Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

Self Inductance
f

+
i(t)

Magnetic flux produced by a single coil with N turns

Self Inductance
The coil has N turns.
When current i flows through the coil, a magnetic flux is produced.
The voltage v induced in the coil is
d
dt

(1)

d di
di dt

(2)

v=L

di
dt

(3)

L=N

d
di

(4)

v=N
But the flux is produced by current i
v=N

Self Inductance
Finally

where

Mutual Inductance
L1
+
i1(t)

f11

L2

f12

v1

v2

N1 turns

N2 turns

Mutual inductance M21 of coil 2 with respect to coil 1.

1

Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

Mutual Inductance
The magnetic flux 1 emanating from coil 1 has two components
1 = 11 + 12

(5)

The two coils are said to be magnetically coupled.

Since the entire flux 1 links coil 1, the voltage induced in coil 1 is
v1 = N 1

d1
dt

(6)

Only flux 12 links coil 2, so the voltage induced in coil 2 is

v2 = N2

d12
dt

(7)

Mutual Inductance
Again, the fluxes are caused by the current i1 flowing in coil 1
v1 = N 1

di1
d1 di1
= L1
di1 dt
dt

(8)

where L1 = N1 d1 /di1 is the self-inductance of coil 1. Similarly,

v2 = N2

d12 di1
di1
= M21
di1 dt
dt

where
M21 = N2

d12
di1

(9)

(10)

Mutual Inductance
M21 is known as the mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1. v2 = M21 didt1
Mutual Inductance
L1
+

f21

L2
f22

v1

v2

N1 turns

i2(t)

N2 turns

Mutual inductance M12 of coil 1 with respect to coil 2.

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Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

Mutual Inductance
2 = 21 + 22

(11)

The entire flux 2 links coil 2

d2
d2 di2
di2
= N2
= L2
dt
di2 dt
dt

(12)

d21
d21 di2
di2
= N1
= M12
dt
di2 dt
dt

(13)

v2 = N 2
Since only flux 21 links coil 1,
v1 = N1
where

M12 = N1

d21
di2

(14)

Mutual Inductance
Thus
v1 = M12

di2
dt

and we will see that

M12 = M21 = M

(15)

Mutual
inductance
is
the
ability
of
one
inductor
to
induce
a
voltage
across a neighboring inductor, measured in henrys (H).
Dot Convention
f12
f21

i1
+
v1

f11

i2
+
v2

f22

Coil 1

Coil 2

Illustration of the dot convention.

Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

M
i

i
L1

(+)

i
L2

i
L1

(a)

()

L2

(b)

Dot convention for coils in series; the sign indicates the polarity of the mutual voltage:
(a) series-aiding connection, (b) series-opposing connection.
Dot Convention
If
a
current
enters
the
dotted
terminal
of
one
coil,
the
reference
polarity of the mutual voltage in the second coil is positive
at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
Alternatively
If
a
current
leaves
the
dotted
terminal
of
one
coil,
the
reference
polarity of the mutual voltage in the second coil is negative
at the dotted terminal of the second coil.
Dot Convention
M
i1
+
v2 = M

di1
dt

(a)
M
i1
+
v2 = M

di1
dt

(b)
M
i2
+
v1 = M

di2
dt

(c)
M
i2
+
di2
v1 = M
dt

(d)

Examples illustrating how to apply the dot convention.

Dot Convention

Dot Convention

Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

L = L1 + L2 + 2M

(Series-aiding connection)

L = L1 + L2 2M

(Series-opposing connection)

Circuits Involving Mutual Inductance

M
R1

v1

i1

R2

L1

L2

+ v
2

i2

Time-domain analysis of a circuit containing coupled coils.

Circuits Involving Mutual Inductance

Applying KVL to coil 1
v1 = i1 R1 + L1

di1
di2
+M
dt
dt

(16)

v2 = i2 R2 + L2

di2
di1
+M
dt
dt

(17)

For coil 2, KVL gives

In the frequency domain

V1 = (R1 + jL1 )I1 + jM I2

(18)

V2 = jM I1 + (R2 + jL2 )I2

(19)

Circuits Involving Mutual Inductance

jvM

Z1

I1

jvL 1

jvL 2

I2

ZL

Frequency-domain analysis of a circuit containing coupled coils.

Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

Circuits Involving Mutual Inductance

Applying KVL to coil 1,
V = (Z1 + jL1 )I1 jM I2

(20)

0 = jM I1 + (ZL + jL2 )I2

(21)

For coil 2, KVL yields

ENERGY IN A COUPLED CIRCUIT

Energy in a Coupled Circuit

M
i1

i2

+
v1

+
L1

L2

v2

The circuit for deriving energy stored in a coupled circuit.

Energy in a Coupled Circuit
We assume that currents i1 and i2 are zero initially, so that the energy stored in the
coils is zero.
If we let i1 increase from zero to I1 while maintaining i2 = 0, the power in coil 1 is
p1 (t) = v1 i1 = i1 L1
and the energy stored in the circuit is
Z
Z
w1 = p1 dt = L1

di1
dt

I1

i1 di1 =

(22)

1
L1 I12
2

(23)

Energy in a Coupled Circuit

If we now maintain i1 = I1 and increase i2 from zero to I2 , the mutual voltage induced
in coil 1 is M12 di2 /dt, while the mutual voltage induced in coil 2 is zero, since i1 does not
change. The power in the coils is now
p2 (t) = i1 M12

di2
di2
di2
+ i2 v2 = I1 M12
+ i2 L2
dt
dt
dt
6

(24)

Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

and the energy stored in the circuit

Z
RI
RI
w2 = p2 dt = M12 I1 0 2 di2 + L2 0 2 i2 di2
= M12 I1 I2 + 21 L2 I22

(25)
(26)

Energy in a Coupled Circuit

The total energy stored in the coils when both i1 and i2 have reached constant values is
w = w1 + w2 =

1
1
L1 I12 + L2 I22 + M12 I1 I2
2
2

(27)

Energy in a Coupled Circuit

If we reverse the order by which the currents reach their final values,
1
1
w = L1 I12 + L2 I22 + M21 I1 I2
2
2

(28)

Since the total energy stored should be the same

and

M12 = M21 = M

(29)

1
1
w = L1 I12 + L2 I22 + M I1 I2
2
2

(30)

Energy in a Coupled Circuit

If one current enters one dotted terminal while the other current leaves the other dotted
terminal, the mutual voltage is negative, so
1
1
w = L1 I12 + L2 I22 M I1 I2
2
2
Also, since I1 and I2 are arbitrary values, they may be replaced by i1 and i2 ,
1
1
w = L1 i21 + L2 i22 M i1 i2
2
2

(31)

Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

Limit on M
The energy stored in the circuit cannot be negative
1
1
L1 i21 + L2 i22 M i1 i2 0
2
2

(32)

adding and subtracting i1 i2 L1 L2 ,

p
p
1 p
(i1 L1 i2 L2 )2 + i1 i2 ( L1 L2 M ) 0
2

(33)

Limit on M
The squared term is never negative; at its least it is zero. Therefore,
p
L1 L2 M 0
or
M

L1 L2

(34)

Coefficient of Coupling

k=

M
L1 L2

(35)

and
p
M = k L1 L2

where 0 k 1 or equivalently 0 M L1 L2 .
Coefficient of Coupling
The coupling coefficient is the fraction of the total flux emanating from one coil that
links the other coil.
12
12
=
(36)
k=
1
11 + 12
and
k=

21
21
=
2
21 + 22

(37)

Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

Coefficient of Coupling
If the entire flux produced by one coil links another coil, then k = 1 and we have 100
percent coupling; the coils are said to be perfectly coupled.
For k < 0.5, coils are said to be loosely coupled;
for k > 0.5, they are said to be tightly coupled.

The coupling coefficient k is a measure of the magnetic

coupling between two coils; 0 k 1.

Coefficient of Coupling
Air or ferrite core

(a)

(b)

Windings: (a) loosely coupled, (b) tightly coupled; cutaway view demonstrates both
windings.

IDEAL TRANSFORMERS

Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is one with perfect coupling (k = 1).
It consists of two (or more) coils with a large number of turns wound on a common core
of high permeability.
Because of this high permeability of the core, the flux links all the turns of both coils,
Ideal Transformer

V1 = jL1 I1 + jM I2

(38)

V2 = jM I1 + jL2 I2

(39)

Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

From the first, I1 = (V1 jM I2 )/jL1 . Substituting

V2 = jL2 I2 +
But M =

M V1 jM 2 I2

L1
L1

L1 L2 for perfect coupling (k = 1). Hence,

r

L1 L2 V1 jL1 L2 I2
L2
V2 = jL2 I2 +

=
V1 = nV1
L1
L1
L1
p
where n = L2 /L1 and is called the turns ratio.
Ideal Transformer
As L1 , L2 , M such that n remains the same, the coupled coils become an ideal
transformer.
A transformer is said to be ideal if it has the following properties:
Coils have very large reactances (L1 , L2 , M ).
Coupling coefficient is equal to unity (k = 1).
Primary and secondary coils are lossless (R1 = 0 = R2 ).
Ideal Transformer
An
ideal
transformer
is
a
unity-coupled,
lossless
transformer
in
which
the
primary and secondary coils have infinite self-inductances.
Iron-core transformers are close approximations to ideal transformers.
Ideal Transformer

N1

N2

(a)

N1

N2

(b)

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Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

(a) Ideal transformer, (b) circuit symbol for ideal transformers.

Ideal Transformer
I1

I2

1:n
+
V1

+
V2

ZL

Relating primary and secondary quantities in an ideal transformer.

Ideal Transformer
When sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding, the same magnetic flux
goes through both windings.
According to Faradays law,
v1 = N 1

d
dt

(40)

v2 = N 2

d
dt

(41)

and

Dividing the two

v2
N2
=
=n
v1
N1

(42)

Ideal Transformer
n is, again, the turns ratio.
In terms of phasors

V2
V1

N2
N1

=n

For power conservation, the energy supplied to the primary must equal the energy
absorbed by the secondary.
v1 i1 = v2 i2
(43)
In phasor form, combinimg the two
I1
V2
=
=n
I2
V1

11

(44)

Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

Ideal Transformer
Thus,

N1
1
I2
=
=
I1
N2
n

When n = 1, we call the transformer an isolation transformer.

If n > 1, we have a step-up transformer.
If n < 1, the transformer is a step-down transformer.
Ideal Transformer
A step-down transformer is one whose secondary voltage
is less than its primary voltage.
A step-up transformer is one whose secondary voltage
is greater than its primary voltage.
Ideal Transformer
The ratings of transformers are usually specified as V1 /V2 .
A transformer with rating 2400/120 V should have 2400 V on the primary and 120 in
the secondary (i.e., a step-down transformer).
Keep in mind that the voltage ratings are in rms.
Ideal Transformer
Power companies often generate at some convenient voltage and use a step-up transformer to increase the voltage.
The power can thus be transmitted at very high voltage and low current over transmission lines, resulting in significant cost savings.
Near residential consumer premises, step-down transformers are used to bring the voltage
down to 220 V.
Voltage Polarities
If the polarity of V1 or V2 or the direction of I1 or I2 is changed, n may need to be
replaced by n.
If V1 and V2 are both positive or both negative at the dotted terminals, use +n.
Otherwise, use n.
If I1 and I2 both enter into or both leave the dotted terminals, use n. Otherwise,
use +n.
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Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

I1

I2

N1:N2
+
V1

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

+
V2

V2 N2
=
V1 N1

N
I2
= 1
N2
I1
(a)

I1

I2

N1:N2
+
V1

+
V2

I2
N
= 1
I1
N2

V2 N2
=
V1 N1
(b)
I1

I2

N1:N2
+

+
V2

V1

V2
N
= 2
V1
N1

I2
N
= 1
I1
N2
(c)

I1

I2

N1:N2
+

+
V2

V1

V2
N
= 2
V1
N1

I2
N
= 1
I1
N2
(d)

Typical circuits illustrating proper voltage polarities and current directions in an ideal transformer.
We can always express V1 in terms of V2 and I1 in terms of I2 , or vice versa:
V2
n
= nI2

or

V1 =
I1

or

V2 = nV1
I1
I2 =
n

(45)
(46)

The complex power in the primary winding is

S1 = V1 I1 =

V2
(nI2 ) = V2 I2 = S2
n

showing that the complex power supplied to the primary is delivered to the secondary
without loss. The input impedance as seen by the source is
Zin =
But V2 /I2 = ZL , so that Zin =
impedance.

ZL
n2

V1
1 V2
= 2
I1
n I2

(47)

The input impedance is also called the reflected

This ability to transform a given impedance into another impedance provides us a means
of impedance matching to ensure maximum power transfer.
Reflecting Impedances

Power Distribution
A power system basically consists of three components: generation, transmission, and
distribution.
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Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

The local electric company operates a plant that generates several hundreds of megavoltamperes (MVA), typically at about 18 kV.
Three-phase step-up transformers are used to feed the generated power to the transmission line.
Power Distribution
Insulators

3f
345,000 V

Neutral
Tower

Neutral
Tower

345,000 V

Neutral

345,000 V

3f
Step-up
transformer

3f 60 Hz ac
18,000 V
Generator

3f
Step-down
transformer

Neutral
3f 60 Hz ac
208 V

A typical power distribution system

Why do we need the transformer?
Suppose we need to transmit 100,000 VA over a distance of 50 km.
Since S = V I, using a line voltage of 1,000 V implies that the transmission line must
carry 100 A
This requires a transmission line of a large diameter.
Why do we need the transformer?
If, on the other hand, we use a line voltage of 10,000 V, the current is only 10 A.
The smaller current reduces the required conductor size, producing considerable savings
as well as minimizing transmission line I 2 R losses.
Z1

Vs1

I1

a
+
V1

1:n

I2

+
V2

Z2

Vs2

Ideal transformer circuit whose equivalent circuits are to be found.

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Circuiti con accoppiamento magnetico

14.0001 15 dicembre 2014

To minimize losses requires a step-up transformer.

Without the transformer, the majority of the power generated would be lost on the
transmission line.
Power Distribution
The ability of the transformer to step up or step down voltage and distribute power
economically is one of the major reasons for generating ac rather than dc.
Thus, for a given power, the larger the voltage, the better.
Today, 1 MV is the largest voltage in use;
The level may increase as a result of research and experiments.
Power Distribution
Beyond the generation plant, the power is transmitted for hundreds of miles through an
electric network called the power grid.
The three-phase power in the power grid is conveyed by transmission lines hung overhead
from steel towers which come in a variety of sizes and shapes.
The (aluminum-conductor, steel-reinforced) lines typically have overall diameters up to
about 40 mm and can carry current of up to 1,380 A.
Power Distribution
At the substations, distribution transformers are used to step down the voltage.
The step-down process is usually carried out in stages.
Power may be distributed throughout a locality by means of either overhead or underground cables.
The substations distribute the power to residential, commercial, and industrial customers.
Power Distribution
At the receiving end, a residential customer is eventually supplied with 120/240 V.
Industrial or commercial customers are fed with higher voltages such as 460/208 V.
Residential customers are usually supplied by distribution transformers often mounted
on the poles of the electric utility company.
When direct current is needed, the alternating current is converted to dc electronically.

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