Introduction

Educational psychology is a distinct discipline that has helped shape the key
understandings about education, teaching and learning (Woolfolk & Margetts
2013). I believe that teaching and learning is an integrated process. Psychology
related to development, learning and cognition gives rise to awareness and
understanding about the different dimensions of learning, and therefore, of
teaching (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). Every students development cognitively,
morally, emotionally, and socially at different stages of growth and maturation
are unique and dissimilar (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, Graduate School of Arts &
Sciences Center on Teaching and Learning 2015). These characteristics not only
affect each other, they also impact on and are impacted by the environment
(Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). The theorists and theories covered in this course
have made me consider and reflect on my thoughts, behaviours and dispositions
towards teaching and education. There are many elements that come into play
that can either enhance or hinder learning. As a future teacher, I aspire to
practically use and apply the knowledge and insight that I have and will continue
to acquire, to create positive and enriching learning experiences in everyday
teaching situations, as well as to support my professional development and
experience.

The theorists and how they relate to my developing beliefs with

regards to teaching and learning
The lesson plan I have chosen to analyse is entitled Dream Bedroom. The
learning area for this lesson plan is Mathematics, and it is intended for students
in the year levels 4 and 5. To support my analysis of the lesson plan, I have
chosen the two theorists Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura. Piaget is considered to
be the most influential theorist in the study of cognitive development (Cook &
Cook 2005). Recent research conducted on 1,500 child development experts
revealed Piagets book, The Origins of Intelligence in Children, published in 1952,
to be the most revolutionary and influential work published in the last half
century (Cook & Cook 2005). Piaget focused on the individual as a learner and
his theory is often described as constructivist - people interpret their
environments and experiences in light of their existing knowledge and
experiences, and construct their own knowledge and understandings (Woolfolk &
Margetts 2013, Blake & Pope 2008). My current perspective on learning and the
process of acquisition of knowledge corresponds with Piagets theory as I believe
that children build their own understanding of the world around them and that
Lesley KONG . 100096415 . EDUC 5160 . SP2 2015 . MMET (Primary)

they should therefore be active participants in their own learning. Although

certain
Banduras social cognitive theory has strongly influenced several fields, not just
that of educational psychology (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). According to his
concept of triadic reciprocal causation, personal characteristics and cognitions,
behavioural patterns and environmental events all influence and are influenced
by each other in a bidirectional manner (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). Bandura's
theory connected behavioural approaches to learning with cognitive approaches
to learning, which had

numerous implications for teaching and learning

worldwide, and continues to drive research in psychology and cognitive

development (Huitt & Monetti 2008). It is one that I feel strongly about as I firmly
believe that in addition to environmental factors, a person's behaviour is also
affected by self-regulatory mechanisms and motivational factors, and vice versa,
and both of these are significant elements in the learning process.

The key ideas

The key ideas of Piagets that I have chosen to relate this lesson plan to are his
four stages of cognitive development (the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational
stage, the concrete operational stage and the formal operational stage), and
equilibration.

Piagets

stages

of

cognitive

development

emphasize

the

importance of maturation as an important influence on development and

supports a constructive, investigative approach to learning (Woolfolk & Margetts
2013, Cook & Cook 2005). Equilibration is the complex process that Piaget
associated with cognitive growth and development, and is hence central to his
cognitive development theory (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013).
The aspects of Banduras social cognitive theory that will be considered with
regards to the analysis of this lesson plan are vicarious learning, which is
composed of attention, retention, reproduction and motivation, and also selfefficacy, which is an important element of self-regulation (Woolfolk & Margetts
2013).

Theorist 1: Piaget

Lesley KONG . 100096415 . EDUC 5160 . SP2 2015 . MMET (Primary)

Piaget believed that all children undergo four stages of cognitive development in
the exact same order, each of which is associated with qualitatively distinct
cognitive abilities (Santrock et al. 2008, Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). According to
Piaget, it is not the extent of knowledge that defines one stage from another, but
the childs understanding of this knowledge (Santrock et al. 2008). The four
stages identified by Piaget are: the sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), the
preoperational stage (2-7 years), the concrete operational stage (7-11 years) and
the formal operational stage (11 years-adult) (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). The
students for which this lesson plan was designed would be around the ages of
nine to ten, and therefore would fall into the concrete operational stage
(Santrock et al. 2008, Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). At this stage, intuitive and
egocentric thinking is replaced by logical reasoning to achieve the correct
conclusions, provided reasoning may be applied to concrete, definite examples
(Santrock et al. 2008, University of California Berkeley Graduate Division 2015).
For this reason, this stage is also known as the hands-on thinking stage
(Woolfolk & Margets 2013). This is evident in the lesson plan, as the students use
scaled instruments to measure the dimensions of their rooms and then of the
drawings of their rooms and the furniture within them. The ten items they choose
to purchase for their dream bedrooms are also cut out and glued into their
books. This use of concrete materials and visual aids helps students apply
developing concrete operations. Additionally, the measurement of their rooms
provides students with a familiar example around which to develop more
complex ideas, and this facilitates their ability to progress from a what is
approach to thinking, to a more abstract what might be approach to thinking,
characteristic of the final stage of development (Woolfolk and Margetts 2013).
Another key principle underlying Piagets theory is equilibration (Woolfolk &
Margetts 2013, University of California Berkeley Graduate Division 2015).
According to Piaget, equilibration is the process by which internal self-regulation
takes place (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). This process involves two mechanisms
of adaptation, which is the tendency to adapt our thinking to include new ideas:
assimilation and accommodation (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, Santrock et al.
2008).

Assimilation

occurs

when

new

information

or

experiences

are

incorporated into existing cognitive structures (Santrock et al. 2008, Webb 1980).
In this lesson, when the students try to work out the perimeter and area of their
individual rooms, they are assimilating. The students have no prior experience in
calculating perimeter or area. According to the Australian Curriculum, students
are only expected to be able to calculate perimeter and area by the end of Year 5
Lesley KONG . 100096415 . EDUC 5160 . SP2 2015 . MMET (Primary)

(Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority [ACARA] 2014).

However, they should have experience in measuring area through comparison
using uniform informal units, metric units, and using regular and irregular shapes
(ACARA

2014,

ACMMG037,

ACARA

2014,

ACMMG290

&

ACARA

2014,

ACMMG087). It is therefore not unreasonable to assume that the teacher will

introduce the concepts and go through the steps involved in calculating both
perimeter and area to the students in detail.
Accommodation occurs when individuals adjust their cognitive structures to fit
new information or experiences (Santrock et al. 2008, Webb 1980). The students
have prior knowledge from Year 3 in measuring, sequencing and comparing
objects using familiar metric units of length (ACARA 2014, ACMMG061). It is
hence reasonable to presume that they are able to recognize and use the units
centimeters and meters. However, when they attempt to draw a birds-eye view
of their room to scale, the students have to change what they know about
measurement and length. The students modify their conception of 1meter as
100centimeters to 1meter as 5centimeters. The students also modify what they
know about their own bedrooms to accommodate new furniture and/or fixtures.
In both instances, the students slightly alter their conception of the world. The
process of searching for a balance between assimilation, accommodation, and
the organisation of cognitive processes into psychological structures or systems
(schemes) defines equilibration (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, Cook & Cook 2005).
When a scheme is successfully applied in a particular context, equilibrium is
achieved (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, Cook & Cook 2005). Conversely, when a
scheme is unsuccessfully applied in a particular context, disequilibrium takes
place and discomfort transpires, encouraging us to seek a solution through
assimilation and/or accommodation (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013).
Based on Piagets theory, social interaction is crucial to the constructive process
of learning (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). Disequilibrium is often triggered by
interaction with teachers and/or peers as this encourages students to use, check,
challenge, and possibly adjust their thinking abilities (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013,
Cook & Cook 2005). This lesson plan seems to be deficient in terms of interaction
and communication only once does it clearly state that the students may
request assistance from the teacher if necessary, but otherwise it may be (not
unreasonably) perceived as having minimal social engagement. Incorporating
working as pairs or small groups might further strengthen the cognitive
development attained from this lesson plan. It is also important here for the
Lesley KONG . 100096415 . EDUC 5160 . SP2 2015 . MMET (Primary)

teacher to consider the variation in the levels of cognitive development of the

students in the class, because only the appropriate level of disequilibrium
encourages growth (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). If confronted with something too
unfamiliar, some students may filter the information or experience, and cognitive
development does not occur (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). It is hence assumed
that the teacher will carefully observe the students and provide appropriate
guidance to those having trouble understanding the lesson even though this is
not explicitly stated in the lesson plan.

Theorist 2: Albert Bandura

Vicarious learning, or learning by observing others, is an important component of
Banduras social cognitive theory (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). Bandura identified
four elements of observational learning: attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivation and reinforcement (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). Each of these
elements is critical to vicarious learning. Attention involves an individual
recognizing or noticing something in the environment, and is important

in

memory processing and learning (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, Huitt & Monetti
2008). It is not specified in the lesson plan whether or not the activities to be
carried out such as measuring the bedroom, drawing the birds-eye view to scale,
and the mathematical computations involved are modelled by the teacher. As
vicarious learning can be a very effective learning process, it should be
encouraged in the class through modelling by the teacher (Woolfolk & Margetts
2013, Huitt & Monetti 2008). To ensure students pay attention to these important
features of the lesson, the teacher can demonstrate how to accurately measure
using scaled instruments by measuring the classroom. The teacher can also work
out the mathematical computations involved in the lesson on the whiteboard to
provide a visual aid for students to focus on. Retention, the next element of
vicarious learning, involves the observer retaining the model's actions or
behaviour (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, Huitt & Monetti 2008).
Retention is improved by practice or repetition, and this is demonstrated in the
lesson plan when students are asked to convert between different units to
measure length and area. The third element, reproduction, involves the observer
carrying out the observed behaviour or action (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, Huitt &
Monetti 2008). The teacher can provide assistance in this step by helping any
students experiencing difficulties and also by giving them encouragement. This
Lesley KONG . 100096415 . EDUC 5160 . SP2 2015 . MMET (Primary)

is evidenced in the lesson plan: students are asked to show all their working,
which will allow the teacher to give them subtle points or indications about
where they went wrong. That students are allowed to use a calculator takes the
pressure off those students who are driven by the desire to simply produce the
correct answer and encourages them to understand the processes involved
instead. Motivation and reinforcement, the last element of observational
learning, describes the incentive for the observer to perform a behaviour or to
carry out an action, and the change in their behaviour resulting from observation
of the performance or consequences of models (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013). This
element is not presented in the lesson plan, however the teacher's role in
motivating and reinforcing particular behaviours or actions is crucial.
The triadic reciprocal causation concept is one of the hallmarks of Banduras
social cognitive theory (Woodrow 2001). Bandura's theory describes human
behaviour as an interaction between cognitive/personal, behavioral, and
environmental influences that is continuous and reciprocal (Woolfolk & Margetts
2013). Self-regulation or self-regulated learning, which is learning that occurs as
a result of an individuals self-generated behaviours and dispositions oriented
towards

the

fulfilment

of

specific

learning

goals,

can

influence

the

cognitive/personal and behavioural components of this model (Woolfolk &

Margetts 2013). In relation to this, Bandura's research self-efficacy, which refers
to an individuals beliefs about personal competence and their ability to achieve
established levels of performance,

ability of that individual to learn by self-

regulation (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, Bandura 1994). Throughout the lesson
plan, evidence of the teacher creating and strengthening self-efficacy is evident
through the use of phrases such as try to and if you can. This is very important
because while success is very effective in building and developing a strong sense
of personal efficacy, successes that come effortlessly eventually result in
students expecting immediate results (Bandura 1994). This may cause some
students to feel discouraged by failure, which can be detrimental to learning
(Bandura 1994). Although not specifically mentioned in the lesson plan, it may
be assumed that the teacher will encourage and support the students who
experience difficulties during the lesson. Students who overcome their difficulties
through perseverant effort develop a resilient sense of self-efficacy and
recognize the importance of sustained effort when faced with setbacks or
difficulties when it comes to their learning (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, Bandura
1994).

Lesley KONG . 100096415 . EDUC 5160 . SP2 2015 . MMET (Primary)

The teacher should also encourage the students to work with and to observe
their peers. This is based on Bandura's research and findings about modelling.
Modelling is a method of teaching whereby specific behaviours, attitudes,
emotional reactions or ways of thinking are demonstrated (Woolfolk & Margetts
2013). According to Bandura (1994), if a student observes another student whom
he/she sees as similar to himself/herself succeeding in a specific activity or task,
that student may develop an increased self-efficacy about his/her ability to
perform that activity or task (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, Bandura 1994).
However, the impact of modelling on perceived self-efficacy is greatly influenced
by the observer's perceived similarity to the models; the greater the assumed
similarity, the more persuasive the models' successes and failures (Woolfolk &
Margetts 2013, Bandura 1994). This means that the teacher should exercise
caution when deliberately applying and implementing modelling in the class, as
students who observe other students fail at a given task despite high effort
lowers that student's judgment of their own efficacy, and undermines their
efforts (Woolfolk & Margetts 2013, Bandura 1994).

Conclusion
The process of analysing this lesson plan involved reading the lesson plan
thoroughly, and making a note of the areas or activities in the lesson plan that I
thought could be related to particular theories or key ideas of individual
theorists. This was followed by a review of my knowledge of several different
theories/theorists. Upon deciding to focus my lesson plan analysis on Piaget's
stages of cognitive development and his concept of equilibration as well as
Bandura's social cognitive theory, I researched their backgrounds and their key
concepts to gain a better understanding of their work and the implications of
their findings and theories. I then related these to several aspects of the lesson
plan and identified evidence to support my analysis and association of these key
ideas with the lesson plan. During this process I realised that having knowledge
of these theories and their implications is valuable, however, the process of
analysing them, and considering the advantages and criticisms of each theory in
order to decide on a theory/theories to guide and stimulate teaching is extremely
difficult. Additionally, different teachers have different approaches to teaching
that best fit their unique, individual educational style and their own strengths
Lesley KONG . 100096415 . EDUC 5160 . SP2 2015 . MMET (Primary)

and weaknesses. The ability to create a classroom environment that is safe,

supportive, inclusive, and stimulating that encourages all students to actively
participate, and the knowledge about the various theories of cognitive
development will hopefully guide me to take the appropriate steps necessary to
meet my objectives and goals as a future primary school teacher.
This lesson plan analysis has provided me with the opportunity to further my
understanding and appreciation of psychology and how it is connected to
teaching and learning. I am aware of and also find much interest and value in the
many elements, both internal and external, that affect learning and cognitive
development. While I am only able to make a reasonable judgment about the
theorists/theories and the thought processes behind the construction of this
lesson plan it is evident that the interplay between the cognitive, social, and
emotional

processes

and

the

environment

which

shape

learning

and

development must be taken into consideration. The different perspectives on

learning and development associated with the various theories have implications
for curriculum development and teaching that I will use to guide my practice. I
hope to develop a good understanding of human cognitive and intellectual
development in order to take a holistic approach to teaching.

2652 words
References:
Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA), Australian
Curriculum v7.4, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA), viewed 26 th May
2015,
http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/mathematics/curriculum/f-10?layout=1
Bandura, A 1994, Self-efficacy, Encyclopedia of human behavior, vol. 4, pp. 7181, Academic Press, New York.
Blake, B & Pope, T 2008, Developmental Psychology: Incorporating Piagets and
Vygotskys Theories in Classrooms, Journal of Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives in
Education Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 59 67, viewed 26 th May 2015,
http://jcpe.wmwikis.net/file/view/blake.pdf
Lesley KONG . 100096415 . EDUC 5160 . SP2 2015 . MMET (Primary)

Cook, JL & Cook, G 2005, Child Development: Principles and Perspectives,

Pearson, Boston.
Graduate School of Arts & Sciences Center on Teaching and Learning 2015, The
Psychology of Learning and the Art of Teaching, viewed 24th May 2015,
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/tat/pdfs/psych_learning.pdf
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Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 2nd ed., Macmillan Reference USA/Thompson
Gale, Farmington Hills, MI, viewed 29th May 2015,
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/papers/soclrnpers.pdf
Santrock, J, MacKenzie-Rivers, A, Leung, KH & Malcolmson 2008, T, Life-Span
Development, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill Ryerson Higher Education, Canada.
University of California Berkeley Graduate Division 2015, Cognitive
Constructivism viewed 26th May 2015,
http://gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/cognitiveconstructivism/
Webb, PK 1980, Piaget: Implications for Teaching, Theory into Practice, Vol. 19,
No. 2, pp.93-97, viewed 26th May 2015.
Woodrow, A 2001, Child development: A social learning theory perspective, Child
Care in Practice, vol. 7, no. 2,
Woolfolk, A & Margetts, K 2013, Educatoinal Psychology, 3rd edition, Pearson
Australia, China.

Lesley KONG . 100096415 . EDUC 5160 . SP2 2015 . MMET (Primary)