, there are several

important accessory organs that help
your body to digest food but do not
have

food

pass

through

them.

Accessory organs of the digestive

system include the teeth, tongue,
salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas. The digestive system is responsible for
taking whole foods and turning them into energy and nutrients to allow the body to
function, grow, and repair itself.
The six primary processes of the digestive system include:
Ingestion of food;
secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes;
mixing and movement of food and wastes through the body;
digestion of food into smaller pieces;
absorption of nutrients; and
Excretion of wastes.
Ingestion.The first function of the digestive system is ingestion, or the intake of
food. The mouth is responsible for this function, as it is the orifice through which all food
enters the body. The mouth and stomach are also responsible for the storage of food as

it is waiting to be digested. This storage capacity allows the body to eat only a few times
each day and to ingest more food than it can process at one time.
Secretion. In the course of a day, the digestive system secretes around 7 liters
of fluids. These fluids include saliva, mucus, hydrochloric acid, enzymes, and bile.
Saliva moistens dry food and contains salivary amylase, a digestive enzyme that begins
the digestion of carbohydrates. Mucus serves as a protective barrier and lubricant inside
of the GI tract. Hydrochloric acid helps to digest food chemically and protects the body
by killing bacteria present in our food. Enzymes are like tiny biochemical machines that
disassemble large macromolecules like proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids into their
smaller components. Finally, bile is used to emulsify large masses of lipids into tiny
globules for easy digestion.
Mixing and Movement.Uses 3 main processes to move and mix food:
Swallowing; peristalsis; and Segmentation.
Swallowing - the process of using smooth and skeletal muscles in the mouth, tongue,
and pharynx to push food out of the mouth, through the pharynx, and into the
esophagus.
Peristalsis - a muscular wave that travels the length of the GI tract, moving partially
digested food a short distance down the tract. It takes many waves of peristalsis for
food to travel from the esophagus, through the stomach and intestines, and reach the
end of the GI tract.
Segmentation - occurs only in the small intestine as short segments of intestine contract
like hands squeezing a toothpaste tube. Segmentation helps to increase the absorption
of nutrients by mixing food and increasing its contact with the walls of the intestine.
Digestion.Digestion is the process of turning large pieces of food into its
component chemicals. Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of large pieces
of food into smaller pieces. This mode of digestion begins with the chewing of food by
the teeth and is continued through the muscular mixing of food by the stomach and
intestines. Bile produced by the liver is also used to mechanically break fats into smaller
globules. While food is being mechanically digested it is also being chemically digested
as larger and more complex molecules are being broken down into smaller molecules
that are easier to absorb.
Chemical digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase in saliva splitting
complex carbohydrates into simple carbohydrates. The enzymes and acid in the

stomach continue chemical digestion, but the bulk of chemical digestion takes place in
the small intestine thanks to the action of the pancreas. The pancreas secretes an
incredibly strong digestive cocktail known as pancreatic juice, which is capable of
digesting lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids. By the time food has left
the duodenum, it has been reduced to its chemical building blocksfatty acids, amino
acids, monosaccharide, and nucleotides.
Absorption. Once food has been reduced to its building blocks, it is ready for the
body to absorb. Absorption begins in the stomach with simple molecules like water and
alcohol being absorbed directly into the bloodstream. Most absorption takes place in the
walls of the small intestine, which are densely folded to maximize the surface area in
contact with digested food. Small blood and lymphatic vessels in the intestinal wall pick
up the molecules and carry them to the rest of the body. The large intestine is also
involved in the absorption of water and vitamins B and K before feces leave the body.
Excretion.The final function of the digestive system is the excretion of waste in a
process known as defecation. Defecation removes indigestible substances from the
body so that they do not accumulate inside the gut. The timing of defecation is
controlled voluntarily by the conscious part of the brain, but must be accomplished on a
regular basis to prevent a backup of indigestible materials.
The digestive system is a group of organs (Buccal cavity (mouth), pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, liver, gall bladder, jejunum, ileum and colon) that breakdown the
chemical components of food, with digestive juices, into tiny nutrients which can be
absorbed to generate energy for the body.
Buccal Cavity. Food enters the mouth and is chewed by the teeth, turned over
and mixed with saliva by the tongue. The sensations of smell and taste from the food
sets up reflexes which stimulate the salivary glands.
Salivary glands. These glands increase their output of secretions through three
pairs of ducts into the oral cavity, and begin the process of digestion. Saliva lubricates
the food enabling it to be swallowed and contains the enzyme ptyalin which serves to
begin to break down starch.
Pharynx. Situated at the back of the nose and oral cavity receives the softened food
mass or bolus by the tongue pushing it against the palate which initiates the swallowing
action. At the same time a small flap called the epiglottis moves over the trachea to

prevent any food particles getting into the windpipe. From the pharynx onwards the
alimentary canal is a simple tube starting with the salivary glands.
Esophagus. The esophagus travels through the neck and thorax, behind the
trachea and in front of the aorta. The food is moved by rhythmical muscular contractions
known as peristalsis (wave-like motions) caused by contractions in longitudinal and
circular bands of muscle. Anti-peristalsis, where the contractions travel upwards, is the
reflex action of vomiting and is usually aided by the contraction of the abdominal
muscles and diaphragm.
Stomach. The stomach lies below the diaphragm and to the left of the liver. It is
the widest part of the alimentary canal and acts as a reservoir for the food where it may
remain for between 2 and 6 hours. Here the food is churned over and mixed with
various hormones, enzymes including pepsinogen which begins the digestion of protein,
hydrochloric acid, and other chemicals; all of which are also secreted further down the
digestive tract. The stomach has an average capacity of 1 liter, varies in shape, and is
capable of considerable distension.
When expanding this sends stimuli to the hypothalamus which is the part of the
brain and nervous system controlling hunger and the desire to eat. The wall of the
stomach is impermeable to most substances, although does absorb some water,
electrolytes, certain drugs, and alcohol. At regular intervals a circular muscle at the
lower end of the stomach, the pylorus opens allowing small amounts of food, now
known as chyme to enter the small intestine.
Small Intestine. The small intestine measures about 7m in an average adult and
consists of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Both the bile and pancreatic ducts open
into the duodenum together. The small intestine, because of its structure, provides a
vast lining through which further absorption takes place. There is a large lymph and
blood supply to this area, ready to transport nutrients to the rest of the body. Digestion
in the small intestine relies on its own secretions plus those from the pancreas, liver,
and gall bladder.
Large Intestine. The large intestine averages about 1.5m long and comprises
the caecum, appendix, colon, and rectum. After food is passed into the caecum a reflex
action in response to the pressure causes the contraction of the ileo-colic valve
preventing any food returning to the ileum. Here most of the water is absorbed, much of
which was not ingested, but secreted by digestive glands further up the digestive tract.

The colon is divided into the ascending, transverse and descending colons, before
reaching the anal canal where the indigestible foods are expelled from the body.